THE 

CONCISE 

KNOWLEDGE 

LIBRART 


NATURAL   HISTORY 


THE   CONCISE   KNOWLEDGE   LIBRARY 


NATURAL     HISTORY 


BY 


R.  LYDEKKER, 

B.A.,  F.  R.  S.,  V.P.  G.  S. 

W.  F.  KIRBY, 

F.  L.  S.,  F.  E.  S. 

B.  B.  WOODWARD, 

F.  L.  S.,  F.  G.  S. 

R.  KIRKPATRICK, 
R.  I.  POCOCK, 


R.  BOWDLER  SHARPE, 

LL.D. 

W.  GARSTANG, 

M.A.,  F.  Z.  S. 

F.  A.  BATHER, 

M.A.,  F.G.  S. 

H.  M.  BERNARD, 

M.  A.,  F.  L.  S. 


NEW   YORK 
D.   APPLETON   AND   COMPANY 

1897 


HOLOGY  LBBfcAB* 

Authorized  Edition. 

(SIFT 


BIOLOGV 


PREFACE 

THIS  work  aims  to  be  a  concise  and  popular  Natural 
History,  at  once  accurate  in  statement,  handy  in  form, 
and  ready  of  reference. 

The  several  departments  of  Zoological  science  are 
treated  by  specialists,  all  of  whom  are  distinguished  as 
authorities  and  as  original  investigators ;  and  the  text 
is  illustrated  by  upwards  of  five  hundred  original  draw- 
ings made  and  reproduced  expressly  for  the  work. 

A  concise  systematic  index  precedes  the  work, 
and  a  full  alphabetical  index  which  contains  about  ten 
thousand  references  is  given  at  the  end.  Great  pains 
have  been  taken  to  render  these  both  accurate  and 
complete. 


M710175 


TABLE  OF  AUTHORS 


MAMMALIA  (Mammals) 
AVES  (Birds}   - 
REPTILIA  (Reptiles]     - 
AMPHIBIA  (Frogs,  Toads,  &*c.) 
PISCES  (Fishes) 

CYCLOSTOMATA  (Lampreys,  &c.} 
PROTOCHORDA  (Lancelet,  &*c.) 
HEMICHORDA  (Balanoglossus} 
ARTHROPOD  A  (Insects,  &*£.)    - 
MoLLUacA  (Snails,  &c?) 
BRACHIOPODA  (Lamp  Shells,  &c. 
ECHINODERMA  (Star  Fish,  &°c.) 
BRYOZOA  (Moss  Animals} 
VERMES  (Worms) 

COELENTERA  (Corals, 

PROTOZOA  (Animalcules) 


R.  LYDEKKER,  F.R.S.,  V.P.G.S.,  &c. 
R.  BOWDLER  SHARPE,  LL.D.,  &c. 
R.  LYDEKKER,  F.R.S.,  V.P.G.S.,  &c. 
R.  LYDEKKER,  F.R.S.,  V.P.G.S.,  &c. 
R.  LYDEKKER,  F.R.S.,  V.P.G.S.,  &c. 
R.  LYDEKKER,  F.R.S.,  V.P.G.S.,  &c. 
W.  GARSTANG,  M.A.,  F.Z.S.,  &c. 
W.  GARSTANG,  M.A.,  F.Z.S.,  &c. 
W.  F.  KIRBY,  F.L.S.,  F.E.S  ,  &c. 
B.  B.  WOODWARD,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S.,  &c. 
F.  A.  BATHER,  M.A.,  F.G.S.,  &c. 
F.  A.  BATHER,  M.A.,  F.G.S.,  &c. 
R.  KlRKPATRlCK  (British  Museum). 
R.  I.  POCOCK  (British  Museum). 
H.  M.  BERNARD,  M.A.,  F.L.S.,  &c. 
H.  M.  BERNARD,  M.A.,  F.L.S.,  &c. 


THE   ANIMAL  KINGDOM. 


SUB-KINGDOM  L— VERTEBRATA. 


CLASS  I.— MAMMALIA. 


CHARACTERISTICS  of  Vertebra* es 
Distinctive  Features  of  Mammals 
Geographical  Distribution 
Order  I. — Primates. 

Apes,  Monkeys,  and  Lemurs    .. 
Ord.r  II. — Chiroptera. 

^  The  Bats 

Order  III. — Insectivora. 

Insect-eating  Mammals  .„ 
Order  IV. — Carnivora. 

Flesh-eating  Mammals  ... 
Order  V.  — Rodentia. 

Mammals  that  Gnaw      ... 


MAMMALS. 

Page 
I 
2 

7 


10 

33 
42 
50 


Page 
118 


Order  VI. — Ungulata. 

'1  he  Hoofed  Mammals  ... 
Order  VII. — Sirenia. 

The  Manatis  and  Dugongs        ...      165 
Order  VIII.— Cetacea. 

Whales  Porpoises,  and  Dolphins     169 
Order  IX.— Kdentata. 

S!o  hs,  Ant-eaters,  and  Armadillos  181 
Or  :er  X.— Effodientia. 

Aard-varks  and  Pangolins         ...      188 
Order  XL— Marsupialia. 

Pouched  Mammals          190 

Order  XII. — Monotremata. 

Egg-laying  Mammals     214 


CLASS  II.— AVES. 


Bird  Structure  and  Development 

SUB-CLASS  SAURUR^E. 

Order  Archseopteryges. 
The  Archseopteryx 

SUB-CLASS  RATIT^E. 

Order  Rheiformes. 

The  Rheas  : „ 

Order  Struthioniformes. 

The  Ostriches      

Order  Casuariiformes. 

The  Emus  and  Cassowaries 
Order  Dinornithiformes,  Lie. 

The  Extinct  Moas 
Order  Apterygiformes. 

The  Apteryges    ... 


B1K 
218 

220 

221 
222 

223 
224 
224 

DS. 

CARINATE  BIRDS. 

Order  Tin  ami  formes. 
The  Tinamous 
Order  Gall  i  formes. 
The  Game-birds   
Order  Pterocletes. 
The  Sand-grouse 
Order  Columbiformes. 
Pigeons                            .  . 

...     225 
...     2-6 
...     241 

2A2 

Sub-order  Didi, 
The  Dodo,  Etc,  
Order  Opisthocomiformes. 
The  Hoatzini 
Order  Ralliformes. 
The  Rails             
Order  Podicipedidiformes. 
The  Grebes          

...    245 
...    247 
...    248 
...    253 

IX 


SYSTEMATIC  INDEX. 


Page 

Pa3e 

B  I  KDS  —  continued. 

Order  Colymbiformes. 

Order  Phoenicopteriformes. 

The  Divers           

254 

The  F'amingoes  ... 

...      283 

Order  Sphenisciformes. 

Sub-order  Pa'amedeae. 

The  Penguins      ...         

255 

The  Screamers    ... 

...      290 

Order  Procellariiformes. 

Order  Anseriformes. 

The  Petrels          

256 

Geese,  Etc. 

...      290 

Order  Alciformes. 

Sub-order  Anseres. 

The  Auks            

259 

Ducks,  Etc  

...      292 

Order  Lariformes. 

Order  Pelecaniformes. 

The  Gulls             

26l 

The  Pelicans,  Etc. 

...      298 

Order  Charadriiformes. 

Sub-order  Sulae. 

The  Plovers  and  Bustards 

264 

The  Gannets 

...      299 

Sub-order  Attagides. 

Sub-order  Phalacrocoraces. 

The  Seed-snipes  ... 

266 

The  Cormorants  ... 

...      299 

Sub-order  Charadrii. 

Sub-order  Pelecani. 

The  Plovers         

266 

The  Pelicans 

...      301 

Sub-order  Glareolse. 

Sub-order  Fregati. 

The  Pratincoles  

272 

The  Frigate  Birds 

•••     3°3 

Sub-order  Cursorii. 

Order  Cathartidiformes. 

The  Coursers 

272 

The  Turkey  Vultures     .. 

•  •  •     5°4 

Sub-order  OZdicnemi. 

Order  Accipitriformes. 

The  Stone-  plovers 

273 

Birds  of  Prey 

...     304 

Sub-order  Otides. 

Sub-order  Serpentarii. 

The  Bustards       

273 

The  Secretary  Birds 

•••     3°5 

Order  Grui  formes. 

Sub-order  Accipitres. 

The  Cranes          

274 

The  True  Birds  of  Prey... 

••      3°5 

Sub-order  Grues. 

Sub-order  Pandiones. 

The  True  Cranes             

274 

The  Ospreys 

...     320 

Sub-order  Arami. 

Sub-order  Striges. 

The  Liinpkins 

275 

The  Owls             

...     320 

Sub-order  Rhinochetides. 

Order  Psittaciformes. 

The  Kagus           

276 

The  Parrots          

...     325 

Sub-order  Mesitides. 

Order  Coracii  formes. 

The  Madagascar  Kagus 

276 

rlhe  Picarian  Birds 

•••     332 

Sub-order  Eurypygse. 

Sub-order  Steatornithes. 

The  Sun-bitterns 

276 

The  Oil-birds       

•••     332 

Sub-order  Psophise. 

Sub-order  Podargi. 

The  Trumpeters  

277 

The  Frog-mouths 

•••     333 

Sub-order  Dicholophi. 

Sub-order  Leptosomati. 

The  Seriamas 

277 

The  Kiroumbos  ... 

•••     335 

Order  Stereornithes. 

Sub-  order  Coraciae. 

The  Extinct  Birds  of  Patagonia 

278 

The  Rollers         

•••     335 

Order  Ardeiformes. 

Sub-order  Halcyones. 

The  Herons,  Etc. 

278 

The  King-fishers 

...     336 

Sub-order  Ciconii. 

Sub-order  Bucerotes. 

The  Storks           

278 

The  Hornbills     ... 

••      339 

Sub-order  Scopi. 

Sub-order  Upupge. 

Hammer-headed  Storks 

28l 

The  Hoopoes 

...     340 

Sub-order  Balaenicipitide-. 

Sub  -order  Meropes. 

Shoe-billed  Storks          

2?2 

The  Bee-eateis    

...     340 

Sub-order  Herodiones. 

Sub-order  Momoti. 

The  Herons         

282 

The  Motmots 

-     341 

Sub-order  Platalese. 

Sub-order  Todi. 

The  Spoon-bills,  Etc.     ... 

286 

The  Todies          

...     342 

MAMMALS. 


xi 


Page 

Page 

BIRD  s  —  con  tin  ued. 

Sub-order  Caprimulgi. 

Sub  order  Rhamphastides. 

The  Nightjars      

...       342 

The  Toucans 

-     352 

Sub-order  Cypseli. 

Sub-order  Capitones. 

The  Swifts           

•••     345 

The  Barbels         

•••     352 

Sub-order  Trochili. 

Sub-order  Indicatores. 

The  Humming-birds 

..      347 

The  Honey-guides 

...     353 

Sub-order  Colii. 

Order  Piciformes. 

The  Colics           

...         348 

Woodpecker-like  Birds  ... 

-     353 

Order  Trogones. 

Sub-order  Pici. 

The  Trogons 

•••     349 

The  Woodpeckers 

...     353 

Order  Coccyges. 

Sub-order  Buccones. 

Cuckoo-like  Birds 

...     349 

The  Puff-birds     

-     355 

Sub-order  Cuculi. 

Order  Eurylsemi. 

The  Cuckoos        

•••     349 

The  Broad-bills  

...     356 

Sub-order  Musophagi. 

Order  Passeriformes. 

The  Touracoes    ... 

•••     351 

The  Perching  Birds 

.-    357 

Order  Scansores. 

The  Climbing  Birds 

•••     352 

CLASS  III.— REPTILIA. 


REPTILES. 


Characteristics  of  Reptiles 
Classification  of  Reptiles     ..    .     .... 

Order  I. — Crocodilia. 

Crocodiles,  Alligators,  Garials  .., 
Order  II.—  Chelonia. 

Tortoises  and  Turtles     ...         ... 

Sub-order  i. — Cryptodira. 

Land  Tortoises,  Etc.      ... 
Sub-order  ii. — Pleurodira. 

Fresh- water  Tortoises     ... 
Sub-order  iii. — Trionychoidea. 

The  Soft  Tortoises 


377 
378. 

378 
383 
385 
392 
394 


Order  III. — Sqnamata. 

Scaled  Reptiles 395 

Sub-order  i. — Lacertilia. 

The  Lizards          ...          ...          ...     396 

Sub-order  ii. — Rhiptoglossa. 

The  Chamseleons  ...         ...     411 

Sub-order  iii. — Ophidia. 

The  Snakes          ...         ...         ...     412 

Order  IV. — Rhynchocephalia. 

The  Tuaiera        429 


CLASS  IV.— AMPHIBIA. 
AMPHIBIANS. 


Characteristics  of  Amphibians  ...  431 
Order  I. — Ecaudata. 

Frogs  and  Toads  435 

Sub-order  i. — Finnisternia. 

Typical  Frogs,  Etc 436 

Sub-order  ii.— Arcifera. 

The  Toads,  Etc 440 


Sub-order  iii. — Aglossa.    . 

The  Surinam  Water-toad,  Etc.  444 
Order  II.— Caudata. 

Newts  and  Salamanders  ...  445 

Order  III.— Apoda. 

The  Csecilians      453 


xii 


S  YSTEMA  TIC  INDEX. 


CLASS  V.— PISCES. 
FISHES. 


Page 
456 
458 


Characteristics  of  Fishes    ... 
The  Classification  of  Fishes 

SUB-CLASS  I. — DIPNOI. 

Lung-fishes 459 

SUB-CLASS  II. — HOLOCEPHALI. 
The  Chimaeroids     ...          ...         ...     461 

SUB-CLASS  III. — TELEOSTOMI. 

Bony  Fishes  and  Ganoids 462 

Order  I. — Actinopterygii. 

The  Fan-finned  Teleostomes     ...     463 
Sub-order  i. — Acanthopterygii. 

The  Spiny-finned  Fishes,  Etc.  ...     463 
Section  Perciformes. 

The  Common  Perch,  Etc.         ...     463 
Section  Scorpseni formes. 

The  Micropus,  Etc.        ...         ...     467 

Section  Berychiformes. 

The  Slime-heads  467 

Section  Curtiformes. 

The  Indian  Curtis,  Etc.  ...     468 

Section  Polynemiformes. 

The  Poly nemus,  Etc 468 

Section  Sciaeniformes. 

The  Meagre,  Etc 468 

Section  Xiphiiformes. 

The  Sword-fish  ...     469 

Section  Trichiuriformes. 

The  Scabbard  Fish,  Etc.  ...     470 

Section  Cotto-Scombriformes. 

The  Surgeons,  Etc.         ...         ...     470 

Section  Gobiiformes. 

The  Lump-suckers,  Etc.  ...     476 

Section  Blenniiformes. 

Marine  Band-fishes,  Etc.  ...     477 

Section  Mugiliformes. 

The  Barracuda-pikes,  Etc.         ...     478 
Section  Scombresociformes. 

The  Flying-fish,  Etc.     ...         ...     479 

Section  Gastmsteiformes. 

The  Sticklebacks,  Etc 480 

Section  Centrisciforme?. 

The  Bellows-fish,  Etc. 482 

Section  Gobioesociformes. 

The  Sucker-fishes,  Etc. ...          ...     482 

Section  Channiformes. 

The  Serpent-heads,  Etc.  ...     482 


Page 
Section  Labyrinthici. 

The  Climbing-perch,  Etc.          ...     483 
Section  Lophotiformes. 

The  Unicorn-fish  ...          ...     484 

Section  Tseniiformes. 

The  Riband- fishes  484 

Section  Notacanthiformes. 

The  Thorn-backs  ...         ...     485 

Section  Pharyngognathi. 

The  Coral-fishes,  Etc 485 

Sub-order  ii. — Lophobranchii. 

The  Pipe-fishes,  Etc 487 

Sub-order  hi. — Plectognathi. 

The  Spine-clad  Globe-fishes     ...     488 
Sub-order  iv. — Anacanlhini. 

The  Common  Cod,  Etc.  ...     490 

Sub-order  v. — Physostomi.  ...     493 

Section  A. — Apodes. 

The  Eel-tribe      493 

Section  B. — Nematognathi. 

The  Cat-fishes     496 

Section  C. — Plectispondyli. 

The  Common  Carp,  Etc.  ...     497 

Section  D. — Haplopomi. 

The  Common  Pike,  Etc.  ...     501 

Section  E. — Scyphophori. 

The  Gymnarchus,  Etc.  ...         ...     5°3 

Section  F. — Isospondyli. 

The  Salmon,  Etc.  503 

Sub-order  vi. — ^Etheospondsli. 

The  Bony  Pikes,  Etc      ...         •  ••     509 
Sub-order  vii. — Protosp  ndyli. 

The  Bow-fin        510 

Sub-order  viii. — Chondrostei. 

The  Sturgeons 510 

Order  II. — Crossopterygii. 

Fringe-finned  Ganoids 512 

SUB-CLASS  IV. — ELASMOBRANCHII. 

Sharks  and  Rays     ...     513 

Order  Selachii. 

Sharks,  Dog-fishes,  Etc.  ...     515 

Sub-order  i. — Asterospondyli. 

The  Blue  Shark,  Etc 515 

Sub-order  ii. — Tectospond\  li. 

The  Saw-fish       ...         .'..         ...     519 


ARTHKOPODA, 


xiii 


CLASS  VI.— CYCLOSTOMA. 
LAMPREYS  AND  HAG-FISHES. 


Characteristics  of  Cyclostoma 


Page    I 
523   I   Lampreys  and  Hag-fishes  ... 


Page 
524 


CLASS  VII.— PROTOCHORDA. 


SUB-CLASS  I.— CEPHALOCHORDA.  SUB-CLASS  II.— UROCHORDA. 

The  Lancelet  ...         ...         ...     526  J   The  Common  Sea-squirt,  Etc.      ...     527 


CLASS  VIII.— HEMICHORDA. 

Hemichorda  or  Enteropneusta      ...     528   |   The  Balanoglossus  ... 


SUB-KINGDOM  II.— ARTHROPODA. 


CRUSTACEA,  INSECT  A, 


CLASS  I.— CRUSTACEA. 


Characteristics  of  Arthropoda        ...     529 
Edible  Arthropoda,  Etc.    ...          ...     530 

SUB-CLASS  I. — ENTOMOSTRACA. 

The  Smaller  Crustacea       531 

Order  I.— Phyllopoda. 

The  Water-flea,  Etc 531 

Order  II. — Ostracoda. 

The  Ostracoda     532 

Order  III. — Copepoda. 

The  Cyclops,  Carp-lice,  Etc.     ...     532 
Order  IV. — Cirripedia. 

Barnacles,  Etc.    ...         ...         ...     533 

SUB-CLASS  II. — MALACOSTRACA. 

The  Higher  Crustacea        533 

Order  L — Arthrostraca. 
Sub-order  i. — Isopoda. 

Wood-lice,  Etc 534 

Sub-order  ii. — Amphipoda. 

The  whale-louse,  Etc 534 


Order  II. — Thoracostraca. 
Sub-order  i. — Cumacea. 

Marine  Parasites,  Etc.   ...  ..     535 

Sub-order  ii. — Stomatopoda. 

Squilla  Mantis,  Etc.       ...         ...     535 

Sub-order  iii. — Schizopoda. 

Shrimp-like  Crustacea 536 

Order  III. — Decapoda. 
Sub-order  i. — Macrura. 

Shrimps,  Lobsters,  Crayfish,  Etc.    536 
Sub-order  ii. — Anomura. 

Robber  Crabs,  Hermit  Crabs,  Etc.  537 
Sub-order  iii. — Brachyura. 

The  Spicier  Crab,  Etc.   ...         ...     537 

SUB-CLASS  III. — GIGANTOSTRACA. 
Order  Xiphosura. 

The  King-crabs 538 

SUB-CLASS  IV.— PYCNOGONIDA. 
Order  Pycnogonida  ...         ...     539 


CLASS  II.—  ARACHNIDA. 
SPIDERS,  SCORPIONS,  AND  MITES. 


Order  I. — Scorpionidea. 
The  Scorpions,  Etc. 


540 


Order  II.— Solpugidea. 
Galeodes  Arabs,  Etc. 


541 


SYSTEMATIC  INDEX. 


ARACHNIDA— continued. 
Order  III. — Pseudoscorpionidea. 

Book-scorpions 

Order  IV.— Pedipalpi. 

False  Scorpions  ... 
Order  V.— Phalangiida. 

Harvest-men,  Etc. 
Order  VI. — Araneida. 

Spiders     ... 


Page 


541 

54i 


542 


Order  VII. — Acarina. 

Mites  and  Ticks   .. 
Order  VIII. — Tardigrada. 

Moss  Mites,  Etc. 
Order  IX. — Linguatulida. 

Worm-like  Parasites 


CLASS  III.— MYRIOPODA. 
CENTIPEDES  AND  MILLEPEDES. 


Order  Chilopoda. 
Centipedes 


548 


Order  Chilognatha. 
Millepedes 


CLASS  IV.— PROTRACIIEATA. 
Order  Pcripatidse 550    |    Peripatus  luliformis 


Page 

545 
547 
548 


549 


CLASS  V.- 

Classification  of  Insects      551 
Order  Coleoptera. 
Beetles                                                  c  c  i 

-INSECTA. 

Order  Lepidoptera. 
Butterflies  and  Moths     ...         ... 
Order  Hemiptera. 
Bugs  and  Frog-hoppers... 
Sub-order  Heteroptera. 
Bugs,  Etc.            
Sub-order  Homoptera. 
Frog-hoppers,  Plant-lice,  Etc.  ... 
Order  Anoplura. 
The  True  Lice     
Order  Diptera. 
The  Flies... 

Order  Orthoptera. 
Crickets,  Locusts,  Etc.... 
Order  Neuroptera. 
Lace-winged  Insects 
Order  Trichoptera. 
Caddis  Flies,  Etc. 
Order  Hymenoptera. 
Bees,  Wasps  Ants,  Etc. 

...     562 
...     568 
...     572 

•••     573 

581 

594 
595 
598 
602 
602 


SUB-KINGDOM  III.— MOLLUSCA. 

WHELKS,  OYSTERS,  SNAILS,  &c. 
CLASS  I.— AMPHINEURA. 


Characteristics  of  Mollusca  ...  610 

Classification  of  Mollusca  ...  615 

Order  I. — Polyplacophora. 

Chitons,  Etc 615 


Order  II. — Aplacophora. 

(Worm -like  Mollusca) 616 

Sub-order  i. — Neomeniina. 

Neomenians         ...          ...          ...     616 

Sub-order  ii.  — Choetodermatina. 


MOLL  USCA—BRACHIOPODA . 


CLASS  II.— PELECV 

Page 

Characteristics  of  the  Pelecypoda...     616 
Order  I. — Protobranchiata. 

Nutshells,  Etc 620 

Order  II. — Filibranchiata. 
Sub-order  i. — Anomiaceae. 

The  Saddle  Oyster,  Etc.  ...     621 

Sub-order  ii. — Arcacea. 

Noah's  Ark  Shells,  Etc.  ...     621 

Sub-order  iii-. — Trigoniacea. 

The  Trigonia       621 

Sub-order  iv. — Mytilacea. 

The  Marine  Mussel,  Etc.  ...     621 

Order  III. — Pseudolamellibranchiata. 

The  Oyster,  Etc.  622 

Sub-order  i. — Aviculacea. 

Swallow  Shells,  Etc 622 

Sub-order  ii. — Ostreacea. 

Oysters     ...         ...         ...         ...     622 


PODA  (BIVALVES}. 


Page 


Sub-order  iii. — Pectinacea. 

Scallops,  Etc.      ...         ...         ...     622 

Order  IV. — Eulamellibranchiata. 
Sub-order  i. — Submytilacea. 

Fresh- water  Mussels       ...         ...     623 

Sub-order  ii. — Tellinacea. 

Sunset  Shells,  Etc.         ...         ...     624 

Sub-order  iii. — Veneracea. 

The  Venus  Shells,  Etc 625 

Sub-order  iv.— Cardiacea. 

The  Cockles,  Etc.  ...         ...     625 

Sub-order  v.  — Myacea. 

The  Mya  or  Gaper,  Etc.  ...     626 

Sub-order  vi. — Pholadacea. 

The  Piddock  and  Ship-worm,  Etc.  627 
Sub-order  vii. — Anatinacea. 

Pandora,  Etc.      ...         ...         ...     627 

Order  V. — Septibranchiata. 

Poromyidae,  Etc.  ..,         ...     628 


CLASS  III.—  SCAPHOPODA. 

Scaphopoda  or  Solenoconcha        ...     628    |    The  Elephant's-tooth  Shells 


628 


CLASS  IV.— < 

SUB-CLASS  A.— STREPTONEURA. 
Order  I. — Scutibranchiata. 

The  Limpets,  Etc. 
Sub-order  i. — Docoglossa. 

The  Common  Limpet,  Etc. 
Sub-order  ii. — Rhipidoglossa. 

The  Keyhole  Limpet,  Etc. 
Order  II. — Pectinibranchia'.a. 

(The  Marine  Gastropods) 
Sub-order  i. — Gymnoglossa. 

(Parasitic  Mollusca) 
Sub-order  ii. — Ptenoglossa. 

The  Purple  Sea-snails,  Etc. 
Sub-order  iii. — Taenioglossa. 

The  Cowries,  Etc. 
Sub-order  iv. — Rachiglossa. 

The  Dog-periwinkle,  Etc. 


631 
631 
631 

032 

633 
633 
633 


637 


GASTROPODA. 

Sub-order  v. — Toxoglossa. 

The  Cone  Shells,  Etc 638 

SUB-CLASS  B.-— EUTHYNEURA. 
Order  I. — Opisthobranchiata. 
Sub-order  i. — Tectibranchiata. 
Group  A. — Bulloidea. 

The  Bulla,  Etc 640 

Group  B. — Aplysioidea. 

The  Sea-hares,  Etc.        ...          ...     640 

Group  C. — Pleurobranchoidea. 
Sub-or>!er  ii. — Nudibranchiata. 

The  Sei-slugs      ..  ...         ...     640 

Order  II.  — Pulmonata. 

Land  Mollusca    ...         ...         ...     641 

Sub-order  i. — Basommatophora. 

Pond-snails,  Etc.  ...          ...     641 

Sub-order  ii. — Stylommatophora. 

Land-snails,  Eic. 


CLASS  V.— CEPHALOPODA. 


Order  I. — Tetrabranchiata. 

The  Nautilus       , 

Order  II. — Dibranchiata. 


645 


|    Sub- order  i. — Dec  i  pod  a. 

The  Cuttle-fish,  Etc. 

Sub-order  ii. — Octopoda. 

The  Argonaut,  Etc. 


SUB-KINGDOM  IV.— BRACHIOPODA. 

LAMPSHELLS,  &c. 
Characteristics  of  Brachiopods      ...     649    |    Lampshells,  Etc.     ... 


642 

646 
647 

649 


SYSTEMATIC  INDEX. 


SUB-KINGDOM  V.— ECHINODERMA. 

STAR-FISH,  SEA-URCHINS,  &c. 

Page  Page 

Characteristics  of  Echinoderma  ...  6,3 
Class  Asteroidea. 

Star-fish 656 

Class  Ophiuroidea. 

Brittle-stars,  lite.  658 


Clas>  Echinoidea. 

Sea-.urchins 
Class  Holothuroidea. 

Sea-cucumbers 
Class  (_  rinoidea. 

Sea-lilies 662 


659 
660 


SUB-KINGDOM 


VI.— BRYOZOA  [POLYZOA]. 

MOSS  ANIMALS. 


SUB-CLASS  I. — INFUNDII;ULAT.\. 
Order  Chilostomata.  • 

Lip-mouthed  Bryozoa     ...          ...     665 

Order  Cyclostomata. 

Circular-mouthed  Bryozoa         ...     668 


SUB-KIN 

Characteristics  of  Worms  ... 
Class  Annelida. 

The  Ringed  Worms,  Etc. 
Sub-class  Chaetopoda. 

Bristle-footed  Worms 
Order  Polychseta. 

Marine  Worms 

Sub-order  Sedentaria. 

Tube-making  Worms 
Sub-order  Errantia. 

The  Predacious  Sea-worms 
Order  Oligochaeta. 

The  Earth-worms,  Etc.  ... 
Sub-class  Hirudinea. 

The  Leeches 


Order  Ctenostomata. 
Comb-mouthed  Bryozoa 


GDOM  VII.— VERMES. 

THE  WORMS. 
...     670       Class  Gephyrea. 

The  Gephyrein  Worms., 
...     671       Class  Nematohelminthes. 

The  Thread- worms 
...     671       Class  Rotifera. 

The  Wheel-animalcules . 
...     671        Class  Nemtrtmea. 

Nemertine  Wo  ms 
...     672       Class  Platyhelminthes. 

The  Flat- worms  ... 
Etc.      672       Sub-class  Turbellarin. 

The  Phnarian  Worms    . 
674       Sub-class  Cestocla. 

The  Tape-worms 
...     675       Sub-class  Tremaioda. 

The  Fluke-worms 


SUB-KINGDOM  VIII.— COELENTERA. 

SPONGES,  CORALS,  &c. 
Characteristics  of  Coelentera         ...     690       Section  i.— The  Hydrozoa. 

Group  I. — Porifera.  The  Zoophytes,  Etc.  

The  Sponges        ...         ...         ...     690  |    Section  ii. — The  Scyphozoa. 

Group  II. — The  Cnidaria.  Sea-anemones  and  Corals 

The  Stinging  Coelenterates       ...     694  ;    Section  iii. — Ctenophora. 

The  Comb-bearers 


SUB-KINGDOM  IX.— PROTOZOA. 

ANIMALCULE. 

713  :    Section  iii. — The  Heliozoa 

713  !    Section  iv. — The  Radiolaria 

7H 

714 

715 


Characteristics  of  Protozoa 
Group  I. — The  Monera     ... 
Group  II. — The  Rhizopoda 
Section  i. — The  Amoeba    ... 
Section  ii. — The  Foraminiiera 


Group  III.— The  Flagellata 
Group  IV. — The  Grrgnrinae 
Group  V. — The  Infusoria 


668 


SUB-CLASS  II.—  LOPHOPODA. 
Fiesh- water  Bryozoa,  Etc.         ...     668 


...  677 

...  678 

...  682 

...  683 

...  685 

...  685 

...  686 

,  688 


694 
700 
711 


716 
716 

718 
720 
720 


THE   ANIMAL    KINGDOM. 


SUB-KINGDOM  I.—  VERTEBRATA. 
CLASS  I.— MAMMALIA. 

BY  R.  LYDEKKER,  B  A ..  F  R  S  .  V  P  G.S  ,  &c. 

IT  is  a  somewhat  carious  deficiency  in  the  English  language  that  it  has  no 
word  of  its  own  that  will  include  all  the  animals  forming  the  class  known  to 
zoologists  as  the  Mammalia.  It  is  true  that  the  term  Beasts  properly  belongs 
to  the  great  majority  of  the  members  of  the  class,  but  it  has  also  acquired 
another  meaning,  and  expressly  excludes  man.  Even  more  objectionable  is 
the  term  Quadrupeds,  since  not  only  does  this  exclude  man  and  the  higher 
apes,  but  etymologically  includes  crocodiles,  lizards,  and  turtles.  Accord- 
ingly, as  neither  of  these  two  words  are  suitable  to  designate  the  class  as  a 
whole,  naturalists  have  long  been  in  the  habit  of  using  an  Anglicised  version 
of  its  scientific  designation,  and  at  the  present  day  the  term  "  Mammals  "  has 
come  so  widely  into  use  that  no  apology  for  its  employment  here  is  called  for. 
Mammals,  then,  are  tho  highest  of  the  Vertebrata,  and  thus  of  all  animals,  and 
take  their  name  from  the  general  presence  of  prominent  udders,  furnished 
with  teats,  in  the  female,  for  the  secretion  of  the  milk,  by  which  the  young  are 
invariably  fed  during  the  earlier  stages  of  their  existence,  such  udders  being 
situated  in  the  higher  types  on  the  breast,  although  in  many  of  the  lower 
forms  they  are  abdominal  in  position.  In  the  very  lowest  members  of  the  class 
there  are,  however,  no  distinct  teats,  the  milk-glands  discharging  by  means 
of  a  number  of  small  apertures  in  the  skin  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  body. 
It  is  thus  the  presence  of  these  milk-glands,  and  the  suckling  of  the  more  or 
less  helpless  young,  that  are  the  prime  essential  features  of  the  class. 

Before  glancing  at  certain  others  of  their  distinctive  features,  a  few  words 
may  be  said  in  regard  to  the  Vertebrata,  which  form  a  sub-kingdom,  including 
the  five  classes  of  Mammals  (Mammalia),  Birds  (Aves),  Rep- 
tiles (Reptilia),  Amphibians  (Amphibia),  and  Fishes  (Pisces).    ^f  vertebrates8 
And  here  it  may  be  noticed  that  certain  low  forms,  such  as 
the  lampreys  and  lancelet  (Amphioxus),  commonly  classed  among  Fishes,  are 
now  regarded  as  forming  a  portion  of  a  lower  group  known  as  the  Protochor- 
data.     Vertebrates  take  their  name  from  the  general  presence  of  the  struc- 
ture termed  the  vertebral  column,  or  backbone,  although  in  some  of  the  lower 
forms  this  is  represented  merely  by  a  cartilaginous  rod.    Whether  this  struo 


THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM. 


ture  be  merely  such  a  rod,  or  whether  it  be  divided  into  the  numerous  bony 
segments  known  as  vertebrae,  it  is  invariably  situated  on  the  dorsal  aspect  of 
the  body,  or  that  from  which  the  limbs  are  turned  away.  On  that  side  of 
the  primitive  backbone  lying  nearest  to  the  back,  there  runs  a  tube  or  canal, 
formed  by  arches  of  bone  or  cartilage  arising  from  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrse, 
and  containing  the  great  nervous  cord  commonly  spoken  of  as  the  spinal 
marrow  or  cord.  This  cord  in  the  adult  state  of  the  higher  forms  being  thus 
included  within  what  are  called  the  arches  of  the  vertebrse.  On  the  side  of 
the  primitive  backbone  opposite  to  that  occupied  by  the  spinal  marrow  is  a 
much  larger  chamber,  containing  the  heart  and  digestive  organs  ;  so  that,  in 
cross-section,  the  body  of  a  Vertebrate  consists  of  a  smaller  nerve-tube  lying 
above  the  primitive  backbone,  and  of  a  much  larger  tube,  containing  the 
heart  and  digestive  organs  below  the  latter.  Throughout  the  Vertebrates  the 
limbs  never  exceed  two  pairs,  and  are  always  turned  away  from  that  aspect 
of  the  body  containing  the  nerve-tube  ;  and  the  two  jaws  are  upper  and 
lower,  and  work  against  one  another  in  a  vertical  plane. 

In  addition  to  the  presence  of  milk-glands,  and  the  suckling  by  the  young 
of  the  fluid  they  secrete,  the  following  structural  features  may  be  noticed  as 
distinctive  of  the  Mammalian  class.  A  highly  important 
*eafcure  is  the  mode  of  articulation  of  the  lower  jaw  to  the 
Mammals  skull  proper,  or  cranium  ;  this  being  effected  by  means  of  a 
prominence,  or  condyle,  at  the  higher  portion  of  the  hinder  ex- 
tremity of  the  lower  jaw, articulating  with  a  special  cavity — the  glenoid  cavity — 
in  the  cranium.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  lower  Vertebrates  this  articulation  is 
effected  by  means  of  a  special  separate  bone — the  quadrate — articulating  above 
with  the  cranium,  and  below  with  the  lower  jaw  ;  this  quadrate,  as  such, 
being  absent  in  the  Mammalia.  Another  peculiarity  connected  with  the 
lower  jaw  is  that  it  consists  of  a  right  and  left  branch — connected  at  the  chin 
by  a  bony  or  cartilaginous  union — each  of  which  is  formed  of  but  a  single  bone; 
whereas  in  the  inferior  Vertebrates  several  distinct  bones  enter  into  the  com- 
position of  the  two  branches.  Externally,  Mammals  are  further  characterised 
by  the  possession  of  hair  on  the  skin,  although  this  may  be  represented 
merely  by  a  few  bristles  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  mouth  during  the  earlier 
stages  of  existence.  Internally,  that  portion  of  the  great  body-cavity  con- 
taining the  heart  and  lungs  is  completely  shut  off  from  the  chamber  in  which 
are  placed  the  digestive  organs  by  means  of  a  transverse  partition,  known  as 
the  midriff  or  diaphragm.  Existing  Mammals,  at  any  rate,  have  also  a  higher 
type  of  brain  than  the  inferior  classes,  an  especial  feature  being  the  presence 
of  a  transverse  band  of  tissue  on  its  lower  surface,  connecting  together  the 
main  lateral  halves  or  hemispheres. 

Such  are  some  of  the  leading  characters  by  which  the  Mammalia  may  be 
distinguished  from  the  whole  of  the  other  Vertebrates.  From  both  Birds 
and  Reptiles  the  class  differs  by  the  circumstance  that  the  skull  is  movably 
articulated  to  the  first  vertebra  of  the  neck  by  means  of  two  knobs,  or  con- 
dyles,  situated  one  on  each  side  of  the  lower  part  of  the  aperture,  or  foramen, 
through  which  the  spinal  cord  passes  into  the  skull  to  join  the  brain,  Two 
condyles  are,  however,  present  in  the  Amphibians  (frogs  and  salamanders), 
which  differ  from  Mammals  in  their  cold  blood.  A  second  distinction  from 
Birds  and  Reptiles  is  to  be  found  in  the  structure  of  the  ankle  joint ;  the 
movable  joint  in  Mammals  being  situated  above  the  ankle,  whereas  in  the 
other  groups  it  is  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  same.  In  common  with  Birds, 
Mammals  differ  from  the  three  lower  classes  of  the  Vertebrata  in  having 


MAMMALIA. 


warm  blood,  driven  by  a  four- chambered  heart  through  a  double  circalatory 
system  ;  one  portion  of  the  blood  being  propelled  through  the  lungs  for  the 
purpose  of  re-oxygenation,  while  a  second  portion  is  sent  through  the  body 
by  means  of  the  general  circulation.  Whereas,  however,  in  Mammals,  the 
aorta,  or  great  vessel,  by  which  the  blood  passes  from  the  heart  to  the  body, 
crosses  the  left  branch  of  the  windpipe,  in  Birds  it  crosses  the  right.  At  no 
stage  of  their  existence  do  Mammals  ever  breathe  by  means  of  gills  ;  lungs, 
even  in  the  aquatic  forms,  being  the  sole  respiratory  agents.  Neither  do 
they  ever  pass  through  any  kind  of  metamorphosis,  such  as  takes  place  in  the 
Amphibia.  As  a  general  rule,  the  young  are  born  in  a  living,  and  frequently 
in  a  more  or  less  helpless  condition  ;  but  in  the  very  lowest  members  of  the 
class  the  female  lays  eggs. 

With  but  very  few  exceptions,  Mammals  have  seven  vertebrae  in  the  neck, 
and  thereby  present  a  remarkable  contrast  to  Birds  and  Reptiles,  in  which 
the  number  is  exceedingly  variable.  In  all  the  terrestrial  forms  the  two 
pairs  of  limbs  are  fully  developed ;  but  in  the  marine  Cetaceans  and  Sirenians 
the  front  pair  are  modified  into  paddles,  and  all  external  traces  of  the  hinder 
ones  completely  lost,  while  the  body  has  assumed  a  fish-like  form.  In  the 
Bats  alone  are  the  fore  limbs  structurally  modified  to  subserve  the  purpose 
of  true  flight,  like  that  of  Birds. 

As  in  the  following  pages  reference  is  often  made  to  various  bones  of  the 
skeleton,  this  part  of  the  subject  cannot  be  passed  over  without  brief  mention. 
The  fully  developed  skeleton,  as  shown  by  the  accompany- 
ing  diagram,  comprises  a  skull  (1),  a  jointed  breast-bone,  or 
sternum  (6),  a  still  more  numerously  jointed  backbone,  the  ribs  (2),  the  limb- 
bones,  and  the  girdles  by  which  they  are  suspended  to  the  backbone  and  its 
neighbourhood,  and  a  pair  of  collar-bones,  or  clavicles  (c).  As  already  men- 
tioned, the  skull  proper,  or  the  skull  without  the  lower  jaw,  is  termed  the 
cranium  ;  this  consisting  of  a  number  of  (mostly  paired)  bones,  articulated  im- 
movably together  at  their  edges.  The  hinder  portion  of  the  cranium  encloses 
the  brain  ;  while  the  front  part,  or  facial  region,  contains  the  mouth  and  organs 
of  smell.  Of  especial  importance  are  the  bones  forming  the  upper  jaw,  which 
comprise  in  front  a  pair  of  premaxillse,  containing  the  front  or  incisor  teeth  ; 
behind  which  are  the  maxillae,  containing  the  tusks  and  cheek-teeth.  The  lower 
jaw  has  been  already  mentioned  sufficiently.  In  the  backbone  the  cervical, 
or  neck -vertebrae  are  recognised  by  having  no  ribs  attached  to  them  ;  behind 
these  follow  the  dorsal  vertebrae,  each  carrying  a  pair  of  movable  ribs,  of 
which  the  more  anterior  are  connected  with  the  breast-bone ;  and  these  in 
turn  are  succeeded  by  the  lumbar,  or  loin-vertebrae,  to  which  no  movable 
ribs  are  articulated.  Behind  the  lumbars  comes  the  solid  mass  of  several 
united  vertebrae,  known  as  the  sacrum,  to  which  are  firmly  articulated  the 
haunch-bones,  or  ilia  («),  forming  the  upper  part  of  the  pelvis  (3).  Behind  the 
pelvis  are  the  bones  of  the  tail,  or  caudal  vertebrae,  which  may  be  either  very 
few  or  very  numerous.  In  the  higher  Mammals  the  shoulder-girdle  proper 
is  formed  only  by  the  two  blade-bones,  or  scapulas,  which  overlie  the  anterior 
ribs  without  any  attachment  to  the  backbone,  and  have  at  their  lower  end  a 
shallow  cavity  for  the  reception  of  the  head  of  the  uppermost  bone  of  the 
arm  or  fore-lirnb.  When  fully  developed,  the  collar-bones  are  articulated  by 
one  extremity  to  the  blade-bones,  and  by  the  other  to  the  upper  segment  of 
the  breast-bone.  Certain  other  bones  entering  into  the  composition  of  the 
shoulder-girdle  of  the  lowest  representatives  of  the  class,  will  be  noticed 
under  that  group.  In  the  skeleton  of  the  fore-limb,  or  arm,  we  have  the  upper 


THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM. 


Fig,  1.— HUMAN  SKELETON. 


arm-bone,  or  humerus  (4),  articu- 
lating to  the  blade-bone.  The  foro- 
arm  (/)  comprises  two  bones,  the 
radius  (5)  anteriorly,  and  ulna  (6) 
posteriorly,  both  articulating  with 
the  lower  end  of  the  humerus,  and 
the  upper  end  of  the  latter  form- 
ing the  prominence  of  the  elbow. 
At  the  lower  end  of  the  radius  and 
ulna  comes  the  wrist  joint,  or  car- 
pus (7),  consisting  of  an  upper  and 
lower  row  of  small  massive  bones, 
frequently  having  a  central  bone 
between  them.  To  the  upper  row 
of  bones,  counting  from  the  side 
of  the  thumb  to  the  little  finger, 
the  names  of  scaphoid,  lunar,  and 
cuneiform  are  applied.  When  these 
three  bones  directly  overlie  the 
bones  of  the  lower  row,  the  carpus 
is  said  to  be  of  the  linear  type  ; 
but  when  they  overlap,  it  is  said 
to  be  an  alternating  carpus.  The 
wrist  is  followed  by  the  metacarpal 
bones  (8),  which  never  exceed  five 
in  number,  and'  these  again  by  the 
phalanges,  or  bones  of  the  digits ; 
such  digits  (9)  being  likewise  never 
more  than  five  in  number.  Where- 
as in  the  first  digit,  or  thumb,  there 
are  but  two  phalanges,  in  the  other 
digits  there  are  normally  three. 
The  pelvic-girdle  (3),  or  that  by 
which  the  hind-limb  is  sup- 
ported, differs  essentially  from 
the  shoulder-girdle,  in  that  it  is 
immovably  fixed  t;/  the  backbone 
at  the  sacrum.  rj.'he  pelvis,  as  the 
whole  structur3  is  called,  is  di- 
vided into  a  right  and  left  inno- 
minate bone.  In  the  higher  Mam- 
mals, each  innominate  consists  of 
a  single  bone,  although  it  primar- 
ily consists  of  three  distinct  ele- 
ments. The  uppermost  of  these, 
and  the  one  by  means  of  which 
the  attachment  to  the  sacrum  is 
made,  is  called  the  haunch-bone, 
or  ilium  (a),  and  corresponds  to 
the  scapula  in  the  fore-limb.  In- 
feriorly  there  are  two  elements, 
of  which  the  first  is  the  pubis,  and 


MAMMALIA. 


the  second  the  ischium.  Each  innominate  bone  on  its  outer  side  contains  a 
cup-shaped  cavity  (into  the  composition  of  which  enter  alike  the  ilium,  pubis, 
and  ischium)  known  as  the  acetabulum ;  and  with  this  articulates  the  femur,  or 
thigh-bone  (10),  representing  the  humerus  of  the  fore-limb.  Toward  the  middle 
of  the  hinder  surface  of  its  shaft  this  bone  frequently  bears  a  bold  projecting 
crest  termed  the  third  trochanter.  As  the  humerus  articulates  with  the  two 
bones  of  the  fore-arm,  so  the  thigh-bone  articulates  with  the  two  bones  of  the 
lower  leg,  of  which  the  larger  is  known  as  the  tibia  (12),  and  the  smaller  as  tho 
fibula  (13).  Following  these  comes  the  ankle-joint,  or  tarsus  (14),  which,  like  the 
carpus,  is  formed  of  an  upper  and  a  lower  row  of  small  massive  bones ;  the  two 
uppermost  bones  being  respectively  known  as  the  huckle-bone,  or  astragalus  ; 
and  the  heel-bone,  or  calcaneum.  Inferiorly  the  tarsus  is  succeeded  by  the 
metatarsal  bones  (15),  corresponding  to  the  metacarpals  in  the  fore-limb, 
these  being  followed  by  the  phalanges  of  the  toes  (16),  which  are  similar  to 
those  of  the  front  limb.  To  the  first  toe  of  the  hind  foot  the  name  hallux 
is  often  applied.  It  may  be  added  that  when  (as  in  the  ruminants)  there 
are  only  two  metacarpals,  or  metatarsals,  which  are  completely  joined 
together  so  as  to  form  a  single  bone,  or  when  (as  in  the  horses)  there  is 
originally  but  a  single  metacarpal  or  rnetatarsal,  such  bone,  whether  of  dual 
origin  or  primarily  single,  is  called  a  eannon-bone.  The  knee-cap,  or  patella 
(11),  is  a  bone  in  the  tendon  of  the  great  muscle  of  the  thigh. 

With  regard  to  the  teeth,  it  has  been  already  stated  that  in  the  upper  jaw 


JPifif.  2.— Side  View  of  Upper  and  Lower  Human  Dentition,  with  the  sides  of  the  jaw  removed  to 
show  the  rests  of  the  teeth.  The  three  lower  teeth  with  branched  roots  are  the  molars  ;  in  front  of 
these  are  the  two  premolars,  then  comes  the  canine,  and,  finally,  the  pair  of  incisors. 


THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM. 


the  teeth  implanted  in  the  premaxillary  bones,  which  are  always  of  a  com- 
paratively simple  type,  with  single  roots,  are  termed  incisors.     In  the  great 


Fig.  3. — UPPER  JAW  OF  THE  GORILLA. 
majority  of  Mammals,  there  are 


Fig.  5.— PALATE  OF  THE  GORILLA. 
In  the  palate  the  three  hindmo-t  teeth 
are  the  molars,  in  advance  of  which  are 
the  two  premolars  ;  the  si::gle  large  tooth 
on  each  side  is  the  tusk,  or  canine,  in  front 
of  which  are  the  two  pairs  of  incisors. 


Fig.  4. — LOWER  JAW  OF  THE  GORILLA. 

not  more  than  three  pairs  of  these  teeth, 
although  there  may  be  four  or  five  pairs  in 
the  Pouched  Mammals.  The  first  tooth 
in  the  upper  jaw,  which  is  implanted  in 
the  maxillary  bone,  and  is  very  generally 
long  and  tusk-like,  is  termed  the  canine  ; 
this  tooth  being  also  of  simple  type,  and 
generally  with  a  single  undivided  root. 
Behind  this  come  a  series  of,  at  most,  four 
pairs  of  cheek-teeth,  which  have  gener- 
ally, except  the  first,  two  roots  each,  and, 
in  ordinary  Placental  Mammals,  are  pre- 
ceded (as  are  the  incisors  and  canine)  by 
milk-teeth  in  the  young.  To  these  teeth, 
which  may  be  reduced  to  a  single  pair,  is 
applied  the  term,  premolars.  Behind 
these  come  the  true  molars,  which  have 
generally  broad  complex  crowns  and 
branching  roots,  and  are  not  preceded  by 
milk-teeth.  In  Placental  Mammals  there 
are  but  seldom  more  than  three  pairs  of 
molars,  but  in  Marsupials  the  ordinary 
number  is  four.  In  the  lower  jaw  the 
tooth  biting  in  front  of  the  upper  canine 
is  the  lower  canine,  in  front  of  which  are 
the  incisors.  In.  the  Placental  Mammals 
these  do  not  exceed  three  pairs,  and  are 


MAMMALIA. 


generally  numerically  the  same  as  the  upper  incisors  ;  but  in  the  Marsupials, 
where  there  may  be  four  pairs,  they  are  generally  less  numerous  than  the 
upper.  Behind  the  lower  canine  come  the  premolars,  which  are  followed  by 
the  molars,  the  latter  being  distinguished  from  the  last  premolar  by  having 
no  deciduous  predecessors. 

A  very  important  subject  connected  with  the  study  of  Mammals  is  their 
geographical  distribution  on  the  surface  of  the  globe,  but  to  understand  this 
thoroughly,  it  is  essential  to  have  a  knowledge  of  the  extinct      _ 
forms,  and  to  be  acquainted  with  the  changes  in  the  form  of       j^gf ^  t' 
the  continents  and  islands  which  have  taken  place  during 
earlier  epochs  of  the  earth's  history.      Every  traveller  is  aware  that  the 
Mammals  of  different  regions  of  the  globe  differ  more  or  less  markedly,  but 
this  difference  is  by  no  means  co-extensive  with  the  distance  of  the  various 
regions  from  one  another.     Thus,  whereas  the  Mammals  of  Japan  are  very 
similar  to  those  of  Europe,  while  there  is  a  marked  resemblance  between  the 
former  and  those  of  North  America,  when  we  pass  from  the  Malayan  Islands 
to  Australia,  there  is  a  very  sudden  and  remarkable  change. 

As  a  whole,  Mammals  are  a  comparatively  modern  group,  which  have  only 
attained  their  present  great  development  during  the  Tertiary,  or  latest  epoch , 
of  the  earth's  history.  It  is  true  that  they  existed  during  the  preceding 
Secondary  Epoch,  or  the  one  in  which  the  chalk,  oolites,  lias,  etc.,  were  de- 
posited ;  but  all  the  forms  were  then  small,  and  occupied  a  subordinate  posi- 
tion in  the  fauna  of  the  world,  the  continents  being  then  peopled  by  various 
strange,  and  frequently  gigantic,  kinds  of  Reptiles,  while,  in  the  oceans,  the 
place  of  the  modern  whales,  porpoises,  and  Sirenians  was  taken  by  the 
Reptilian  Ichthyosaurs  and  Plesiosaurs,  It  is  in  consequence  of  this  com- 
paratively late  development  that  the  geographical  distribution  of  Mammals 
differs  widely  from  that  of  Reptiles  and  Amphibians,  although  it  coincides  to 
a  certain  degree  with  that  of  Birds,  which  are  likewise  a  relatively  modern 
group. 

From  the  evidence  of  Mammals  alone,  the  globe  may  be  divided  into  three 
main  zoo-geographical  realms,  two  of  which  may  be  further  sub-divided  into 
regions.  These  three  primary  divisions  are  respectively  named  the  Notogaeic, 
Neogaeic,  and  Arctogaeic  realms,  or  Notogaea,  Neogsea,  and  Arctogsea.  The 
first  of  these  includes  Australia,  New  Guinea,  New  Zealand,  and  the  islands 
as  far  east  as  New  Ireland  and  New  Caledonia,  together  with  Celebes, 
Lombok,  and  the  islands  between  these  and  Australia.  From  Borneo  and 
Java,  Celebes  and  Lombok  are  separated  by  a  deep  channel,  and  whereas  all 
the  islands  to  the  west  of  this  channel,  which  is  known  as  Wallace's 
line,  have  their  Mammalian  fauna  of  an  Oriental  or  Indian  type,  and 
are  without  any  Marsupials,  those  on  the  west  of  the  same  show  a 
more  or  less  marked  Australian  type,  Marsupials  making  their  first 
appearance  in  Celebes,  and  becoming  more  numerous  as  we  approach 
Australia  and  Papua,  where  that  group  is  the  dominant  one. 

The  Austro-Malayan  islands,  as  Celebes  and  the  adjacent  islands  may  be 
called,  form,  indeed,  a  transition,  so  far  as  Mammals  are  concerned,  between 
the  regions  to  the  west  and  Australia  arid  New  Guinea,  although  it  is  on  the 
whole  most  convenient  to  include  them  in  the  Notogaeic  realm.  The  typical 
part  of  that  realm,  as  represented  by  Australia,  New  Guinea,  and  the 
adjacent  islands,  is  characterised  by  the  great  preponderance  of  Pouched 
Mammals,  or  Marsupials,  while  it  is  here  only  that  the  Egg-Laying  Mammals, 
or  Monotremes,  are  met  with.  In  Australia  itself,  in  addition  to  Bats,  which 


THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM. 


here  and  elsewhere  need  not  claim  our  attention,  the  only  Mammals  except 
Marsupials  and  Monotremes  are  a  certain  number  of  Rodents  belonging  to 
the  family  Muridce,  and  the  Australian  wild  dog,  or  dingo.  New  Guinea,  on 
the  other  hand,  possesses  a  pig,  which  may  possibly,  however,  have  been 
introduced. 

When  Celebes  and  the  other  Austro-Malayan  islands  are  reached,  Mono- 
tremes are  absent,  and  Marsupials  form  only  a  small  moiety  in  the  fauna. 
This  realm  is  the  sole  home,  not  only  of  the  Monotremes,  but  likewise  of  the 
typical  Diprotodont  Marsupials,1  while  the  only  other  part  of  the  world  where 
Marsupials  are  now  found  is  America,  where  they  are  represented  among  other 
forms  by  the  opossums,  which  are  quite  unknown  in  Australia.  As  Marsupials 
of  extinct  types  inhabited  the  Northern  Hemisphere  during  earlier  epochs,  it 
is  evident  that  the  Notogseic  realm  received  its  Marsupial  and  Monotremes 
fauna  at  a  date  when  such  creatures  were  the  dominant  forms  in  South-Eastern 
Asia,  which  was  then  populated  by  but  few  other  types  of  Mammalian  life. 
When  these  ancestral  Marsupials  and  Monotremes  had  effected  an  entrance 
into  Australia  and  New  Guinea,  with  the  adjacent  islands,  they  became  more 
or  less  completely  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  were  enabled  to 
develop  apart  from  the  competition  of  the  higher  forms  of  life.  It  is  note- 
worthy that  some  of  the  Australian  Rodents  present  a  marked  similarity  to 
these  of  the  Philippines,  showing  that  the  immigration  has  been  from  the 
northward.  Notogsea  may  be  divided  into  several  regions.  One  of  these  is 
the  New  Zealand  region,  characterised  by  the  absence  of  all  terrestrial 
Mammals,  and  the  abundance  of  flightless  birds,  nearly  all  of  which  are  now 
extinct.  Under  the  title  of  the  Australian  region  may  be  included  Australia, 
Tasmania,  New  Guinea,  the  Am  Islands,  New  Caledonia,  New  Britain,  etc.  ; 
this  region  being  characterised  by  the  preponderance  of  Marsupials  and  the 
presence  of  Monotremes.  The  Austro-Malayan  region,  which  includes  the 
islands  mentioned  above,  has,  on  the  other  hand,  only  a  small  number  of 
Marsupials  among  a  preponderance  of  Placentals,  so  that  this  region  forms  a 
transition  between  Notogsea  and  Arctogsea. 

Nearly  as  distinct  from  the  rest  of  the  world  as  the  last,  is  the  Neogaeic 
realm,  comprising  South  and  Central  America,  together  with  the  West 
Indian  Islands.  Now,  however,  the  distinction  of  this  realm,  as  a  primary 
region,  is  much  obscured  by  the  union  of  South  with  North  America,  which 
has  allowed  many  essentially  Northern  types  to  migrate  into  South  America, 
while  a  certain  number  of  Southern  forms  have  penetrated  into  the  Northern 
half  of  the  continent.  There  is  evidence  that  during  the  Cretaceous  Period, 
or  latest  division  of  the  Secondary  Epoch,  what  is  now  Mexico  was  a  sea,  while 
in  the  Middle,  or  Miocene  division  of  the  Tertiary  Epoch,  the  same  was  the 
case  with  Central  America.  It  is  thus  evident  that  at  two  distinct  periods, 
North  and  South  America  were  disconnected  ;  although  it  is  quite  possible 
that  during  some  other  part  of  the  Tertiary  Period  antecedent  to  the  Miocene, 
there  may  have  been  a  temporary  connection  either  by  way  of  the  Isthmus  of 
Darien,  or  by  Florida  and  the  West  Indies.  At  the  present  day  the  Neogseic 
realm  is  practically  the  sole  home  of  the  Edentates,2  of  the  New  World 
monkeys  (Cebidce)  and  marmosets  (Hapcdidce),  as  well  as  of  many  peculiar 
types  of  Hystricomorphous  Rodents,  such  as  the  viscacha  (Lagostomiis),  coypu 
(Myopotamus),  carpincho  (Hydroclicerus),  cavies  (C'avia),  agutis  (Daryprocta), 

1  This  and  other  terms  are  fully  explained  in  the  sequel. 
*  A  few  of  these  and  other  groups  range  into  Texas. 


MAMMALIA. 


pacas  (Ccdogenys),  etc  ,  etc.,  several  of  them  belonging  to  families  which  are 
confined  to  this  realm.  Here  also  the  Marsupial  opossums  (Didelp^yida1) 
attain  their  maximum  development,  only  a  couple  of  species  ranging  into 
North  America  ;  while  the  camel-like  llamas  (Lama)  are  restricted  to  this 
realm.  The  peccaries  (Dicotyles\  again,  are  mainly  South  and  Central  American 
while  among  the  Carnivora  the  coatis  (Nasua)  are  exclusively  so.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  llamas  and  peccaries,  the  only  other  Ungulates  are  deer,  mostly 
belonging  to  the  American  genus  Cariacus.  True  deer  (Cervus)  are  totally 
wanting,  as  are  all  Insectivora. 

Here,  it  must  be  mentioned,  that  during  the  Pleistocene  Period,  or  latest 
division  of  the  Tertiary  Epoch,  South  America  was  populated  by  a  much 
more  wonderful  fauna.  Among  these  were  horses  and  mastodons  (allies  of 
the  elephants),  together  with  a  giant  Ungulate  (Toxodon)  typifying  a  distinct 
sub-order  (Toxodontia)  by  itself,  together  with  a  second,  known  as  the 
Macrauchenia,  which  is  likewise  the  type  of  a  sub-order  (Litopterna.)  Here 
also  flourished  the  gigantic  Glyptodonts,  which  are  extinct  allies  of  the 
armadillos  of  the  present  day.  Deer,  llamas,  peccaries,  coatis,  and  various 
cats  were  also  present  at  the  period  in  question.  When,  however,  we  go 
back  to  a  still  earlier  era — the  Lower  Miocene — horses,  peccaries,  deer,  llamas, 
coatis,  and  cats  were  entirely  absent  ;  and  the  fauna  consisted  solely  of 
monkeys,  marmosets,  various  peculiar  extinct  groups  of  Ungulates,  arid 
Hystricomorphous  Rodents,  together  with  certain  peculiar  extinct  Mar- 
supials, and  some  other  groups  which  need  not  be  mentioned.  When 
this  fauna  flourished,  Neogsea  must  have  been  quite  isolated  from  the  rest 
of  the  world.  It  is,  however,  clear  that  (although  the  Edentates  may  have 
originated  there)  the  Ungulates  and  Hystricomorphous  Rodents  must  have  en- 
tered from  other  regions,  although  how  they  got  there  is  at  present  a  mystery, 
seeing  that  none  of  the  latter  occur  in  the  earlier  Tertiary  strata  of  North 
America.  At  the  close  of  the  Miocene  Period,  South  America  became  con- 
nected with  North  America,  from  whence  it  received  its  extinct  horses,  to- 
gether with  its  existing  deer,  llamas,  peccaries,  mice,  coatis,  cats,  dogs,  etc. ; 
while,  at  the  same  time,  a  certain  number  of  essentially  Neogseic  types  obtained 
a  footing  in  North  America. 

Although  fuller  details  would  be  necessary  to  make  this  very  complicated 
subject  clear,  it  is  thus  evident  that  previous  to  its  latest  and  existing  union 
with  North  America,  Notogsea  possessed  a  very  peculiar  and  characteristic  fauna 
which  entitles  it  to  form  a  primary  realm  by  itself  ;  but  that  this  original 
distinction  has  been  greatly  obscured  by  later  emigrations  and  immigrations. 
Of  this  primitive  fauna  the  Edentates,  monkeys,  marmosets,  Hystricomorphous 
Rodents,  and  certain  Marsupials,  are  now  remnants  ;  while  the  coatis  and 
llamas,  which  are  at  the  present  day  confined  to  the  realm,  do  not  properly 
belong  to  it  at  all.  » 

Arctogsea  includes  the  whole  of  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  may  be  char- 
acterised by  the  absence  of  Monotremes,  Diprotodont  Marsupials,  and 
Edentates,1  and  the  presence  of  Insectivora  ;  Marsupials  occurring  only  in 
North  America.  This  vast  tract  may  be  divided  into  a  number  of  regions. 
First  and  most  distinct  comes  the  Malagasy  region,  including  Madagascar 
and  the  Comoro  Islands,  which  is  specially  characterised  by  the  abundance  of 
its  lemurs,  civet-like  Carnivores,  and  Insectivora,  coupled  with  the  absence  of 

1  The  pangolins  and  aard-varks  are  here  separated  as  a  distinct  order  (Effodientia), 
The  few  Edentates  straggling  into  North  America  may  be  disregarded. 


10  MAMMALIA— ORDER  /.— PRIMATES. 


all  Ungulates  except  an  African  type  of  pig,  and  the  paucity  of  Rodents,  which 
are  represented  only  by  the  rat  tribe  (Muridce).  Next  in  importance  is  the 
Ethiopian  region,  comprising  Africa  south  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  and 
Southern  Arabia.  Here  one  of  the  most  distinctive  features  are  the  number 
of  large  Ungulates,  among  which  the  zebras,  a  host  of  antelopes,  hippopotami, 
wart-hogs,  and  the  giraffe  are  now  peculiar  ;  while  deer  are  absent,  and  sheep 
and  goa^s  very  scarce,  and  only  represented  in  the  northern  portion  of  the 
region.  Gorillas  and  chimpanzees  are  now  solely  Ethiopian,  as  are  practically 
the  dog-headed  baboons  (Papio\  while  certain  other  genera  of  monkeys  are 
confined  to  the  region.  Elephants  and  rhinoceroses  also  occur,  although  these 
are  markedly  distinct  from  their  Oriental  cousins.  Aard-varks  are  now 
solely  Ethiopian  ;  while  pangolins  are  common  to  this  and  the  Oriental 
regions.  Bears  are  practically  wanting. 

Although  in  many  ways  nearly  related  to  the  Ethiopian,  the  Oriental  region, 
which  comprises  India,  Southern  China  and  the  Malayan  countries  as  far  as 
Wallace's  line,  is  markedly  distinct,  having  no  hippopotami,  giraffes,  or 
wart-hogs,  while  its  antelopes  are  far  less  numerous,  and  also  generically  dis- 
tinct from  those  of  Africa  south  of  the  Tropic.  Instead  of  chimpanzees  and 
gorillas,  there  are  orangs  and  gibbons  ;  dog-faced  baboons  are  wanting,  and 
there  are  several  peculiar  genera  of  monkeys,  while  the  lemurs  are  quite 
distinct  from  those  of  Africa.  True  pigs,  as  distinct  from  bush-pigs,  are 
abundant,  as  are  also  bears  and  deer,  the  latter  mostly  of  a  peculiar  sub- 
generic  type.  There  are  no  aard-varks,  although  pangolins  are  common  : 
and  the  rhinoceroses  and  elephant  are  widely  different  from  those  of  Africa. 
The  region  may  be  sub-divided  into  several  sub-regions,  which  need  not  be 
mentioned  here. 

With  the  exception  of  Southern  North  America,  the  whole  of  the  remainder 
of  the  Arctogaeic  realm  may  be  included  in  the  Holarctic  region,  which  is 
characterised  by  the  absence  of  man-like  apes,  lemurs,  elephants,  and  rhino- 
ceroses, the  paucity  of  monkeys,  the  abundance  of  goats  and  sheep,  and  the 
presence  of  the  two  species  of  bison  ;  marmots  and  beavers  being  also  char- 
acteristic of  this  region,  while  pangolins  are  practically  wanting.  Finally, 
we  have  the  Sonoran  region,  including  Southern  North  America,  to  about 
as  far  north  as  latitude  45  deg.,  and  especially  characterised  by  being  the 
home  of  the  prong-buck  (Antilocapra)  and  the  family  of  pocket-gophers 
(Geomyidce.) 


MAMMALIA. 

ORDER  I.— PRIMATES. 
APES,  MONKEYS,  AND  LEMURS. 

THE  first  ordinal  group  of  Mammals  is  the  one  named  by  the  great  Swedish 
naturalist  Linnaeus,  Primates,  and  includes  not  only  apes,  monkeys,  baboons, 
and  marmosets,  but  likewise  man  himself,  as  well  as  the  infinitely  lower 
creatures  commonly  designated  lemurs,  which  differ  from  all  the  others  in 


APES,  MONKEYS,  AND  LEMURS.  II 


their  expressionless,  fox-like  faces.  Were  the  latter  animals  (as  they  not 
unfrequently  are)  separated  as  a  distinct  ordinal  group,  the  Primates  would 
be  much  easier  of  definition  than  is  the  case  when  they  are  included  ;  but  as 
there  is  little  doubt  that  the  latter  arrangement  is  the  proper  one,  it  is  essen- 
tial that  it  should  be  followed. 

In  the  great  majority  of  the  members  of  the  order,  the  hand,  which  is 
always  a  grasping  organ,  is  furnished  with  five  fingers,  generally  provided 
with  more  or  less  flattened  nails,  but  in  certain  cases  the  thumb  is  wanting. 
The  thumb  itself  in  the  higher  forms  is  completely  opposable  to  the  other 
digits,  but  in  certain  of  the  lower  representatives  of  the  order  its  power  of 
opposition  is  bub  very  limited.  In  the  five-toed  hind-foot,  except  in  man,  the 
great-toe  is  similarly  opposable  to  the  other  digits.  With  the  exception  of  the 
second,  or  index  finger  of  the  lemurs,  the  terminal  joints  of  the  fingers  and 
toes  are  expanded  to  form  a  support  for  the  broad  and  flattened  nails.  In 
both  the  fore  and  hind-limbs  all  the  component  bones  are  separate  from  one 
another  ;  and  perfect  collar-bones  or  cavicles  are  invariably  present.  All  the 
Primates  are  further  characterised  by  the  sockets,  or  orbits,  of  the  eyes  being 
surrounded  by  a  complete  bony  rim.  As  regards  the  teeth,  the  molars  have 
broad,  flattened  crowns,  surmounted  either  by  tubercles  or  a  pair  of  transverse 
ridges,  and  are  thus  admirably  adapted  for  the  mastication  of  the  fruits, 
leaves,  or  other  vegetable  substances  on  which  the  majority  of  these  animals 
subsist.  In  number,  the  molar  teeth  form  three  pairs  in  each  jaw,  save  only 
in  the  marmosets  ;  these  teeth  being  always  more  complex  and  larger  than  the 
premolars. 

The  latter  are  reduced  to  two  pairs  in  each  jaw  in  all  the  higher  forms, 
with  the  exception  of  one  family  of  American  monkeys  ;  and  even  among  the 
lemurs  no  existing  species  has  more  than  three  pairs  of  these  teeth.  More- 
over, in  all  the  apes  and  monkeys  the  incisor  teeth,  which  in  many  other 
animals  form  three  pairs,  are  reduced  to  two  pairs  in  both  jaws ;  but  among 
the  lemurs  the  number  of  these  teeth  is  subject  to  a  considerable  amount  of 
variation.  Save  in  the  aberrant  lemur  known  as  the  aye-aye,  there  are  at 
least  two  teats  on  the  breast  of  the  females. 

As  a  rule,  the  members  of  the  order  are  forest-dwelling  animals,  inhabiting 
tropical  and  sub-tropical  countries,  although  a  few  range  into  regions  where 
in  winter  the  boughs  of  tha  trees  are  enveloped  in  snow;  but  it  is  only  in  the 
hottest  and  dampest  tropical  forests  that  the  largest  members  of  the  order  are 
met  with.  Although  many  apes  and  monkeys  are  able  to  assume  the  upright 
position,  ifc  is  very  few  that  habitually  use  it ;  and  even  when  they  do,  the 
aid  of  the  arms  is  necessary  to  maintain  the  balance  in  walking. 

The  Primates  may  be  divided  into  two  great  subordinal  groups ;  the  first 
(Anthropoidea)  including  man,  apes,  baboons,  monkeys,  and  marmosets, 
whilst  the  second  (Lemuroidea)  embraces  only  the  lemurs. 

The  first  and  highest  group  of  the  Primates  includes  the  so-called  man-like 
apes,  such  as  the  gorilla,  chimpanzee,  orang,  and  gibbons,  collectively  con- 
stituting the   family  Slmiidcv.      That  these   apes   are   our  ft 
nearest  cousins  is  well  known  ;  but  the  degree  and  extent         Man-like 
of  this  relationship,  as  well  as  the  characters  by  which  it  is     Apes. — Family 
displayed,  are  probably  less  familiar.     In  the  first  place,  it  imiidce. 
will  be  noticed  that  we  speak  of  this  relationship  as  one  of 
cousinship,  and  not  of  ancestry  ;  and  it  is  well  that  the  reader  snould  free 
himself  from  any  idea  that  there  is  any  vestige  of  direct  ancestral  kinship 
between  these,  for  the  most  part,  hideous  creatures  and  mmself.      Such 


12  MAMMALIA— ORDER  /.— PRIMATES. 


relationship  as  does  exist  is  of  a  comparatively  distant  kind  ;  and  the 
common  ancestor  must  have  lived  ages  before  the  mammoth  roamed  over 
England,  since  at  that  cfate  man  was  as  distinctly  differentiated  from  the 
apes  as  he  is  in  the  present  century.  Whether  this  "  missing  link  "  will  ever 
be  found,  or  in  what  country  it  is  most  likely  to  have  lived,  are  questions 
impossible  to  answer  ;  but  from  the  extreme  rarity  with  which  fossil  remains 
of  man-like  apes  are  found  in  countries  where  they  are  known  to  have  existed 
for  long  ages,  and  from  the  probability  that  the  distributional  area  of  the 
aforesaid  "link"  was  extremely  limited,  there  is  not  much  hope  that  the 
researches  of  palaeontologists  will  ever  be  rewarded  by  such  a  discovery. 

From  their  large  bodily  size,  coupled  with  that  hideous  caricature  of  the 
human  face  and  form  characterising  the  more  typical  representatives  of  the 
man-like  apes,  no  one  would  have  any  difficulty  in  distinguishing  these  crea- 
tures from  their  lower  relatives.  There  might,  however,  be  some  hesitation 
with  regard  to  the  long-armed  gibbons,  and  it  is,  therefore,  essential  to  point 
out  how  the  members  of  the  man-like  group  may  be  distinguished  as  a  whole 
from  other  monkeys. 

Among  the  sub-order  Anthropoidea  there  is  an  important  distinction  be- 
tween the  Old  and  New  World  forms.  The  whole  of  the  Old  World  repre- 
sentatives of  this  division  of  the  order  are  characterised  by  having  teeth 
agreeing  both  in  number  and  arrangement  with  those  of  man.  Thus  in  all 
cases  in  each  jaw  there  are  two  pairs  of  incisors,  a  single  pair  of  tusks,  or 
canines,  and  five  pairs  of  cheek-teeth,  of  which  the  last,  or  "  wisdom-tooth/' 
is  frequently  very  late  in  making  its  appearance  (see  fig.  5).  Of  these  five  cheek- 
teeth the  first  two  on  each  side  are  simpler  than  the  three  hinder  ones,  p.iid  are 
preceded  in  the  infant  by  milk-teeth,  whereas  the  latter  have  no  such  pre- 
decessors. It  is  accordingly  the  custom  to  call  the  two  simpler  teeth 
premolars  or  bicuspids,  and  the  three  more  complex  ones  molars.  If,  now, 
we  examine  an  ordinary  American  monkey,  we  shall  find  six  check  teeth  on 
each  side  of  both  the  upper  and  lower  jaws,  of  which  half  are  premolars  and 
half  molars  ;  while  in  the  marmosets,  which  constitute  a  second  American 
family,  although  the  total  number  of  cheek-teeth  is  the  same  as  in  the  Old 
World  forms,  yet  the  proportion  is  different,  there  being  chree  premolars 
and  two  molars.  It  may,  therefore,  be  stated  that  all  American  monkeys 
differ  from  their  Old  World  cousins  in  having  three  instead  of  two  pairs  of 
premolar  teeth,  whence  it  may  be  inferred  that  they  belong  tc  a  lower  and 
more  generalized  type,  there  being  a  universal  tendency  throughout  tho 
higher  Vertebrates  to  a  diminution,  or  disappearance  of  the  teeth  with  the 
advance  of  specialisation.  In  the  marmosets  the  loss  of  the  last  molar  is 
unique  in  the  higher  division  of  the  order,  and  is,  indeed,  a  somewhat  re- 
markable peculiarity  to  occur  in  a  herbivorous  Mammal,  among  which  the 
reduction  is  usually  confined  to  the  front  and  premolar  teeth. 

As  the  teeth  serve  most  readily  to  differentiate  the  Old  World  monkeys 
from  their  American  allies,  so  the  man-like  apes  are  sharply  distinguished 
from  their,  relatives  by  the  conformation  of  the  same  organs.  Thus  the 
molar  teeth  of  the  man-like  apes  closely  resemble  those  of  man,  having  the 
angles  of  their  crowns  rounded  off,  and  carrying  on  their  grinding-surfaces 
four  very  blunt  tubercles,  placed  alternately  to  one  another,  as  well  as  a 
somewhat  smaller  tubercle  at  the  hinder  end.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the 
lower  monkeys  the  molar  teeth  are  oblong  in  form,  and  carry  four  very 
prominent  tubercles  arranged  in  pairs  at  the  two  extremities  of  each  tooth, 
and  each  pair  being  connected  so  as  to  form  a  couple  of  more  or  less  well- 


APES,  MONKEYS,  AND  LEMURS.  13 

defined  transverse  ridges  extending  right  across  the  crown.  Vhen,  again, 
whereas  in  the  man-like  apes  the  last  molar,  or  "  wisdom-tooth,"  in  the  lower 
jaw  is  similar  in  form  to  the  two  teeth  in  front  of  it,  in  the  great  majority  of 
tbe  Old  World  monkeys  this  tooth  has  a  large  projecting  heel  at  its  hinder 
end.  These  dental  characters  afford  very  important  evidence  of  the  close 
kinship  of  the  man-like  apes  to  man  himself,  and  undoubtedly  outweigh  the 
difference  in  the  form  of  the  whole  dental  series  now  to  be  noticed,  which  is 
largely  due  to  adaptation.  In  both  the  upper  and  lower  jaws  of  man  the 
teeth  are  arranged  in  a  regular  horse- shoe  series,  with  scarcely  any  interrup- 
tion to  the  continuity  by  the  tusks,  which  are  but  little  taller  than  the  other 
members  of  the  series.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  adults  (and  especially  the 
males  of  the  larger  species)  of  the  man-like  apes  the  cheek-teeth  are  arranged 
in  a  nearly  straight  line,  and  form  a  more  or  less  angulated  junction  with  the 
line  of  the  incisors  ;  the  large  canines,  or  tusks,  occupying  the  angle  between 
the  two  series,  and  thus  forming  a  marked  break  in  continuity.  Jn  these 
respects  the  man-like  apes  resemble  their  inferior  kindred.  If,  however,  a 
young  individual  of  the  larger  man-like  apes,  and  especially  the  chimpanzee, 
be  examined,  it  will  be  found  that  the  teeth,  owing  partly  to  the  imperfect 
protrusion  of  the  tusks,  form  a  less  interrupted  and  more  regularly  curved 
series.  Indeed,  with  the  exception  that  the  whole  jaw  is  longer  and  narrower, 
and  the  partially-protruded  tusks  are  proportionately  larger,  the  characters 
of  such  specimens  make  a  marked  approximation  to  the  human  type  ;  and 
the  jaw  of  a  chimpanzee  at  this  stage  may  be  regarded  as  almost  intermediate 
in  structure  between  that  of  man  and  that  of  an  adult  male  gorilla.  More- 
over, in  this  juvenile  state  the  bony  union  of  the  two  branches  of  the  lower 
jaw  partakes  of  the  short  and  rounded  form  characterizing  that  of  man  ; 
whereas  in  the  adult  it  becomes  longer  and  more  deeply  channelled,  like  that 
of  the  lower  monkeys.  In  many  respects  the  teeth  and  jaws  of  the  gibbons, 
or  smallest  representatives  of  the  present  group,  conform  to  the  intermediate 
type.  Not  only  are  the  human  characteristics  most  developed  in  the  teeth 
and  jaws  of  the  young  of  the  larger  man-like  apes  and  the  gibbons  at  all 
ages,  but  the  same  is  true  with  regard  to  the  skull  of  the  former.  The  skull 
of  the  young  gorilla,  for  instance,  lacks  the  beetling  crests  over  the  eyes  and 
the  prominent  ridge  down  the  middle  of  the  crown,  which  give  such  a  for- 
bidding and  repulsive  aspect  to  the  cranium  of  tho  full-grown  male.  This 
loss  of  human  resemblances  is  due  to  specialisation  taking  two  difficulty  lines 
in  man  on  the  one  hand,  and  in  the  larger  man-like  apes  on  the  other  ;  the 
development  in  the  one  case  tending  to  increased  size  of  brain,  coupled  with 
no  marked  increase  in  the  size  of  the  tusks,  while  in  the  other  the  brain 
grows  at  a  less  rapid  rate,  and  the  skull  and  tusks  (more  especially  in  the 
male)  assume  characters  approximating  them  to  those  cf  the  inferior  animals. 
Both  in  men  and  apes  the  young  condition  may  accordingly  be  regarded  as 
the  most  generalised. 

Among  the  other  features  in  which  the  man-like  apes  differ  from  the  lower 
monkeys  and  resemble  man,  are  the  absence  of  dilatable  pouches  in  the 
cheeks  for  the  storage  of  food,  and  the  total  loss  cf  the  tail,  as  well  as  the 
flattened,  instead  of  laterally  compressed,  form  cf  the  breast-bone  ;  the 
gibbons  alone  retaining  the  naked  patches  on  the  buttocks  so  characteristic 
of  the  monkeys,  but  only  in  a  much  reduced  condition.  The  gcriila  and 
chimpanzees  further  differ  from  the  other  members  of  the  group,  and  thereby 
resemble  man  alone,  in  the  loss  of  the  so-called  central  bone  cf  the  wrist — a 
bone  occupying  a  nearly  central  position  between  the  upper  and  lower  rows 


I4  MAMMALIA— ORDER  /.— PRIMATES. 

of  small  bones  of  which  that  joint  is  composed.  What  may  be  the  object  of 
the  disappearance  of  this  bone,  it  is  not  easy  to  say  ;  but  the  fact  that  it  is 
wanting  in  the  two  genera  of  apes  just  mentioned  is  very  significant  of  their 
close  structural  affinity  with  man.  In  one  respect  the  man-like  apes  stand 
apart  both  from  the  human  and  the  monkey  type,  namely,  in  the  great 
relative  length  of  the  arms  as  compared  with  the  legs,  the  disproportion 
being  most  strongly  marked  in  the  gibbons,  which  are  actually  able  to 
walk  in  the  upright  posture  with  their  bent  knuckles  touching  the  ground. 

So  far,  indeed,  as  their  bodily  structure  is  concerned,  the  man-like  apes 
seem  undoubtedly  more  nearly  related  to  man  than  they  are  to  the  lower 
monkeys  ;  and  they  constitute  a  family  (Simiida)  by  themselves,  which  may 
be  regarded  as  intermediate  between  the  one  (Cercopithecidw)  including  the 
lower  monkeys,  and  that  represented  by  man  himself.-  While  at  present  the 
"  missing  link  "  between  man  and  the  apes  is  wanting,  extinct  forms  tend  to 
connect  the  latter  very  closely  with  the  monkeys.  For  instance,  a  fossil  ape 
(Dryopithecus)  from  the  Miocene  Tertiary  strata  of  France  has  the  bony 
union  between  the  two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw  much  longer  than  in  any 
existing  man-like  ape,  although  it  is  approached  in  this  respect  by  the  gorilla; 
while  from  the  corresponding  beds  of  Italy  another  extinct  form  (Oreopithecus) 
appears  to  be  in  great  part  intermediate  between  the  man-like  apes  and  the 
lower  monkeys. 

The  present  distribution  of  the  anthropoid  apes  clearly  points  to  the  exist- 
ing species  being  the  last  survivors  of  a  group  which  was  once  widely  spread 
over  the  Old  World,  when  warmer  climatic  conditions  prevailed  over  what  we 
now  call  the  temperate  regions.  The  gorilla,  for  instance,  is  confined  to 
Western  Equatorial  Africa  ;  where  it  is  accompanied  by  the  two  species  of 
chimpanzee,  one  of  which  ranges  eastwards  across  the  continent  as  far  as 
Uganda.  The  orangs,  of  which  there  are  probably  two  species,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  confined  to  the  great  islands  of  Sumatra  and  Borneo  ;  while  the 
numerous  species  of  gibbons  have  a  wide  range  in  South-Eastern  Asia,  attain- 
ing their  maximum  development  in  the  Malayan  Archipelago  and  the  adjacent 
regions.  This  distribution  is  remarkably  discontinuous,  but  the  little  known 
of  the  past  history  of  the  group  tends  somewhat  to  consolidate  the  present 
scattered  distributional  areas.  For  instance,  a  chimpanzee  once  inhabited 
Northern  India  ;  while  it  is  most  probable  that  an  orang  also  was  a  contem- 
poraneous dweller  in  the  same  country.  This  suggests  that  India  may  have 
been  the  original  home  of  the  larger  man-like  apes,  from  whence  the  chim- 
panzees and  gorillas  migrated  south-westwards  to  Equatorial  Africa,  while  the 
orangs  travelled  in  an  easterly  direction  to  find  a  last  home  in  the  tropical 
islands  to  which  they  are  now  confined. 

Of  the  four  existing  genera  of  the  man-like  apes,  the  chimpanzees  (Anthro- 

popithecus)  are  those  which  come  nearest  to  man,  this  being  especially  shown 

by  the  shortness  of  the  bony  union  between  the  two  branches 

Chimpanzees      of  the  lower  jaw,  the  form  and  mode  of  arrangement  of  the  teeth 

(Anthropopitke,-    (especially  in  the  young),  the  relatively  small  development  of 

CMS).  the  tusks  of  the  male,  the  absence  of  the  enormous  bony 

crests  on  the  skull  so  characteristic  of  the  gorilla,  and  the 

slight  difference  in  the  size  of  the  two    <exes.      The  chimpanzees  and  the 

gorilla  alone  resemble  man  in  having  seventeen  vertebrae  between  the  neck 

and  the  sacrum,  and  likewise  in  the  absence  of  the  central  bone  in  the  wrist, 

although  they  differ  in  the  comparatively  unimportant  feature  of  possessing 

an  additional  pair  of  ribs.     It  will  be  unnecessary  to  give  a  full  description  of 


APES,  MONKEYS,  AND  LEMURS. 


Fig.  6. —COMMON  CHIMPANZEE 

(AnthropopWiecus  troglodytes). 


these  animals,  and  it  will  suffice  to  say  that  the  common  species  (A.  troglo- 
dytes), which  ranges  across  Tropical  Africa  from  the  Gabun  to  Uganda,  has 

the  face,  ears,  hands,  and  feet,  dark   reddish  flesh-colour,  or  more   rarely 

blackish  brown,  while  the  general  colour  of  the  hair  is  wholly  black,  except 

on  the  lips,  where  it  is  short  and  white,  and 

on  the  buttocks,  where  it  has  a  dash  of  red- 
dish brown.     There  has  been  some  difference 

of   opinion  as  to  whether   the   so-called  bald 

chimpanzee  (A,  calvus)  of  the  West  Coast  of 

Africa  is  entitled  to  rank  as  a  distinct  species, 

but  recent  researches  tend  to  show  that  it  has 

no  such  claim.     In  size  chimpanzees  are  much 

smaller  animals  than  the  gorilla.     In  walking, 

the  palm  of  the  hand  can  be  applied  to  the 

ground,  and  the  same  is  the  case  with  the  sole 

of   the  foot  ;    but   although   chimpanzees  can 

stand  or  walk  erect  on  the  soles  of  their  feet, 

they  much  prefer   to   progress   in  a  stooping 

posture,  supporting  themselves  on  their  bent 

knuckles. 

In  some  districts  living  to  a  great  extent  on 

the  ground,  chimpanzees  are  more  arboreal  in 

their  general  habits  than  the  gorilla,  although 

much  less  so  than  the  orang.     They  feed  on 

wild  or  even  cultivated  fruits,   and  generally 

associate    either    in  family  parties  or  in  small  communities,  although  the 

males  and  females  pair  for  life.  For  the 
protection  of  the  female  and  young  a  kind 
of  nest  or  resting-place  is  built  in  some 
tree,  where  they  pass  the  night,  the  male 
remaining  on  ground  below.  In  the  early 
morning  and  evening,  and  less  commonly 
during  the  night,  chimpanzees  give  vent 
to  a  series  of  unearthly  shrieks  and  howls  ; 
Dr.  Pechuel-Losche  observing  that  "  since 
they  are  really  accomplished  in  the  art  of 
bringing  forth  these  unpleasant  sounds, 
which  may  be  heard  at  a  great  distance, 
and  are  reproduced  by  the  echoes,  it  is  im- 
possible to  estimate  the  number  of  indi- 
viduals who  take  part  in  the  dreary  noise, 
but  often  we  seemed  to  hear  more  than  a 
hundred." 

The  hideous  creature  forming  the  sole 
representative  of  the  genus  Gorilla  differs 
from  the  chimpanzees  in 
the  great  development  of          Gorilla, 
the  tusks  of  the  male  as 
well  as  in  the  large  size  of  the  bony  crests 
on  the  skull  above  the  eyes,  and  likewise 

by  the  male  being  very  much  larger  than  the  female.     There  are  also  certain 

differences  in  the  conformation  of  the  cheek-teeth,  and  the  brain  has  a  more 


Fig.  7  — THE  GORIT.I.A 
(Gorilla  stwagei). 


i5 


MAMMALIA— ORDER  I.  —PRIM A  TE  S. 


oval  contour,  thereby  approximating  to  the  human  type.  In  height  the  male 
gorilla  (G.  savagei)  may  exceed  six  feet,  although  the  female  does  not  measure 
more  than  four  and  a  half  feet.  The  general  colour  of  the  animal  is  black  or 
blackish,  the  whole  skin  of  the  face  being  glossy  black,  scattered  over  with  a 
few  hairs.  The  geographical  range  of  this  gigantic  ape  is  exceedingly  limited, 
being  confined  to  that  part  of  the  West  Coast  of  Equatorial  Africa  lying  between 
the  Camerun  mountains  and  the  Congo  River.  Like  chimpanzees,  gorillas 
live  in  family  parties,  although  these  do  not  combine  to  form  communities  ; 
and  they  are  likewise  stated  to  construct  arboreal  resting-places  for  the  femala 
and  young.  They  walk  in  a  shuffling  manner  somewhat  similar  to  that 

adopted  by  chimpanzees,  but  as  their  arms  are 
longer  they  are  not  compelled  to  stoop  so 
much,  and  the  open  hand,  in  place  of  the  bent 
knuckle,  is  stated  to  be  put  on  the  ground 
in  this  mode  of  progression.  The  yell  of 
the  male  gorilla  is  described  as  a  terrific 
sound  ;  and  these  animals  appear  to  be  not 
only  ferocious,  but  likewise  extremely  courag- 
eous, always  advancing  boldly  to  meet  a  foe, 
and  never  running  away  like  a  chimpanzee. 
As  in  all  the  man-like  apes,  the  female  pro- 
duces but  a  single  young  at  a  birth,  which  is 
nurtured  with  tender  solicitude,  and  defended 
to  the  last  extremity.  When  at  rest,  the 
gorilla  generally  assumes  a  squatting  posture, 
with  the  arms  folded  across  the  breast ;  and 
in  sleep  lies  stretched  out  at  full  length  either 
on  the  back  or  on  one  side,  with  an  arm 
under  the  head.  Extremely  delicate  in  con- 
stitution when  removed  from  its  native 
haunts,  this  ape  rarely  survives  captivity  long 
even  in  Africa,  while  the  climate  of  Europe  soon  puts  an  end  to  its  existence. 
The  first  skeleton  of  the  gorilla  which  reached  England  was  presented  to 
the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  by  Captain  Harris  in  1851.  This  was  followed 
in  1858  by  an  entire  gorilla  preserved  in  spirits,  which  was  sent  from  the 
Gabun  to  the  Bntish  Museum.  Of  the  few  live  specimens  which  have 
reached  Europe,  none  seem  to  have  survived  more  than  fifteen  or  eighteen 
months.  The  earliest  to  reach  England  appears  to  have  been  one  which,  in 
1860,  was  the  property  of  an  itinerant  showman,  who  mistook  it  for  a  chimpan- 
zee, and  did  not  discover  his  mistake  until  after  the  animal's  death.  Fifteen 
years  later  a  young  male  gorilla  was  procured  from  the  natives  by  the 
German  Loango  Expedition,  and  taken  to  Berlin.  This  animal  was  fed  on  fruits 
and  goat's  milk,  and  under  kindly  treatment  became  so  tractable  that  he  was 
allowed  to  wander  about  the  ship  with  little  or  no  restraint.  He  showed  some 
cunning  and  a  tendency  to  mischief,  but  no  evil  propensities.  He  would  pay 
surreptitious  visits  to  the  store-room  on  occasion,  and  slyly  help  himself  to 
the  dainties  he  affected,  making  off  with  unmistakable  signs  of  guilty  con- 
sciousness when  disturbed  or  caught  in  the  act.  Arrived  at  Berlin,  he  was 
placed  in  the  Aquarium,  where  for  fifteen  months  he  was  the  object  of  much 
attention.  He  died  of  consumption,  as  did  his  successor,  who  arrived  at 
Berlin  in  1883,  and  died  the  following  year.  A  young  gorilla  which  reached 
the  Zoological  Gardens,  London,  a  few  years  a^o,  lived  but  a  few  months. 


Fig.  8.— THE  ORANG-UTAN 
(Simia  satyrus). 


APES,  MONKEYS,  AND  LEMURS.  17 


The  reduction  of  the  number  of  vertebrae  between  the  neck  and  the  sacrum 
to  sixteen,  together  with  the  retention  of  the  central  bone  in  the  wrist,  the 
great  length   of  the    arms,  which   in  the  upright  posture 
reach  to  the  ankles,  and  the  peculiar  upward  prolongation  of       Orang-Utan 
the   vertex  of   the   skull,  serve   at  once  to   show  that  the          (Simia.) 
orang    (Simia)  stands    on   a  lower    evolutionary  platform 
than  either  of  the  preceding  representatives  of  the  family.     Externally  it  is 
further  distinguished  by  the  rudimentary  condition   of  the  great- toe,  the 
peculiarly  flattened  form  of  the  almost   dish-like  leaden-hued  face  of   the 
adult,  and  the  red  tinge  of  the  long  and  shaggy  hair,  the  latter  being  in 
marked  contrast  to  the  black  hue  of  the  gorilla  and  chimpanzees.     Although 
in  possessing  only  a  dozen  pairs  of  ribs  the  orang  differs  from  both  the  latter 
and  resembles  man,  yet  this  resemblance  is  greatly  outweighed  by  the  differ- 
ence  in  the  number  of  the  vertebrae. 

It  is  now  generally  admitted  that  there  is  but  a  single  species  of  orang- 
utan (Simla  satyrus),  which  is  confined  to  the  great  islands  of  Sumatra  and 
Borneo,  and  is  known  to  the  Dyak  inhabitants  of  the  latter  by  the  name  of 
Mias.  A  peculiar  characteristic  of  the  adult  male  is  the  presence  of  a  large, 
smooth,  soft,  tumour-like,  flexible  expansion  of  the  skin  of  the  sides  of  the 
face,  giving  the  remarkable  breadth  and  flatness  so  characteristic  of  the  whole 
countenance.  In  size,  orangs  are  subject  to  considerable  variation,  large 
males  reaching  from  four  feet  two  inches  to  four  feet  six  inches  ;  the  females 
being  much  smaller. 

The  orang  is  a  much  more  truly  arboreal  animal  than  either  of  the  other 
large  apes,  and  is  likewise  a  solitary  creature,  the  sexes  only  corning  together 
at  the  pairing  season.  Females  are  generally  to  be  seen  accompanied  by 
their  young,  sometimes  only  a  single  one,  but  in  other  instances  with  those 
of  two  births.  The  young  cling  with  remarkable  tenacity  to  the  body  of  the 
mother  as  she  climbs  from  tree  to  tree.  Although  most  excellent  climbers,, 
orangs  are  exceedingly  slow  and  deliberate  in  their  movements,  and  are  thus 
quite  unlike  the  gibbons. 

Mr.  Brooke  of  Sarawak  says,  "  The  orangs,  so  far  as  I  have  been  able  to 
observe  them,  are  as  dull  and  as  slothful  as  can  well  be  conceived,  and  on  no 
occasion,  when  pursuing  them,  did  they  move  so  fast  as  to  preclude  my  keep- 
ing pace  with  them  easily  through  a  moderately  clear  forest  ;  and  even  when 
obstructions  below  (such  as  wading  up  to  the  neck)  allowed  them  to  get  away 
some  distance,  they  were  sure  to  stop  and  allow  us  to  come  up.  1  never 
observed  the  slightest  attempt  at  defence  ;  and  the  wood,  which  sometimes 
rattled  about  our  ears,  was  broken  by  their  weight,  and  not  thrown,  as  some 
persons  represent.  If  pushed  to  extremity,  however,  the  pappan  could  not 
be  otherwise  than  formidable  ;  and  one  unfortunate  man,  who  with  a  party 
was  trying  to  catch  one  alive,  lost  two  of  his  fingers,  besides  being  severely 
bitten  on  the  face,  whilst  the  animal  finally  beat  off  his  pursuers  and  escaped. 
When  hunters  wish  to  catch  an  adult,  they  cut  down  a  circle  of  trees  round 
the  one  on  which  he  is  seated,  and  then  fell  that  also,  and  close  before  he 
can  recover  himself,  and  endeavour  to  bind  him.  The  rude  hut  which  they 
are  stated  to  build  in  the  trees  would  be  more  properly  called  a  seat,  or  nest, 
for  it  has  no  roof  or  cover  of  any  sort.  The  facility  with  which  they  form 
this  seat  is  curious  ;  and  I  had  an  opportunity  of  seeing  a  wounded  female 
weave  the  branches  together,  and  seat  herself  in  a  minute.  She  afterwards 
received  our  fire  without  moving,  and  expired  in  her  lofty  abode,  whence  it 
cost  us  much  trouble  to  dislodge  her.  The  adult  male  1  killed  was  seated 
3 


1 8  MAMMALIA— ORDER  I.— PRIMATES. 


lazily  on  a  tree  ;  and  when  approached,  only  took  the  trouble  to  interpose  the 
trunk  between  us,  peeping  at  me  and  dodging  as  I  dodged.  I  hit  him  on 
the  wrist,  and  he  was  afterwards  despatched." 

The  last  members  of  the  family  are  the  gibbons  (Hyloba.tes)  which  are 
restricted  to  the  warmer  parts  of  South-Eastern  Asia,  and  are  especially 
abundant  in  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  islands.     They  are 
Gibbons  (Hylo-    the  lowest  and  smallest  representatives  of  the  man-like  apes, 
bates).  and  although  agreeing  with  those  above  described  in   the 

absence  of  a  tail  and  cheek-pouches,  and  by  the  circumstance 
that  their  grinding-teeth  are  constructed  on  precisely  the  same  plan  as  those 
of  ourselves,  they  approximate  to  the  lower  monkeys  in  possessing  small 
naked  callosities  on  the  buttocks.  In  habitually  walking  in  the  upright 
position,  frequently  with  the  assistance  of  their  enormously  elongated  arms, 
they  are  peculiar  in  the  ape  world.  This  peculiarity,  coupled  with  their 
apparently  human-like  skulls,  might  lead  the  uninitiated  to  suppose  that 
these  creatures  were  the  most  man-like  of  all  apes.  A  moment's  reflection 
would,  however,  show  that  in  such  highly-organised  animals,  a  small 
species,  in  order  to  be  able  to  carry  on  the  functions  necessary  to  its  exis- 
tence, must  have  a  proportionately  larger  brain  than  its  bigger  relatives  ; 
and  a  large  brain  implies,  of  course,  a  large  skull.  Moreover,  in  small  and 
purely  arboreal  animals  like  the  gibbons,  there  is  no  reason  why  the  skull 
should  be  strengthened  by  the  enormous  frontal  ridges  which  give  such  a 
repulsive  aspect  to  the  physiognomy  of  the  male  gorilla.  Accordingly,  we 
see  that  the  somewhat  human-like  form  of  the  skulls  of  the  gibbons  does  not 
in  any  way  indicate  that  they  are  more  nearly  related  to  ourselves  than  their 
larger  kindred  ;  while  the  callosities  on  their  buttocks,  and  several  features  in 
their  anatomical  structure,  show  that  they  are  decidedly  less  so. 

Although  in  the  confined  space  of  a  cage  in  the  "Zoo"  the  gibbons  have 
but  little  opportunity  of  displaying  the  marvellous  activity  by  which  they 

are  characterised  in  their  native  woods, 
yet  even  there  their  engaging  manners 
cannot  fail  to  attract  attention  ;  and 
many  show  the  gentleness  and  docility 
so  distinctive  of  these  apes  in  a  most 
marked  manner.  In  the  more  congenial 
climate  of  Calcutta,  which  admits  of 
gibbons  being  placed  in  the  open  air, 
their  movements  are,  however,  far 
more  like  those  of  the  wild  state  ;  and 
one  of  these  creatures  in  the  local 
"Zoo"showedits  lightning-like  activity 
by  actually  catching  birds  while  on  the 
wing.  Not  only  is  this  bold  activity 
Fig  9,— A  GIBBOK  (Hylobates),  characteristic  of  the  gibbons,  but  they 

likewise  exhibit  a  wonderful  delicacy 

of  touch.  For  instance,  many  gibbons  display  a  marked  penchant  for  spiders, 
which  are  captured  with  the  long  slender  fingers  ;  but  before  devouring  their 
prizes  these  animals  will  not  unf requently  play  with  them  for  hours,  allowing 
them  to  descend  by  spinning  a  thread  from  one  of  their  captor;s  fingers,  and 
then  suddenly  jerking  them  upwards  into  their  hands.  Not  less  noteworthy 
than  their  active  movements  are  the  loud,  unearthly  cries  of  the  gibbons,  in 
imitation  of  which  the  hulock  (H.  hulock)  of  Assam,  Burma,  etc.,  derives 


APES,  MONKEYS,  AND  LEMURS. 


its  name.  These  wailing  cries,  which  are  uttered  hour  after  hour  in  the 
morning,  and  again,  although  less  continuously,  in  the  evening,  may  be  heard 
for  miles  when  a  whole  drove  are  shouting  in  concert  ;  and  even  those  of  a 
solitary  individual  in  the  Calcutta  Gardens  made  themselves  audible  at  least 
a  mile  off. 

Out  of  a  total  of  eight  species  of  the  genus,  the  siamang  (H.  syndactylus) 
of  Sumatra  is  the  largest,  measuring  more  than  a  yard  in  length  ;  and  it 
differs  from  all  the  rest  by  having  the  second  and  third  toes  of  the  hind  foot 
united  by  a  web  as  far  as  their  terminal  joints.  In  colour,  the  siamang  is 
uniformly  black  throughout,  and  in  this  respect  it  agrees  with  the  Hainan 
gibbon  (H.  hainanus)  \  whereas,  in  all  the  other  species  there  is  a  white  band 
across  the  forehead.  Among  these  latter,  one  of  the  best  known  is  the 
hulock  (H.  hulock)  from  Assam  and  the  countries  immediately  to  the  east. 
Writing  of  the  cries  of  another  species  (H.  leuciscus),  Mr.  H.  O.  Forbes 
observes  that  it  "  makes  its  presence  known  to  the  traveller  in  Java,  when 
he  reaches  its  upland  forest-districts.  In  the  evening  just  about  sundown, 
and  more  especially  in  the  early  morning,  commencing  before  sunrise  and 
finally  ceasing  when  the  sun  is  above  the  tops  of  the  trees,  he  will  be  surprised 
by  a  sudden  outbreak  of  what  appears  to  be  now  the  plaintive  wailings  of  a 
crowd  of  women,  now  the  united  howling  of  a  band  of  castigated  children." 

The  whole  of  the  remaining  monkeys  and  baboons  of  the  Old  World  form  a 
second  family,  which,  while  agreeing  with  the  man-like  apes  in  the  number 

of  their  teeth,  differ  by  the  crowns  of  the  molars 
being  surmounted  by  a  pair  of  transverse 
ridges,  each  formed  by  the 
coalescence  of  two  sub-conical 
tubercles.  All  the  members 
of  the  family  have  naked  cal- 
losities on  the  buttocks,  and 
cheek-pouches  are  very  gener- 
ally present.  The  breast-bone  differs  from 
that  of  the  man-like  apes  in  being  laterally 
compressed  and  narrow,  instead  of  broad  and 
flattened  from  back  to  front.  The  tail,  which 
may  be  either-  wanting,  short,  or  very  long,  is 
never  endowed  with  the  power  of  prehension  ; 
and  the  partition  between  the  two  nostrils  is 
narrow.  Eight  existing  genera  are  included 
in  the  family,  some  of  which  are  Oriental, 
while  others  are  confined  to  Africa  south  of 
the  Sahara.  None  are  known  from  Mada- 
gascar, New  Guinea,  or  Australia,  the  eastern 
limits  of  the  group  being  formed  by  Celebes 
and  the  Philippine  Islands, 

The  most  ludicrous   in   appearance  of   all  the   tribe  is   the   well-known 
proboscis-monkey  (Nasalis  larvatus)  of  Borneo,  easily  distin- 
guished from  all  its  kin  by  the  extraordinary  length  of  its  nose. 
This  monkey,  together  with  the  two  following  genera,  con- 
stitutes a  sub-family  characterised  by  the  absence  of  cheek- 
pouches    for    storing    food,   the    complex    and    sacculated 
structure  of  the  stomach,  the  great  length  of  the  tail,  and  also  by  the  front 
limbs  bein<*  shorter  than  the  hinder  pair.  _  All  these  monkeys  feed  largely  or 


Old  World 

Monkeys. — 

Family 

Cercopithecidce. 


Fig,  10.— PROBOSCIS-MONKEY 
(Nasalis  larvatus). 


Proboscis- 
Monkey 
(Nasalis). 


20  MAMMALIA— ORDER  I.— PRIMATES. 


chiefly  on  young  shoots  or  leaves  ;  and  it  is  in  adaptation  to  this  diet  that 
their  stomach  is  specially  modified  and  cheek-pouches  are  wanting.  The 
constitution  of  all  the  tribe  is  very  delicate,  so  that  these  monkeys  are  ill- 
adapted  to  stand  captivity. 

The  peculiar  structure  of  the  nose  is  sufficient  to  differentiate  the  proboscis- 
monkey  from  all  its  allies  ;  but  to  this  may  be  added  the  circumstance  that 
the  tail  is  shorter  than  the  head  and  body. 

The  numerous  species  of  langurs,  which  are  nearly  thirty  in  number,  are 
confined  to  the  Oriental  countries,  where  one  species  ranges  as  far  north  as 
Kashmir,  while  a  second  is  peculiar  to  the  highlands  of 
Langnrs  Eastern  Tibet.  All  these  monkeys  have  thin  and  slender 
(Semnopithecus).  bodies,  elongated  limbs,  and  a  very  long  and  whip-like  tail ; 
the  head  being  rounded,  and  the  muzzle  short  and  thick. 
The  thumb  is  rather  short,  but  the  great-toe  well  developed;  and  the  cal- 
losities on  the  buttocks  are  relatively  small.  The  hair  is  abundant,  and 
generally  long,  soft,  and  frequently  glossy  ;  while  there  is  usually  a  fringe  of 
long,  stiff  hairs  projecting  over  the  eyes.  Grey  is  the  predominant  hue  in 
the  pellage  ;  but  the  face,  hands,  and  feet  are  perfectly  black. 

The  best  known  of  all  the  group  is  the  Hanuman,  or  sacred  langur 
(Ssmnopitheciis  entellus)  of  India,  which  ranges  from  the  Deccan  northwards 
to  the  south  bank  of  the  Ganges,  and  is  held  sacred  by  the  Hindus.  Of  this 
monkey  a  writer  in  the  Graphic  gives  the  following  interesting  account  : 

•'Among  the  thousand  or  more  temples  and  shrines  with  which  the  holy 
Hindu  city  of  Benares  is  endowed,  visitors  generally  find  the  great  temple 
dedicated  to  the  worship  of  the  goddess  Durga  one  of  the  most  interesting. 
It  is  known  to  Europeans  as  the  monkey-temple,  because  in  and  around  its 
precincts  many  hundreds  of  sacred  monkeys  roam  about  without  interference. 
The  temple  was  erected  during  the  last  century  by  the  Rani  Bhawani  of 
Natre  in  honour  of  Shiva's  wife,  the  goddess  who  is  supposed  to  delight  hi 
death  and  slaughter,  and  of  whom  the  believers  in  the  various  attributes  of 
the  deities,  comprising  the  Hindu  Pantheon,  stand  in  the  greatest  dread. 
The  Durga  Kund  is  conspicuous  in  this  city  of  temples  for  the  grace  and 
simplicity  of  its  architecture.  It  adjoins  a  tank  which  is  the  finest  in  Benares, 
and  occupies  the  central  portion  of  a  quadrangle,  the  walls  being  stained  red 
with  ochre.  The  sacred  portion  of  the  temple  consists  of  twelve  finely-carved 
pillars  standing  on  a  marble  platform,  and  supporting  a  heavy  roof.  This 
platform  is  about  4  ft.  from  the  ground,  and  is  ascended  by  a  flight  of  low 
steps  "*on  each  side  of  the  square.  The  temple  is  well  provided  with  the 
necessary  instruments  for  creating  the  frightful  noises  which  emanate  from 
these  abodes  of  idolatry  all  over  India.  Drums  of  huge  dimensions,  gongs, 
bells,  and  tom-toms  are  all  at  the  service  of  the  priests  in  performing  the 
rites  required  of  them.  But  the  antics  of  the  monkeys  which  make  this 
temple  their  home  are,  next  to  its  architecture,  the  most  attractive  feature 
of  the  place.  The  goat's  blood  with  which  the  walls  are  sprinkled,  and  the 
sacrifices  that  are  known  to  take  place  here  to  appease  the  wrath  of  Shiva 
and  his  terrifying  spouse,  are  rather  revolting  to  a  Christian  ;  but  the  grotesque 
play  of  the  monkeys,  their  importunate  begging,  the  pranks  they  enact 
on  one  another,  and  the  graceful  agility  they  are  constantly  displaying,  supply 
a  perpetual  source  of  amusement  which  one  is  apt  to  think  must  prove  rather 
distracting  to  the  devout  Hindus  who  come  here  to  worship.  A  few  years 
ago,  as  no  one  dared  molest  these  animals,  they  not  only  increased  rapidly  in 
numbers,  but,  growing  to  be  extraordinarily  bold,  developed  alarming  thiev 


APES,  MONKEYS,  AND  LEMURS.  zi 


ing  propensities.  The  annoyance  they  caused  amounted  to  a  public  nuisance, 
for  no  house  in  the  place  was  safe  from  their  depredations.  At  last  the 
trouble  grew  so  serious  that  some  reduction  in  the  number  of  these  adept 
thieves  became  a  necessity,  although  the  prejudices  of  the  people  were  against 
any  such  steps  being  taken.  In  the  end  the  Government  was  requested  to 
interfere,  and,  waving  aside  all  other  considerations  but  that  of  public  polity, 
the  authorities  had  many  hundreds — report  says  thousands — captured  and 
sent  away.  Nevertheless  there  are  plenty  of  them  left,  and  they  certainly 
constitute  one  of  the  sights  of  a  city  that  is  probably  in  many  respects  the 
most  interesting  in  the  world." 

In  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara   the  place  of  the  langurs  is  taken  by  the 
guerezas,  of  which  there  are  nine  species,  easily  distinguished  by  the  total 
absence  of  the  thumb.      In  the  true  guereza  (Colobus  guereza), 
ranging  from  Somaliland    to    the    Niam-Niam   country  and       Guerezas 
Mount  Kilima-Njaro,  the  hair  of  the  back  is  developed  into  a      (Colobus}. 
beautiful,  long  silky  mantle  hanging  down  on  the  sides  of  the 
body,  and  likewise  by  the  extremely  bushy  tail ;  the  mantle  and  tail,  as  well 
as  a  ring  round  the  face,  being  pure  white,  while  the  rest  of  the  fur  is  jetty 
black.     The  pellage  of  this  species   is  extensively  used  by  the  natives  of 
Africa  ;  while  that  of  all  the  long-haired    kinds    is    largely  imported  into 
Europe  for  manufacture  into  muffs  and  other  articles  of  dress. 

The  guenons,  or  typical  representatives  of  the  family,  which  include  con- 
siderably over  thirty  species,  are  likewise  exclusively  confined  to  Africa 
south  of  the  Sahara  desert.  In  common  with  the  remaining 
members  of  the  family,  they  constitute  a  sub-family  dis-  Guenons 
tinguished  from  the  last  by  the  presence  of  cheek -pouches  (Cercopithecus). 
and  the  simple  structure  of  the  stomach.  Their  food  is 
more  varied  than  that  of  the  langurs  and  their  allies,  and  consequently  these 
monkeys  are  much  better  adapted  for  captivity  than  are  the  latter.  The 
guenons  are  specially  characterised  by.  the  relative  slenderness  of  their  build, 
the  more  or  less  shortened  muzzle,  the  moderate  size  of  the  callosities  on  the 
buttocks,  and  the  long  tail,  From  the  two  following  genera  they  may  be 
readily  distinguished  by  the  circumstance  that  the  last  molar  tooth  in  the 
lower  jaw  has  no  projecting  heel  at  its  hinder  end,  but  consists  simply  of  two 
transverse  ridges,  like  the  teeth  immediately  in  advance  of  it.  Among  the 
better  known  species  may  be  mentioned  the  green  monkey  ( Cercopithecus 
callitrichus),  the  Diana  monkey  (C.  diana),  so  named  from  the  white  fillet 
above  the  eyes,  and  the  mona  monkey  (C.  mona)  ;  all  these  being  from 
West  Africa. 

Differing  from  the  guenons  solely  in  the  presence  of  the  aforesaid  heel  to 
the  last  lower  molar,  the  mangabeys,  or  white-eyelid  monkeys,      ]y[angafceys 
likewise   form  a  genus  confined   to  Africa,  where  they  are    /^ercoceijus\ 
represented  by  only  half-a-dozen  species.     They  form  a  group 
intermediate  between  the  preceding  and  the  following  one. 

In  the  Oriental  countries  this  group  of  monkeys  is  represented  by  the 
macaques,  of  which   there  are  rather  less  than  a  score  of 
species.     The  macaques  resemble  the  mangabeys  in  the  struc-         Macaques 
ture  of  the  last  molar  tooth,  but  are  readily  distinguished        (Macacus). 
by  the  considerable  production  of  the  muzzle,  in  which  the 
nostrils   are   not   terminal.     While   the   cheek-pouches  and    the   callosities 
on  the  buttocks  are  always  well  developed,  the  tail  may  be  either  long,  short, 
or  absent.     Although  these  monkeys  are  mainly  Oriental,  one  species,  the 


22  MAMMALIA— ORDER  I.— PRIMATES. 


Barbary  ape  ( Macacus  inuus),  is  found  in  North  Africa  and  on  the  rock  of 
Gibraltar  ;  and  one  of  the  Asiatic  species  ranges  as  far  north  as  Eastern 
Tibet,  while  a  third  is  found  in  Japan.  In  the  Barbary  ape  the  tail  is  want- 
ing, in  the  common  Bengal  monkey  (M.  rhesus)  it  is  about  half  the  length  of 
the  head  and  body,  and  in  the  crab-eating  macaque  (M.-cynomolgus)  it  is  con- 
siderably longer.  The  well-known  Indian  lion-tailed  monkey  (M.  silenus) 
takes  its  name  from  the  presence  of  a  large  terminal  tuft  to  the  tail ;  the 
head  and  neck  being  also  furnished  with  a  mane.  Many  of  these  monkeys 
are  of  comparatively  large  size,  and  are  very  savage  in  disposition,  biting 
fiercely  when  annoyed. 

The  black  ape  (Cynopithecus  niger)  of  the  island  of  Celebes  is  the  sole  re- 
presentative of  a  genus  forming  a  connecting  link  between 
Black  Ape         the  preceding  and  the  following,  the  muzzle  being  more  pro- 
(Cynopithecus).     duced  than  in  the  macaques,  and  the  fore  part  of  the  skull 
bearing  longitudinal  ridges,  as  in   some  of  the   dog-faced 
baboons.     This  monkey,  which  takes  its  name  from  the  dark  colour  of  the  hair, 
has  the  tail  reduced  to  a  mere  fleshy  tubercle  concealed  among  the  fur.     It  is 
also  found  in  the  island  of  Batchian,  in  the  Molucca  group,  where  it  has 
probably  been  introduced  by  the  Malays. 

Two  species  of  baboons,  the  one  (Theropithecus  gelada)  from  Southern 
Abyssinia,  and  the  other  (T.  okscunus)  from  North-Eastern 
Gelada  Baboons  Africa — constitute  a  genus  differing  from  the  next  by  having 
(Theropithecus).  the  nostrils  placed  on  the  sides  of  the  long  muzzle,  as  in  the 
macaques,  instead  of  being  terminal  and  opening  on  its  trun- 
cated extremity.  The  true  gelada  is  a  most  extraordinary-looking  creature, 
having  a  long  crest  of  dark  brown  hair  above  the  eyes,  and  a  mantle-like 
mane  of  the  same  descending  from  the  neck  and  shoulders  to  the  loins,  and 
also  reaching  on  the  arms  as  far  as  the  elbows  ;  the  chin,  and  a  patch  on  the 
throat,  as  well  as  another  on  the 
chest,  being  bare,  and,  as  are  all 
the  other  naked  parts,  black  in 
colour.  In  size  this  baboon  mea- 
sures 29  inches  to  the  root  of  the 
tail ;  the  latter  appendage,  inclu- 
sive of  the  tuft  at  the  tip,  being 
upwards  of  32  inches. 

The  remaining  members   of  the 
family    Cercopithecidfe    are    all    in- 
cluded in  the  genus 
Dog-faced         Papio,  and  are  corn- 
Baboons  (Papio).  monly    known     as 

dog-faced  baboons  ^  „  _A  DOG.FACED  BABOON 

on  account  of  the  great  elongation  (Papio). 

of  the  muzzle,  in  the  truncated  ter- 
mination of  which  are  pierced  the  nostrils  in  the  same  manner  as  in  a  dog. 
The  callosities  on  the  buttocks  are  very  large  and  frequently  brilliantly 
coloured;  the  muzzle  is  greatly  swollen  and  often  marked  by  longitudinal 
flutings  ;  and  the  tail  is  more  or  less  shortened.  The  dog-faced  baboons, 
of  which  there  are  eleven  different  species,  include  the  largest  and  most 
repulsive-looking  members  of  the  entire  family  ;  and  are  now  confined  to 
Africa  south  of  the  Sahara  and  Southern  Arabia,  although  during  the  later 
geological  periods  they  were  represented  in  India. 


APES,  MONKEYS,  AND  LEMURS.  23 

The  largest  and  most  hideous  of  the  tribe  is  the  mandril  (Papio  maimon) 
of  the  forests  of  Western  Equatorial  Africa,  remarkable  for  its  robust  build, 
stump-like  tail,  highly  swollen  and  fluted  muzzle,  and  the  brilliant  tints  of 
blue  and  scarlet  with  which  the  naked  portions  of  the  face  and  buttocks  of 
the  adult  males  are  decorated.  In  South  Africa  the  genus  is  represented  by 
the  chacma  (P.  porcarius),  which  is  a  more  soberly-coloured  species,  with  a 
tail  equal  in  length  to  half  the  body  ;  while  the  yellow  baboon  (P.  babuin) 
of  West  Africa  may  be  taken  as  an  example  of  species  in  which  the  tail  is 
still  longer.  Although  found  in  the  upland  forests  of  Mount  Kilima-Njaro, 
the  dog-faced  baboons  are  more  generally  inhabitants  of  open,  rocky  districts, 
where  they  go  about  in  large  parties,  inflicting  severe  damage  on  the  products 
of  the  cultivated  lands,  and  fiercely  attacking  all  intruders  on  their  domains. 
In  their  diet  they  are  well-nigh  omnivorous,  feeding  not  only  upon  fruits  and 
cereals,  but  likewise  devouring  large  numbers  of  lizards  and  insects,  in 
search  of  which  they  turn  over  stones  with  their  fingers.  The  late  Sir  R. 
Burton  wrote  that  in  the  jungles  of  Usukuma  these  baboons  "are  the  terror 
of  the  neighbouring  districts  ;  women  never  dare  to  approach  their  haunts  ; 
they  set  the  leopard  at  defiance,  arid,  when  in  a  large  body,  they  do  not,  it  is 
said,  fear  the  lion." 

As  already  stated  on  page  12,  the  monkeys  of  the  New  World  differ  from 
their  Old  World  cousins  in  having  three  in  place  of  two 
pairs  of  premolar  teeth  in  each  jaw  ;    the  number  of  molars  New  World  Mon- 
being  the  same  in  both.     In  consequence  of  these  and  other    keys.— Family 
differences,  the  New  World  monkeys,  which  do  not  range  to          Cebida. 
the  north  of  tropical  America,  are  referred  to  a  separate 
family  group,  under  the  name  of  Cebidce.     These  monkeys  are  further  charac- 
terised by  the  absence  both  of  cheek-pouches  and  of  naked  callosities  on  the 
buttocks,  while  the  tail,  when  long,  is  frequently,  although  by  no  means  in- 
variably, prehensile.     The  thumb  is  quite  incapable  of  being  opposed  to  the 
other  digits,  but  all  the  fingers  and  toes  have  flattened  nails.     In  the  nose 
the  partition  between  the  two  nostrils  is  very  broad,  so  that  the  nostrils 
themselves  are  widely  separated,  and  frequently  diverge  to  a  great  extent 
from  each  other.     The  upper  molar  teeth  have  very  short  crowns,  with  the 
four  tubercles  arranged  obliquely,  and  the  external  surfaces  of  the  outer  pair 
flattened  and  fluted,  while  the  inner  ones  are  distinctly  crescent-shaped. 

So  different,  indeed,  are  the  American  monkeys — which  attain  their  maxi- 
mum development  in  the  tropical  forests  of  Brazil — from  the  Old  World  forms, 
that  it  is  quite  possible  they  may  trace  their  origin  to  a  totally  independent 
source.  They  may  be  divided  into  ten  genera,  some  of  which  comprise  a 
very  large  number  of  specific  representatives. 

The  half-dozen  species  commonly  called,  from  their  loud  nocturnal  cries, 
howlers  constitute  a  genus  characterised  by  the  massive,  un- 
wieldy body,  the  pyramidal  head,  long  and  somewhat  dog-like    The  Howlers 
muzzle,  the  massiveness  of  the  angle,  or  hinder  part  of  the      (Alouatta). 
lower  jaw,  and  a  remarkable  thickening  of  the  throat  due  to 
the  enlargement  of  the  so-called  hyoid  bones  into  a  thin  bony  capsule  of 
large  size.     It  is  owing  to  the  development  of  this  capsule  that  the  howlers 
are  enabled  to  utter  the  discordant  yells  with  which  they  make  night  hideous 
to  all  travellers  in  the  forests  of  Tropical  America.    All  the  species  have  a  large 
beard  and  whiskers,  but  the  colour  of  the  hair  is  subject  to  great  specific 
variation.     In  the  red  howler  (A.  seniculus),  for  instance,   the  head,  neck, 
limbs,   and  tail  are   dark   chestnut-brown,  and  the  back  and_  sides  of  the 


24 


MAMMALIA— ORDER  L— PR  I  MA  TES. 


body  golden  yellow  ;  whereas  in  the  black  howler  (A.  nigra)  the  whole  of 
the  long  hair  is  deep  black. 

All  the  howlers  are  surly  in  disposition,  and  feed  chiefly  on  fruits  and 
leaves.  When  howling,  two  or  three  take  up  their  position  on  the  topmost 
branches  of  the  forest  trees,  and  commence  their  chorus.  Mr.  O.  iSalvin 
writes  that  their  wonderful  cry  is  certainly  most  striking,  "and  I  have  some- 
times endeavoured  to  ascertain  how  far  this  cry  may  be  heard.  It  has  taken 
me  an  hour  or  more  to  thread  the  forest  undergrowth  from  the  time  the 
cry  first  struck  my  ear  to  when,  guided  by  the  cry  alone,  I  stood  under  the 
tree  where  the  animals  were.  It  would  certainly  not  be  over-estimating  the 
distance  to  say  two  miles.  When  the  sound  came  over  the  Lake  of  Yzabal 
unhindered  by  the  trees,  a  league  would  be  more  like  the  distance  at  which 
the  cry  may  be  heard." 

Agreeing  with  the  howlers  (which  form  a  sub-family  by  themselves)  in  hav- 
ing the  lower  incisor  teeth  placed  vertically,  the  capuchins, 

Capuchins      together  with  several  allied  genera,  differ  by  the  absence  of 

(Cebus).        any  inflation  of  the  hyoid  bone.     In  all  the  group  the  tail  is 

long  and  prehensile  ;  although  in  some  species,  when  its  tip 

is  haired,  instead  of  bare  and  sensitive,  the  grasping  power  of  this  organ  is 

much  less  well  marked  than  in  the  rest.     The  thumb  may  be  either  present 

or  wanting. 

The  capuchins,  or  typical  representatives  of  the  entire  family,  are  some- 
what stoutly-built  monkeys,  with  the  limbs  of  moderate  length,  the  fur  not 
woolly,  the  thumb  fully  developed,  and  the  lower  surface  of  the  extremity  of 
the  tail  covered  with  hair.  Although  the  various  species  of  capuchins  are 
extremely  difficult  to  distinguish,  about  eighteen  different  kinds  are  now  re- 
cognised by  naturalists  ;  their  range  extend- 
ing from  Mexico  to  Paraguay.  In  constitu- 
tion these  monkeys  are  exceedingly  hardy, 
and  as  they  are  easy  to  train,  and  gentle  in 
disposition,  they  are  more  commonly  carried 
about  in  England  and  other  European  coun- 
tries by  peripatetic  organ-grinders  than  any 
other  of  their  kindred.  From  its  completely 
haired  tip,  the  tail  of  the  capuchins  does  not 
act  so  thoroughly  as  a  fifth  hand  as  it  does 
in  the  spider-monkeys.  The  white-throated 
capuchin  (Cebus  hypoleucus)  is  a  well-known 
representative  of  the  genus. 

Nearly  allied    to   the   capuchins,  the   two 

species  of  woolly  monkeys  take  their  name 

from  the  peculiar  texture  of 

W°ouy  their  fur,    which  forms   the 

,  Donkeys         mogt  ciiaracteristic  feature  of 

(Lagothnx}.         ^  genug  to  which  they  fee_ 

long.  In  addition  to  this  character,  these 
monkeys  are  distinguished  by  the  clumsy  build  of  the  body,  the  rounded 
head,  the  much  flattened  muzzle — in  which  the  nostrils  are  circular,  but  not 
approximated — and  by  the  naked  lower  surface  of  the  tip  of  the  tail.  The 
two  species  are  both  inhabitants  of  the  forests  of  Amazonia,  the  best  known 
being  Humboldt's  woolly  monkey  (Lagothrix  humboldti).  The  barrigudos,  as 
these  monkeys  are  called  by  the  Brazilians,  live  exclusively  on  fruits,  and  are 


Fig.  12.— A  WOOLLY  MONKEY 
(Lagothrix). 


APES,  MONKEYS,  AND  LEMURS. 


of  larger  size  and  less  active  habits  than  the  capuchins.  They  suffer  con- 
siderably from  the  cold,  and  even  at  Bahia  I  have  seen  them  on  a  wet  day 
fall  into  a  torpid  condition,  when  they  were  relentlessly  thrown  into  the  sea 
by  their  captors.  Mr.  Wallace  remarked  that  from  their  gentle  disposition 
they  are  "  most  frequently  seen  in  confinement,  and  are  great  favourites  from 
their  grave  countenances,  which  resemble  the  human  face  more  than  those  of 
any  other  monkeys,  their  quiet  manners,  and  the  great  affection  and  docility 
they  exhibit. » 

The  woolly  spider-monkey  (Brachyteles  arachnoides),  which  is  now  con- 
sidered to  be  the  sole  representative  of  its  genus,  is  in  many  respects  inter- 
mediate between  the  woolly  monkeys  and  the  true  spider- 
monkeys,  having  the  dense  woolly  pellage  of  the  former,     Woolly  Spider- 
coupled  with  the  long  and  slender  limbs  of  the  latter.     The          Monkey 
thumb  is  rudimental,  and  the  nails  of  the  other  digits  are      (Brachyteles). 
compressed  and  pointed.     These  monkeys,  which  are  con- 
fined to  the  dense  forests  of  South-Eastern  Brazil,  from  Cape  San  Roque  to 
Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  appear  to  be  very  rare,  and  little  is  consequently  known 
of  their  habits. ' 

The  last  genus  of  this  sub-family  includes  the  half-score  species  of  true 
spider-monkeys,    constituting   a   genus    distinguished   from 
the   preceding   by   the  fur  not  being   of  a  woolly  nature,    Spider-Monkeys 
the  complete  absence   of  the  thumb,  and  the  slight  com-          (Ateles). 
pression  of  the  nails.     Both  the  tail  and  limbs  are  greatly 
elongated.     These  monkeys  have  a  wide  range,  extending  from  Mexico  to 
Paraguay  ;    the  variegated  spider-monkey  (Ateles   variegcitus)  being  one   of 
the  most  familiar.     In  it  the  prehensile  tail  reaches  its  perfection.     It  is  a 
remarkably  sensitive    organ,    answering   the 
purpose  of  a  "fifth  hand,"  being  capable  of 
use  "  for  any  purpose  to  which  the  hand  could 
be  applied,"  and  for  hooking  out  objects  from 
pi  ices  "  where  a  hand  could  not  be  inserted." 
They  wrap  their  tails  about  them  to  protect 
themselves  from  cold,  to  which  they  are  very 
sensitive,  and  hold  on  by  them  to  the  branches 
of  trees  with  such  tenacity  that  they  remain 
suspended  after  death.     The  prehensile  part 
of  the   tail   is   naked   and  of   extreme  sensi- 
bility.     The   tail    is    also   used   to   preserve 
balance  when  walking  erect,  for  which  pur- 
pose it  is  thrown  up  and  curled  over.     The 
appearance    of    these  monkeys,  as  they  leap 
from  branch  to  branch  in  their  native  woods, 
swinging   by   their  tails,   and   often  hanging 
on    to   those   of    each    other,    until   a  living 
bridge   is  formed  from  tree   to   tree,   is   ex- 
ceedingly picturesque.      Although  they  lack 
the  extreme  agility  of  the  Oriental  gibbons, 
the   spider-monkeys  are   by   far   the   most  active   members  of    the  family 
to  which  they  belong.     Mr.  Belt  writes  that  he  has  often  seen  two  or  three 
together  on  the  lower  branches  of  the  forest  trees,  "holding  on  to  each 
other,  and  to  the  branch  with  their  fore-feet  and  long  tail,  whilst  their  hind- 
feet  hang  down,  all  the  time  making  threatening  gestures  and  cries.     Some- 


Fiq.  13.— A  SPIDER-MONKEY 
(Ateles). 


26  MAMMALIA— ORDER  L— PRIMATES. 


times  a  female  would  be  seen  carrying  a  young  one  on  its  back,  to  which  it 
clung  with  legs  and  tail,  the  mother  making  its  way  among  the  branches, 
and  leaping  from  tree  to  tree,  apparently  but  little  encumbered  by  its 
baby." 

The  beautiful  little  squirrel-monkeys  are  the  first  representatives  of  a  third 
sub-family  of  the  Cebidce,  which,  while  agreeing  with  the  last  in  the  vertical 
position  of  the    incisor  teeth,   and    the  normal  conforma- 
Squirrel-         tion  of  the  hyoid  bone,  are  distinguished  by  the  tail,  which 
Monkeys         is  long,  having  no  power  of  prehension.     In  all  the  thumb 
(Chrysothrix).     is   well  developed.      From  the  allied  forms   the  squirrel- 
monkeys,   or  sairniris,    are  specially  distinguished   by  the 
soft,  close,  and  erect  fur,  and  the  backward  production  of  the  head  ;  the 
face  beingf  relatively  small,  the  eyes  very  large  and  set  close  together,  the 
partition  between  the  nostrils  very  wide,  and  the  rather  long  tail  covered 
with   comparatively  short  hair.     There  are   four  species   of  the  genus,  of 
which   the   common    squirrel-monkey  (Chrysothrix    sciureus)   is    the    type. 
These  monkeys  are  some  of  the  commonest  of  their  tribe  in  America,  where 
they  range  from   Costa   Rica   to   Brazil  and   Bolivia.     In   habits   they  are 
diurnal,  feeding  chiefly  upon  insects,  although  they  will  also  kill  and  eat 
the  smaller  birds. 

The  eleven  representatives  of  this  genus  form  a  group  which  is  to  a 
considerable   extent    intermediate  between  the  squirrel-monkeys  and  the 
under-mentioned  douroucoulis.     From  the  former  the  small 
Titis  head  is  distinguished  by  not  being  produced  backwards,  and 

(Catttthrix).  the  small  size  of  the  eyes  ;  but  the  nostrils  are  similar  in  the 
width  of  the  partition  by  which  they  are  separated,  and  the 
fur  has  the  same  close  and  soft  texture.  The  tail  is,  however,  bushy,  and 
the  canine  teeth  are  relatively  small,  while  the  angle,  or  hinder  extremity, 
of  the  lower  jaw  is  expanded  somewhat  after  the  same  fashion  as  in  the 
howlers,  although  to  a  smaller  degree.  The  titis  range  from  Panama  to  the 
southern  limits  of  the  great  forests  ;  a  well-known  species  being  the  white- 
collared  titi  (Callithrix  torquatci).  In  habits,  they  are  very  similar  to  the 
squirrel-monkeys ;  insects,  eggs,  and  small  birds  constituting  their  chief 
nutriment. 

From  both  the  preceding  genera  the  small  monkeys  commonly  known  as 
douroucoulis  are  distinguished  by  their  nocturnal  habits  and  the  great  size  of 
the  eyes,  which  are  only  separated  from  each  other  by  a  very 
Douroucoulis  narrow  partition.  The  head  is  rounded,  and  the  nostrils 
(Nyctipithecus).  are  placed  closer  together  than  in  either  of  the  allied  genera; 
the  moderately  long  tail  being  bushy,  and  the  fur  soft  and 
close.  In  colour  the  eyes  are  yellowish,  and  they  have  a  peculiar  stare,  com- 
municating, in  conjunction  with  their  large  size,  a  somewhat  owl-like  expres- 
sion to  the  whole  face.  There  are  five  species  of  the  genus,  several  of  which, 
like  the  three-striped  douroucouli  (Nyctipithecus  trivirgatns\  have  three  more 
or  less  distinctly  defined  longitudinal  dark  stripes  running  down  the  forehead. 
The  range  of  the  douroucoulis  extends  from  Nicaragua  to  the  Amazoa  and 
Eastern  Peru.  During  the  daytime,  these  somewhat  lemur-like  monkeys 
remain  snugly  coiled  away  in  the  holes  or  among  the  branches  of  trees,  and 
only  issue  forth  at  night  in  search  of  prey.  When  on  the  prowl,  they  give 
vent  to  loud  howls  or  cat-like  cries  ;  and  their  food  includes  insects,  birds,  and 
fruits.  In  constitution  they  are  extremely  delicate,  only  surviving  capture 
for  a  brief  period. 


APES,  MONKEYS,  AND  LEMURS.  27 


The  last  group  of  the  family  is  formed  by  the  uakari  and  saki  monkeys, 
which  constitute  a  sub-family  distinguished  from  all  the  foregoing  by  the 
lower  incisor  teeth  being  inclined  obliquely  forward,  some- 
what after  the  manner  of  those  of  the  lemurs,  and  separated          Uakaris 
by  an  interval  from  the  canines.     The  tail,  which  may  be       (Uacaria). 
either  long  or  short,  is  never  prehensile,  and  the  thumb  is  well 
developed.     Usually  the  nostrils  are  widely  separated,  and  the  ears  are  large. 

The  uakaris,  of  which  there  are  three  species,  each  with  a  very  small  dis- 
tributional area,  are  readily  distinguished  from  all  other  American  monkeys 
by  the  extreme  shortness  of  the  tail.  The  bald  uakari  (Uacaria  calva)  from 
the  Rio  Negro,  and  the  red  uakari  (U.  rubicunda]  from  the  Upper  Amazon, 
have  a  brilliant  scarlet  face,  contrasting  strongly  with  the  long  silky  white 
hair  of  the  body,  whereas  the  black-faced  species  ( U.  melanocephala)  has  a 
dark  countenance.  All  are  timid,  gentle  creatures,  of  so  delicate  a  constitu- 
tion that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  keep  them  in  confinement. 

The  sakis,  of  which  there  are  five  species,  are  readily  distinguished  from 
the  last  by  the  long  bushy  tail  and  the  thick  beard  adorn- 
ing the  chin.     In  the  lower  jaw  the  angle  is  expanded  in  a  Sakis 
manner  approaching  that  of  the  howlers.     A  familiar  type        (Pithecia). 
is  the  black  saki  (Pithecia  satanus)  of  the  Lower  Amazon  ; 
and  while  in  some  species,  like  the  hairy  saki  (P.  monacJtus),  long  hair  clothes 
the  he;id,  body,  and  tail,  in  others  this  is  confined  to  the  region  of  the  head. 
In  habits  these  monkeys  appear  to  be  very  similar  to  the  vakaris. 

The  beautiful  and  delicate  little  creatures  from  Tropical  America,  commonly 
known  as  marmosets,  form  a  family  agreeing  in  many  respects  with  the  last, 
but  distinguished  by  having  only  two  pairs  of  molar  teeth  in 
each  jaw,  and  also  by  the  fingers  and  toes,  with  the  excep-   The  Marmosets, 
tion  of  the  shortened  great-toe,  terminating  in  carved  com-         — Family 
pressed  claws,  instead  of  flattened  nails.     The  long  thumb        Hapalidw. 
lies  parallel  to  the  other  digits,  to  which  it  is  incapable  of 
being  opposed,  so  that  the  fore-limb  terminates  in  a  paw  rather  than  a  hand. 
The  skin  of  the  face  is  naked,  the  ears  are  large 
and  frequently  surmounted  by  a  fringe  of  long 
hairs,  and  the  long  and  bushy  tail  has  no  prehen- 
sile power.     The  family,  which  is  represented  by 
a  large  number  of  species,  mostly  inhabitants  of 
the  forests  of  Equatorial  South  America,  has  been 
divided  into  two  genera  according  to  the  length 
of  the  lower  canine  teeth.     Those  forms  in  which 
these  teeth  are  not  longer  than  the  incisors  are 
known  as  true  marmosets  (Hapale\  whereas  those 
in   which   the   former    considerably   exceed   the 
latter  have  been  termed  tamarins  (Midas).     Mar- 
mosets vary  considerably  in  colour,  some  having 
"the   fur  mottled  with  grey,    brown,  and  black, 
whereas  in  others  it  has  a  more  or  less  uniformly 
golden  or  silvery  tint.     Marmosets  are  essentially  Fi3-  14;~A  MARMOSET 

forest  animals,    feeding    chiefly   on   insects   and 

fruit,  and  are  so  delicate  that  it  is  difficult  to  keep  them  alive  out  of  the 
tropics.  They  are  exceedingly  gentle  in  disposition,  and  soon  become 
tame  and  affectionate.  In.  their  organisation  they  are  the  lowest  of  the 
monkey  tribe. 


28  MA  MMA  LI  A— ORDER  I.  —PRIM A  TES. 


The  typical  lemurs,  which  attain  their  maximum  development  in  the  island 

of  Madagascar,  and  are  now  found  elsewhere  only  in  Africa  and  the  Oriental 

countries,  are  the  first  of  three  existing  Old  World  families, 

Tlie  Typical  collectively  forming  the  second  great  division  of  the  Prim- 
Lemurs.—  ates,  technically  known  as  the  Lemuroidea.  From  the  first 
Family  subordinal  division,  or  Anthropoidea,  the  Lemuroids  are  dis- 
Lemuridce.  tinguished  by  the  following  features.  In  the  first  place, 
their  faces,  instead  of  being  more  or  less  mobile  and  rounded, 
are  long,  fox-like,  and  quite  devoid  of  expression  ;  but  in  this  respect  they 
are  not  very  different  from  the  marmosets.  More  important  are  certain 
differences  in  the  structure  of  the  skull  and  the  soft  internal  organs,  but  as 
these  require  a  certain  amount  of  anatomical  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the 
reader  for  their  proper  comprehension,  they  may  be  passed  without  further 
notice.  A  distinctive  character  of  the  group  is  to  be  found  in  the  circum- 
stance that  the  second  toe  in  the  hind-foot  always  terminates  in  a  long 
curved  claw.  The  thumb  and  great-toe  are  invariably  present,  but  the 
second  or  index  finger  of  the  fore-paw  may  be  wanting.  With  the  exception 
of  the  aberrant  aye-aye  and  tarsiers,  which  respectively  form  a  family  by 
themselves,  the  middle  pair  of  upper  front  or  incisor  teeth  are  separated 
from  one  another  by  an  interval  or  gap,  whereas  in  all  the  monkeys  they  are 
in  contact. 

In  appearance  the  various  kinds  of  lemurs  differ  remarkably  from  one 
another,  some  looking  not  unlike  monkeys,  while  others  are  characterised  by 
their  very  long  and  slender  limbs,  enormous  eyes,  and  somewhat  ghostly  form. 
Whereas  some  are  furnished  with  long  tails,  others  are  devoid  of  these  append- 
ages ;  and  the  ring-tailed  lemur  of  Madagascar  differs  from  the  rest  in  its  tail 
being  ringed  with  black  and  white.  This  species  is,  moreover,  an  exception 
in  that  it  lives  among  rocks,  whereas  all  the  others  are  arboreal  in  their  habits. 
None  of  the  living  lemurs/ire  of  large  size,  the  length  of  the  head  and  body  in 
the  largest  being  only  about  two  feet,  and  many  are  not  larger  than  a  rat.  All 
are  excellent  climbers,  and  the  majority  spend  the  day  in  sleep,  either  in  the 
hole  of  a  tree,  in  a  nest,  or  rolled  up  in  a  ball  and  hanging  to  a  bough.  Their 
food  comprises  leaves,  fruits,  birds  and  their  eggs,  reptiles  and  insects,  and, 
in  one  case,  sugar-cane  ;  and  the  majority  rarely  descend  to  the  ground. 
Some  of  the  larger  Malagasy  kinds  are,  however,  an  exception  in  this  respect, 
as  well  as  in  their  diurnal  habits,  and  they  may  at  times  be  seen  jumping 
across  the  open  spaces  separating  one  wood  from  another  in  search  of  fresh 
feeding-places.  The  structure  of  their  brains  shews  that  lemurs  are  creatures 
of  low  organisation,  and  the  existing  forms  are  probably  not  very  remotely 
related  to  the  ancestral  stock  which  gave  rise  both  to  monkeys  and  lemurs. 
Geologically  the  group  is  an  ancient  one  ;  and  the  living  forms  attain  their 
maximum  development  where  they  have  been  free  from  the  competition  of  the 
larger  and  more  highly  organised  Mammals. 

In  the  typical  lemurs  constituting  the  family  under  consideration  there  are 
two  pairs  of  upper  incisor  teeth  separated  from  one  another  by  a  gap  in  the 
middle  line  ;  while  there  are  three  pairs  of  lower  incisors  inclined  almost 
horizontally  forwards.  There  are  three  pairs  of  molars  in  each  jaw,  but  the 
premolars  may  be  either  two  or  three  on  each  side,  and  in  the  lower  jaw  the 
first  of  these  teeth  assumes  a  tusk-like  form,  and  thus  plays  the  part  of  a 
canine.  The  family  may  be  sub-divided  into  four  sub-families,  most  of  which 
contain  a  considerable  number  of  genera. 

The  first  and  highest  sub-family,  which  is  restricted  to  Madagascar  and 


APES,  MONKEYS,  AND  LEMURS.  29 


contains  the  largest  existing  representatives  of  the  group,  is  characterised 
by  possessing  thirty  teeth  in  the  adull,  by  the  length  of  the 
hind-limbs,  the  normal  structure  of  the  ankle-joint,  the  large          Endrina 
size  of  the  opposable  great-toe,  and  the  union  of  the  other          (Indris). 
toes  by  a  web  which  extends  as  far  as  the  end  of  their  first 
joints.     In  the  female  two  teats  are  on  the  breast. 

The  endrina  (Indris  brevicaudata),  which  is  the  sole  representative  of  its 
genus,  is  the  largest  of  the  living  lemurs,  measuring  about  two  feet  in  length, 
It  may  be  easily  recognised  by  its  rudirnental  tail,  large  ears,  and  moderately 
elongated  muzzle  ;  its  coloration  being  usually  black  with  whitish  spots  and 
patches,  but  in  some  cases  almost  or  entirely  white.  Like  the  sifakas,  this 
lemur  is  diurnal  in  its  habits. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  last  are  the  three  species  of  sifakas,  easily  recognised 
by  the  long  tail,  the  rather  short  muzzle,  and  the  partial  con- 
cealment of  the  ears  by  the  fur.  The  species  are  extremely  Sifakas 
variable  in  coloration,  and  while  some  inhabit  the  dense  (Propithecus). 
forests  on  the  eastern  side  of  Madagascar,  others  frequent 
the  sparsely  wooded,  arid  tracks  on  the  west.  Writing  of  the  habits  of  the 
sifakas,  Mr.  Foster  observes  that  "  they  live  in  companies  of  six  or  eight, 
and  are  very  gentle  and  inoffensive  animals,  wearing  always  a  most  melan- 
choly expression,  and,  as  a  rule,  being  morose,  inactive,  and  more  silent  than 
other  lemurs.  They  rarely  live  long  in  captivity.  In  their  native  state  they 
are  most  alert  in  the  morning  and  evening,  as  during  the  heat  of  the  day 
they  conceal  themselves  amid  the  foliage  of  the  trees.  When  asleep  or  in 
repose,  the  head  is  dropped  on  the  chest  and  buried  beneath  the  arms,  the 
tail  rolled  up  on  itself  and  disposed  between  the  hind-legs.  The  sifakas  live 
exclusively  on  vegetable  substances — leaves,  fruits,  and  flowers — their  diet 
not  being  varied,  as  in  the  other  groups,  by  small  birds,  eggs,  or  insects. 
Their  life  is  almost  entirely  arboreal,  for  which  the  muscles  of  their  hands 
and  feet,  as  well  as  the  parachute-like  fold  of  skin  between  their  arms  and 
bodies,- and  their  peculiarly  hook-like  fingers  are  most  fitted.  The  young 
one  is  carried  about  by  its  mother  on  her  back,  its  hands  grasping 
her  arm-pits  tightly.  The  sifakas  are  held  in  great  veneration  or  fear 
by  the  natives  of  Madagascar,  and  are  never  intentionally  killed  by 
them." 

The  third  and  last  generic  representation  of  the  sub-family  is  the  woolly 
avahi  (Avahis  laniyera),   distinguished   from  the  last   by  the 
greater  length  of  the  tail,  the  short  muzzle,  and  the   total          Avahi 
concealment   of   the    ears   by   the   fur,  which   is   of  a   soft,        (Avahis). 
woolly  nature. 

The   second    sub-family   of  the  Lemur  idee,  which  is  likewise  confined   to 
Madagascar   and  the  Comoro  Islands,   is  typically  represented  by  the  true 
lemurs.     It  is  distinguished  from  the  last  by  the  presence 
ot  36  teeth  in  the  adult,  the  shorter  relative  length  of  the    True  Lemurs 
hind-limbs,  and  the  free  hind-toes  ;  all  the  former  having  long       (Lemur).  • 
tails.     As  a  genus  the  true  lemurs  are  characterised  by  the 
elongated  muzzle,  the  conspicuous,  tufted  ears,  and  the  separation  of  the 
upper  incisor   teeth   both   from   one   another  and   from   the    canines ;  the 
two    teats    of    the    female    being    situated    on    the    breast.       The   genus 
contains   eight  species,  among  which   the   ring-tailed  lemur  (Lemur  cattci) 
is  peculiar  on  account  of  the  character  from  which  it  takes  its  name,  and 
likewise  from  its  dwelling  among  rocks  instead  of  in  trees.     Strictly  noc- 


MAMMALIA— ORDER  I.—  PRIMATES. 


Fig.  15.— THE  EING-TAILEB  LEMUR 
.     (Lemur  cutia.) 


turnal  in  habits,  these  lemurs  feed  on  a  mixed  diet;  and  the  females 
carry  their  offspring  singly  transversely  across  the  lower  part  of  their 
bodies. 

The  two  species  of  gentle  lemurs  are  separated  from  the  last  on  account  of 
their  short,  truncated  muzzle,  small  and  hairy  ears,  the  small  size  of  the 

upper   incisor  teeth,  which 
Gentle  Lemur     are    in    contact    with    one 
(Hapalemur).      another,  and  with  the  can* 
ine  on  each  side,  and  like- 
wise by  the  presence  of  four  teats  on  the 
breast  of  the  female. 

A  third  generic  group,  with  several  species, 

is  separated  on  account  of  the  small  size  or 

absence  of  the  upper  incisor 

Sportive  Lemur    teeth,  the  bald  ears,  and  the 

(Lepidolemur).     more  elongated  muzzle  ;  the 

females   having  four  teeth. 

One    species    (Lepidolemur    cauiceps)    is   by 

some  referred  to  a  genus  apart,  under  the 

name  of  Mixocebm. 

The  galagos,  which    are   confined   to  the 
forests  of  the   warmer  parts  of  Africa,  are 
the  typical    representatives 
Galagos          of  a  third  sub-family,  readily 
(Galago}.         distinguished  from  the  fore- 
going  by  the  great  elongation  of  two  of  the  bones  of  the 
ankle-joint.     The  galagos  themselves  are  characterised  by  the  large  naked 
ears  being  capable  of  folding  at  the  will  of  their  owner;  the  long  tail  being 
generally  bushy,  and  the  females  having  two  teats  on  the  breast  and  two  on 
the  abdomen. 

Galagos  vary  in  size  from  that  of  a  rat  to  that  of  a  small  cat.  In  habits 
they  are  nocturnal  and  omnivorous  ;  and  when  they  descend  to  the  ground, 
their  progression  is  by  hops,  for  which  the  structure  of  their  hind-limbs  is 
specially  adapted.  The  Senegal  galago  (Galago  senegalensis),  which  goes 
about  the  forest  either  singly  or  in  pairs,  makes  a  nest  in  the  fork  of  a  tree, 
and  in  the  daytime  either  retires  to  that  resort,  or  reposes  on  a  branch,  with 
its  tail  folded  across  its  body  and  round  its  neck  ;  always  being  unwilling  to 
move,  and  staring  with  its  great  eyes  at  passing  travellers. 

The  mouse-lemurs,  which  by  many  writers  are  divided  into  the  genera 
Chirogale,  Microcebus,  and  Opolemur,  although  here  all  included  under  the 
former   name,    are    the   Malagasy  representatives    of    the 
Mouse-Lemurs     galagos,  and  include  a  large  number  of  small-sized  species. 
(Chirogale).       From  the  galagos  they  may  be  distinguished  by  the  large 
ears  being  hairy  at  the  base,  and  incapable  of  folding.     None 
of  these  lemurs  exceed  a  rat  in  size,  and  several  of  the  species  pass  the  dry 
season  in  a  state  of  torpor,  which  they  are  enabled  to  endure  by  previously 
accumulating  a  large  store  of  fat  at  the  root  of  the  tail.     Such  sleeps  usually 
take  place  in  hollow  trees,  where  the  little  animals  carefully  build  a  comfort- 
able nest  of  grass  and  fallen  leaves. 

The  remaining  members  of  the  Lemuridce  form  a  fourth  sub-family,  agree- 
ing with  the  typical  one  in  the  number  of  the  teeth,  but  distinguished  by 
the  second  or  index  finger  of  the  fore-paws  being  either  very  short  or  rudi- 


APES,  MONKEYS,  AND  LEMURS.  31 


mental.     While  the  fore  and  hind-limbs  are  of  nearly  equal  length,  the  ankle- 
joint  is  not  specially  elongated,   the   thumb  and  great-toe         L0risj 
diverge  widely  from  the  other  digits,  and  the  tail  is  short  or     ,  y      .    , 
rudimental.     In  the  female  there  are  only  two  teats,  which    and  .Z/o/v',$) 
are  situated  on  the  breast.     So  great  is  the  divergence  of  the 
great-toe  that  it  is  commonly  directed  backwards.     None  of  these  lemurs  are 
found  in  Madagascar. 

The  lorisis,  or  slow  lemurs,  which  are  confined  to  the  Oriental  countries, 
and  have  no  external  tail,  but  a  perfect,  although  small,  index  finger,  are 
divided  into  the  two  genera  Nycticebus  and  Loris ;  the  former  being  char- 
acterised by  the  inner  pair  of  upper  incisor  teeth  being  considerably  larger 
than  the  outer,  and  the  comparative  stoutness  of  the  limbs  ;  whereas  in  the 
latter  both  pairs  of  incisors  are  very  small  and  of  equal  length,  and  ttoe 
limbs  are  very  long  and  slender.  The  slow  lorises,  as  the  members  of  the 
first  genus  are  called,  range  over  the  Malayan  countries  to  Cochin-China, 
while  the  slender  loris  is  confined  to  Southern  India  and  Ceylon.  Both  types 
are  small  creatures,  with  very  large  eyes,  slow  in  their  movements,  omnivor- 
ous in  their  diet,  and  purely  nocturnal. 

In  West  Africa  the  lorisis  are  represented  by  two  nearly  allied  animals 
known  as  pottos,  in  which  the  index  finger  is  reduced  to  a  mere  tubercle 
without  a  nail  ;    the  tail  being  sharp  or  rudimental.      The 
larger  of  these   is    the   true  potto   (Perodicticus  potto),   the  ,  p      v1.  ®?     . 
awantibo   (P.   calabarensis)  of    Old   Calabar  being  a   rather  (™ 
smaller  and  more  delicately  made  animal,  with  the  index  finger  and  tail  more 
rudimental  than  in  the  former.      In  their  movements  the  pottos  are  even 
slower  than  the  lorises. 

The  second  family  of  the  Lemuroids  is  constituted  by  the  two  or  three 
species  of  tarsier,  all  of  which  are  included  in  the  single  .  _ 

genus  Tarsius,  and  range  from  the  Malayan  countries  to  family 
Celebes  and  the  Philippines.  Rather  smaller  than  an  Tarsiidcs 
ordinary  squirrel,  the  tarsiers  may  be  recognised  by  their 
enormous  eyes  and  ears,  long,  thin,  and 
tufted  tail,  and  long,  slender  limbs,  in  which 
the  ankle-joint  is  greatly  lengthened.  They 
have  34  teeth  ;  and  their  dentition  differs 
from  that  of  the  typical  lemurs  in  that  the 
first  pair  of  upper  incisor  teeth  are  in  con- 
trast with  one  another  in  the  middle  line, 
and  that  the  anterior  lower  premolar  is  not 
tusk-like.  Tarsiers  live  on  insects  and 
lizards,  in  search  of  which  they  may  be 
seen  on  moonlight  nights  hopping  on  the 
boughs  of  trees  in  a  curiously  frog -like 
manner.  FiQ- 16-~  TARSIER  (Tarsius  spectrum) 

The  last   of  the  existing  lemurs   is   the   remarkable   aye-aye   (Chiromys 
madagascariensis  )  of  Madagascar,  which  likewise  constitutes 
a  family  by  itself.     It  is  about  the  size  of  a  cat,  and  is  dis-  Aye-Aye. — Family 
tinguished  from  all  the  rest  of  its  tribe  by  the  structure  of  its      Chiromyidce. 
teeth,  which  are  singularly  like  those  of  the  Rodents  ;  each 
jaw  having  a  single  pair  of  chisel-like  incisors  in  front,  followed  after  an 
interval  by  the  blunt  cheek-teeth.     The  fore-paws  are  very  large,  with  all  the 
fingers  long  and  slender,  but  the  middle,  or  third  one,  much  more  attenuated 


MAMMALIA— ORDER  I.—PRIMA TES. 


than  the  rest ;  and  in  the  hind-foot  all  the  digits  except  the  great-toe  have 
curved  claws.  The  ears  and  eyes  are  large,  the  tail  is  bushy,  and  the  two 
teats  of  the  female  are  abdominal.  The  aye-aye  feeds  both  upon  sugar-cane 

and  large  wood-boring  caterpillars  ;  both  its 
teeth  and  the  slender  third  finger  being  em- 
ployed to  extract  the  latter. 

'  At  the  present  day,  the  lemurs  of  Madagascar 
may  be  compared  in  point  of  size  to  small  or 
medium-sized  monkeys,  the  largest  of  them — the 
short-tailed  endrina — not  measuring  much  more 
than  two  feet  in  length.  The  investigation  re- 
cently carried  on  by  various  explorers  in  the 
island  have,  however,  revealed  the  fact  that  up  to 
a  very  late  period  Madagascar  was  the  home  of  a 
lemur  vastly  exceeding  in  size  any  of  the  exist- 
ing representatives  of  the  group,  and  which  in 
this  respect  may  be  compared  to  the  great  West 
African  baboon  known  as  the  mandril.  This 
giant  \Qm\iY{Me,galadapis,  as  it  is  called)  is  known 
by  the  somewhat  imperfect  skull  and  lower 
jaw,  which  are  about  three  times  the  dimensions 
of  those  of  the  endrina.  The  interest  of  this 
animal  is,  however,  by  no  means  confined  to  its  comparatively  gigantic  pro- 
portions, since  while  its  skull  and  teeth  conform  in  their  general  structural 
features  to  those  of  the  existing  members  of  the  group,  they  are  specially 
modified  in  a  manner  altogether  peculiar.  The  most  strik- 
ing peculiarity  connected  with  the  skull  is  the  extreme 
slenderness  of  the  hinder  portion  containing  the  brain  in 
comparison  with  the  great  elongation  of  the  face  ;  the  latter 
seeming  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  former.  In  this  respect, 
indeed,  the  skull  presents  a  curious  resemblance  to  the  dog-faced  baboons  of 
Africa  ;  as  it  also  does  in  the  strongly-marked  ridges  it  bears  for  the  attachment 
of  powerful  muscles.  Such  resemblances,  however,  it  is  almost  needless  to 
observe,  are  merely  superficial,  and  must  by  no  means  be  taken  as  indicative 
of  any  genetic  relationship  between  the  two  groups  ;  and  if  a  young  skull 
were  forthcoming,  it  is  probable  that  we  should  find  this  much  less  unlike 
ordinary  lemurs.  Another  peculiarity  of  the  giant  lemur  is  to  be  found  in 
the  more  lateral  position  and  wider  separation  of  the  sockets  of  the  eyes, 
which  are  also  relatively  smaller  than  in  existing  forms,  thus  indicating  that 
the  habits  of  the  animal  were  less  completely  nocturnal  than  those  of  the 
latter.  The  molar  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw  are  characterised  by  the  presence 
of  only  three  tubercles  on  the  crown,  owing  to  the  fusion  of  the  two  inner 
ones  of  the  four-columned  molars  of  ordinary  lemurs  ;  a  few  of  the  smaller 
existing  species  having,  however,  teeth  of  a  nearly  similar  type.  Although 
in  the  type  skull  the  front  teeth  are  wanting,  the  form  of  their  sockets  shows 
that  they  must  have  been  very  similar  in  general  form  to  those  of  living 
lemurs.  In  many  respects  the  skull  shows  a  marked  resemblance  to  that  of 
the  European  Tertiary  lemur  known  as  Adapis,  a  feature  of  especial  interest 
in  regard  to  the  origin  of  the  Malagasy  fauna  from  that  of  the  Eocene  Period 
in  Europe. 

The  remains  of  the  giant  lemur  were  discovered  in  the  great  marsh  of 
Ambolisatra,  and  their  slightly  mineralised  condition  indicates  their  com- 


Fi(f.  17.— THE  AYE-AYE 
(Chiromys  mactayascariensis). 


Giant  Extinct 
Lemur 

(Megaladapis). 


THE  BATS.  33 


paratively  recent  age.  Indeed,  there  is  but  little  doubt  that  the  creature 
has  been  killed  off  within  the  human  period,  and  in  his  history  of  Madagascar, 
published  in  1658,  De  Flacourt  writes  in  the  following  terms  of  an  animal 
then  inhabiting  the  island,  which,  if  not  actually  the  giant  lemur,  would 
appear  to  have  been  a  closely  allied  form.  He  writes  that  "the  Tretretretre 
or  Tratratratra,  is  an  animal  of  the  size  of  a  two-year-old  calf,  with  a  rounded 
head  and  human-like  face  ;  both  fore  and  hind  feet  being  like  those  of  a 
monkey.  It  has  the  hair  wavy,  the  tail  short,  and  ears  like  those  of  a 
man.  It  resembled  the  Tanache  described  by  Ambroise  Pare*.  It  was  seen 
by  the  tank  of  Lipomani,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  which  was  its  abode.  It 
is  a  solitary  creature,  held  in  great  terror  by  the  natives,  who  flee  when- 
ever it  comes  in  sight."  With  the  exception  of  the  rounded  head  and  the  size 
(which  is  doubtless  exaggerated),  this  description  accords  remarkably  with 
the  giant  lemur,  and  when  the  head  was  covered  with  fur,  it  is  probable  that 
it  would  appear  much  less  elongated  than  does  the  bare  skull. 


ORDER  II.— CHIROPTERA. 
THE  BATS. 

THE  second  ordinal  division  of  the  Mammalia  is  that  of  the  bats,  or  Chiroptera, 
wrhich  is  the  one  most  easily  defined  of  all,  seeing  that  in  no  other  members 
of  the  class  are  the  limbs  similarly  modified  for  the  purposes  of  flight,  while 
it  is  in  these  animals  alone  among  the  class  that  the  power  of  true  flight  is 
found.  By  true  flight  is  meant  the  capacity  of  sustaining  the  body  in  the 
air  for  an  indefinite  period  by  the  shortness  of  the  wings  ;  this  being  markedly 
different  from  the  spurious  flight  of  such  creatures  as  flying-foxes,  whose  pro- 
gress through  the  air  is  due  merely  to  a  leap  from  a  height  aided  by  para- 
chute-like expansions  of  the  skin  of  the  limbs  and  the  sides  of  the  body. 

In  the  fore-limb  or  wing  of  a  bat,  the  humerus  or  upper-arm  bone  is  only 
moderately  elongated,  but  in  the  fore-arm  the  single  bone  corresponding  to 
the  human  radius  has  become  greatly  lengthened  ;  and  this  lengthening  is 
much  more  strongly  marked  in  the  case  of  the  bones  of  the  fingers,  exclusive 
of  the  thumb,  all  of  which  assume  the  form  of  very  long  and  slender  rods. 
The  thumb,  which  terminates  in  a  hooked  claw  used  for  climbing  and  sus- 
pension, remains  free  ;  but  the  other  four  fingers  are  connected  together  by 
the  delicate,  naked,  leathery  membrane  of  the  wing,  and  mostly  have  neither 
claws  nor  nails  at  the  tip  ;  the  longest  of  the  whole  five  digits  being  the  third 
or  middle  finger.  The  membrane  of  the  wing,  or,  as  it  is  often  called,  pata- 
gium,  is  continued  up  the  arm  and  along  the  sides  of  the  body  to  the  hind- 
legs,  down  which  it  extends  ;  while  the  two  hind-legs  are  also  connected  by 
another  extension,  which  may  embrace  a  considerable  portion  of  the  tail. 
The  membrane  of  the  hind-legs  is  usually  supported  by  a  peculiar  spur  pro- 
jecting from  the  foot  ;  but  the  toes,  which  are  of  normal  proportions,  remain 
perfectly  free  from  one  another.  Owing  to  the  connection  of  the  hind-limbs 
with  the  membrane  of  the  wings,  the  knee-joint  is  directed  backwards  instead 
of  forwards  in  the  manner  characteristic  of  all  other  terrestrial  Mammals,  and 
this  structure  renders  the  movements  of  these  animals  on  the  ground  so  awk- 
ward and  shuffling.  Bats  always  have  very  large  and  roomy  chests,  with 
4 


34  MAMMALIA— ORDER  IL—CHIROPTERA. 


well-developed  collar-bones  ;  but  the  hind-quarters  are  feeble  and  weak.  In 
many  bats  the  delicate  sense  of  touch,  by  which  they  are  enabled  to  avoid 
coming  into  collision  with  objects  when  flying  in  the  dark,  appears  to  be 
mainly  situated  in  the  wing-membranes  and  in  the  delicate  skin  of  the  fre- 
quently large  ears,  the  latter  often  having  an  inner  earlet,  or  tragus. 
In  a  large  number  of  species  there  are,  however,  expansions  of  the  skin  in 
the  region  of  the  nose  ;  these  nose-leaves  sometimes  merely  taking  the  form 
of  a  triangular  single  or  double  plate  standing  up  above  the  muzzle,  whereas 
in  other  cases  they  assume  a  marked  appearance,  covering  a  greater  portion 
of  the  face.  These  organs  appear  to  be  entirely  sensory  in  function  ;  and  it 
is  quite  possible  that  bats  may  possess  some  special  sense  of  which  we  have 
no  cognizance. 

Ordinary  bats  have  teeth  very  similar  to  those  of  the  order  Insectivora  (the 
next  in  the  series),  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  these  animals  are  derived 
from  some  early  members  of  the  latter  group  which  have  gradually  become 
adapted  for  true  flight ;  the  transition  having  probably  been  effected  by  the 
development  of  a  parachute-like  expansion  of  the  skin  of  the  sides  of  the 
body  and  limbs.  In  habits  all  bats  are  nocturnal,  and  the  majority  are 
insectivorous,  although  a  few  have  taken  to  blood-sucking.  There  is,  how- 
ever, one  important  group — the  fruit-bats — which  are  entirely  frugivorous,  and 
in  these  the  teeth  have  quite  lost  the  cusped  structure  distinctive  of  ordinary 
bats,  and  have  assumed  an  altogether  peculiar  conformation.  All  the  fruit- 
bats  are  of  comparatively  large  dimensions  ;  and  in  this  group  are  included 
the  largest  representatives  of  the  entire  order.  A  certain  number  of  bats 
have  acquired  the  habit  of  licking  out  the  honey  from  the  corollse  of  flowers, 
and  for  this  purpose  their  tongues  have  become  modified  into  elongated 
protrusile  organs,  frequently  terminating  in  a  bush-like  expansion  of  delicate 
filaments. 

Although  one  bat,  at  least,  extends  as  far  north  as  the  Arctic  circle,  the 
members  of  the  order  obtain  their  maximum  development  in  tropical  arid 
subtropical  countries  ;  and  it  is  to  such  regions  of  the  Old  World  that  the 
fruit-bats  are  confined,  that  group  being  entirely  unknown  in  America. 

The  number  of  bats  known  to  science  is  between  four  and  five  hundred, 
which  are  arranged  in  rather  more  than  eighty  genera,  distributed  under  six 
family-groups.  As  bats  are  Mammals  with  which  the  ordinary  student  has 
but  little  to  do,  this  large  assemblage  will  be  treated  much  more  briefly  than 
most  of  the  other  orders  ;  such  genera  as  are  mentioned  not  having  separate 
paragraphs  to  themselves. 

Popularly  known  by  the  highly  inappropriate   title   of  flying-foxes,  the 

fruit-bats  form  not  only  a  family  by  themselves,  but  likewise  a  subordinal 

group  differing  from  a  second  one,  in  which  are  contained  all 

Fruit-Bats. —     the  members  of  the  order.     From  other  bats  this  group  of 

Family  Ptero-    Megachiroptera,  as  it  is  called,  is  chiefly  distinguished  by  the 

podidce.          characters   of   the   molar  teeth,   which   have  low,    rounded 

crowns,    elongated   in   the    antero-posterior    direction,    and 

divided  by  a  distinct  longitudinal  ridge  ;  such  teeth  being  far  better  adapted 

for  fruit-eating  than  are  the  cusped  molars  of  ordinary  bats.     From  other 

bats,  fruit-bats  are  also  distinguished  by  the  structure  of  the  wing,  in  which 

there  are  three  joints  in  the  second  or  index  finger,  whereas  in  the  other 

members  of  the  order  the  number  of  such  joints  is  reduced  to  two,  or  even 

one.     Another  peculiarity  of  the  group  is  to  be  found  in  the  complete  circle 

formed  by  the  base  of  the  conch  of  the  ear ;  while  the  tail,  if  present,  is 


THREATS.  35 


short,  and  situated  below  the  membrane  between  the  hind-legs,  with  which  it 
may  have  no  connection.  In  all  cases  the  ears  are  small,  and  unprovided 
with  an  inner  tragus.  Fruit-bats  are  confined  to  the  warmer  parts  of  the 
Old  World. 

The  common  fruit-bats,  or  fox-bats  (Pteropus\  forming  the  typical  re- 
presentatives of  the  family,  are  characterised  by  their 
long  and  fox-like  faces,  the  presence  of  34  teeth,  f~~^- 
ihe  absence  of  a  tail,  and  the  thick  coat  of  woolly 
fur  on  the  neck  ;  all  being  of  large  size.  These  bats 
inhabit  the  Oriental  countries,  Madagascar,  New 
Guinea,  and  Australia,  but  are  unknown  in  Africa. 
The  long  lines  in  which  they  wend  their  way  to 
their  feeding-grounds  at  evening  are  well  known  to 
all  resitlenters  in  tropical  countries.  From  this  genus 
the  tailed  fruit-bats  (Xantharpyia)  may  be  distinguished 
by  the  presence  of  a  short  tail,  which  is  connected  with 
the  membrane  between  the  legs,  as  well  as  by  their 
smaller  size,  duller  colours,  and  the  absence  of  any 
difference  between  the  fur  of  the  neck  and  that  of  the 
body.  These  bats  are  common  to  the  Oriental  countries, 
Syria,  Africa,  and  Madagascar.  In  Africa  south  of  the 
Sahara  the  place  of  the  common  fruit-bats  is  taken  by 
the  epauletted  fruit-bats  (Epomophorus),  so  called  from 
the  tufts  of  long  hair  on  the  shoulders  of  the  males.  Their  large  and  elon- 
gated heads  have  a  bluntly  conical  or  truncated  muzzle,  large,  flabby,  and 
extensive  lips,  and  a  tuft  of  white  hair  on  the  margin  of  each  ear.  While 
some  are  tailless,  others  have  a  short  tail,  unconnected  with  the  leg-membrane. 
The  tufts  of  hair  on  the  shoulders  of  the  males  arise  from  long  pouches  oil  the 
sides  of  the  neck.  These  bats  are  most  abundant  on  the  West  Coast,  where  the 
single  species  of  the  allied  genus  Scotonycteris  is  also  found. 

Another  genus  is  formed  by  the  short-nosed  fruit-bats  (Cynopterus), 
ranging  from  India  to  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  distinguished  by  the  short 
and  rounded  muzzle,  marked  by  a  vertical  groove,  the  reduction  of  the 
teeth  to  32  or  30,  and  their  small  size.  Most  of  them  have  a  short  tail 
connected  with  the  membrane  between  the  legs.  Very  curious  are  the  two 
species  of  tube -nosed  fruit-bats  (Harpyia),  inhabiting  the  islands  of 
Celebes,  New  Guinea,  North  Australia,  and  New  Ireland,  and  taking  their 
name  from  the  production  of  the  nostrils  into  a  pair  of  tubes  reaching  a  short 
distance  in  advance  of  the  blunt  muzzle.  Even  more  interesting  is  the  cusp- 
toothed  fruit-bat  (Pteralopex)  of  the  Solomon  Islands,  since  the  cusps  in  its 
molar  teeth  serve  to  indicate  that  all  the  fruit-bats  have  been  derived  from 
insectivorous  members  of  the  order.  Another  group  of  the  family,  compris- 
ing seven  genera,  among  which  Carponycteris  may  be  selected  as  an  example, 
is  distinguished  by  the  great  length  of  the  extensile  tongue,  which  terminates  in 
a  number  of  papilla,  and  is  probably  employed  for  licking  out  the  soft  contents 
of  tropical  fruits.  Save  that  one  species  is  found  in  West  Africa,  these  bats 
are  confined  to  the  Oriental  and  Australasian  countries.  They  are  all  of  com- 
paratively small  size,  and  have  long  and  pointed  faces,  and  the  narrow  molar 
teeth  scarcely  projecting  above  the  surface  of  the  gums. 

This  exclusively  Old  World  family  is  the  first  group  of  the  ordinary  bats,  or 
Microchiroptera,  in  which  the  molar  teeth  are  usually  surmounted  by  a  number 
of  sharp  cusps,  and  the  food  generally  consists  of  insects.  The  other  leading 


36  MAMMALIA— ORDER  IL—CHIROPTERA. 


characteristics  by  which  the  sub-order  is  distinguished  from  the  fruit-bats 

have  been  already  noticed  under  the  heading  of  the  latter.    As  a  family,  the 

Khinolophidce  ^are  characterised  by  the  presence  of  a  weli- 

Horse-shoe  and    developed    nose-leaf    surrounding   the   nostrils,   which   are 

Leaf-nosed  Bats,  placed  in  a  hollow  on  the  muzzle,  as  well  as  by  the  large  size 

—Family        of  the  ears,  in  which  an  inner  tragus  is  wanting,  and  which 

Rhinolophidce.    are  generally  quite  separate  from  one  another  at  the  base. 

The  greater  horse-shoe  bat  (Rhinolophus  ferrum-equiuum)  is 

a  familiar  British  representative  of  a  very  widely-spread  genus,  in  which 

there   are  32  teeth,  and   the   nose-leaf   consists  of  two  portions,  namely  a 

horse-shoe-like  moiety  immediately  over  the  nose,  and  a  pointed  one  behind. 

In  the  leaf-nosed  bats  (Hipposiderus),  which 
have,  likewise,  a  wide  range,  and  are  repre- 
sented by  a  large  number  of  species,  the 
hinder  portion  of  the  nose-leaf  is  not 
pointed,  and  there  is  no  median  portion 
concealing  the  nostrils  ;  while  the  teeth 
are  reduced  to  30  or  28  in  number. 
There  are  no  European  representatives  of 
thefeA  bats  which  range  over  Africa,  Asia, 
and  Australia.  The  most  curious  member 
of  the  whole  family  is  the  flower-nosed  bat  (Anthops  oriiatus)  of  the  Solomon 
Islands,  in  which  the  whole  front  of  the  face,  save  the  eyes  and  lips,  is 
covered  with  a  complex  and  ornate  membrane,  forming  a  complete  mask  to 
the  countenance. 

The  so-called  false  vampire  bats  (Megaderma)  form  one  of  two  genera  con- 
stituting a  family  distinguished  from  the  last  by  the  presence  of  a  large  inner 
tragus  in  the    very  long   ears.      In   this   genus,    which   is 
False  Vampire     common  to  the  Oriental  countries  and  Africa,  the  muzzle  is 
Bats. — Family     surmounted  by  a  rather  tall  nose-leaf  ;  whereas  in  the  allied 
NycteridcK.        genus  Nyctiris  this  appendage  is  almost  wanting,  and  the 
ears  are  not  joined  together  to  nearly  such  an  extent  as  is 
the  case  in  the  former,  where  their  union  extends  nearly  half  their  height. 
With  the  exception  of  one  Javan  and  Malayan  species,  and  a  second  from 
Egypt,  all  the  members  of  the  second  genus  are  confined  to  Africa  south  of 
the  Sahara. 

The  typical  bats  form  an  extensive  family,  with  a  large  number  of  genera 
and  species,  ranging  over  botli  the  Eastern  and  Western  Hemispheres;  and  it 
is  to  this  family  that  all  the  British  bats,  with  the  exception 
Typical  Bats. —    of  the  two  species  of  the  genus  Rhinolophus,  and  likewise 
Family     Vesper-  the  majority  of  those  inhabiting  Europe  generally,  belong. 
tilionidce.          In  this  family  the  nose-leaf  is  wanting,  so  that  the  nostrils 
form  simple  crescentic  or  circular  apertures  at  the  end  of 
the  muzzle  ;  the  comparatively  long  tail  is  included  in  the  membrane  join- 
ing the  hind-legs,  and  extends  to  its  free  edge,  and  the  ear  has  a  distinct 
inner  tragus.     In  the  upper  jaw  the  incisor  teeth,  of  which  there  may  be 
either  one  or  two  pairs,  are  of  small  size,  and  separated  by  a  gap  in  the 
middle  line  ;   but,  with  one  exception,  there  are  three  pairs  of  the  corre- 
sponding lower  teeth.     Over  one  hundred  and  fifty  species  are  known.     The 
long-eared  bats  (Plecotus),  of  which  there  is  one  species  from  the  northern 
portion  of  the  Old  World,  and  a  second  from  North  America,  constitute  a 
genus  characterised  by  the  great  length  of  the  delicate  ears,  which  are  united 


THE  BATS.  37 


for  a  short  distance  above  the  forehead,  and  the  presence  of  grooves,  re- 
presenting an  incipient  nose-leaf  on  the  muzzle  just  behind  the  nostrils. 
When  at  rest,  the  long  ears  are  folded 
back,  leaving  the  tragus  alone  standing 
upright.  In  the  allied  genus  (Synotus),  of 
which  the  barbastelle  is  the  British  repre- 
sentative, .there  are  also  only  two  species, 
one  of  which  is  European  and  the  other 
Asiatic.  They  may  be  easily  distinguished 
from  the  long-eared  bats  by  the  shortness  of 
the  ears,  which  are  united  for  some  distance 
basally,  and  likewise  by  the  reduction  in  the 
number  of  the  teeth  from  36  to  34. 

The  pipistrelle,  or  common  bat  (Vesperugo  pipistrellus),  together  with  the 
much  larger  noctule  (F.  noctula)  and  serotine  (V.  serotinciis),  are  British  repre- 
sentatives of  a  third  genus,  differing  in  several  particulars  from  the  two  pre- 
ceding. There  are,  for  instance,  no  traces  of  grooves  or  foldings  in  the  skin  of 
the  nose,  and  the  small  ears  are  completely  separate  from  each  other.  The 
genus,  which  apparently  contains  a  greater  number  of  species  than  any  other 
in  the  order,  has  an  almost  cosmopolitan  distribution,  but  is  one  somewhat 
difficult  to  define,  as  some  of  its  representatives  approximate  more  or  less  to 
other  genera  ;  the  number  of  teeth  being  either  30,  34,  or  36.  The  more 
typical  kinds  may  be  recognised  by  the  relatively  stout  body,  the  broad,  flat- 
tened head  and  blunt  muzzle,  and  the  broad,  short,  and  triangular  ears,  in 
which  the  tragus  is  generally  thickened  and  somewhat  inclined  outwards. 
As  a  rule,  the  hind-legs  are  short,  and  the  membrane  connecting  them  with 
the  tail  nearly  always  has  an  additional  portion  on  the  outer  side  of  the  spur  on 
the  heel.  Omitting  notice  of  the  genera  Nycticejus  and  Chalinolobus,  mention 
must  be  made  of  the  American  genus  Atalapha,  of  which  the  hoary  bat  (A. 
cinerea)  of  the  United  States  is  a  familiar  representative.  All  members  of 
this  genus  have  but  a  single  pair  of  upper  incisor  teeth,  and  are  further  char- 
acterised by  the  membrane  between  the  hind-legs  being  more  or  less  hairy. 
Like  other  bats  living  in  cold  climates,  the  hoary  bat  hibernates  during  winter  ; 
this  species  selecting  caves,  to  which  it  resorts  in  large  numbers  for  the  period 
of  torpor.  Many  European  bats  prefer,  however,  church-towers  and  roofs,  or 
outbuildings,  while  some  select  hollow  trees,  and  it  is  a  curious  fact  that  in 
the  case  of  certain  species  the  males  and  females  associate  in  separate  colonies. 
An  unusually  warm  day,  even  in  mid-winter,  will  generally  cause  a  certain 
number  of  bats  to  awake  from  slumber  and  issue  forth,  after  which  they  again 
fall  into  the  same  torpor  as  before. 

Among  the  numerous  genera  of  this  family,  the  tube-nosed  bats  (Harpyio- 
cephalus),  from  hilly  districts  in  the  Oriental  countries,  Tibet  and  Japan, 
deserve  special  mention,  on  account  of  the  remarkable  similarity  be- 
tween the  structure  of  their  nostrils  and  those  of  the  tube-nosed  fruit- 
bats.  In  the  present  genus  the  tubes  into  which  the  nostrils  are  pro- 
longed are,  however,  shorter  and  much  more  divergent  than  in  the  last- 
named  group. 

Of  the  typical  genus  (Vespertilio},  which  is  only  second  in  point  of  numbers, 
there  are  four  British  representatives,  among  which  Daubenton's  bat  (V.  dan- 
bentoni)  is  one  of  the  best  known.  Those  bats  differ  from  the  members  of  the 
family  already  noticed  in  having  upwards  of  38  teeth,  there  being  two  pairs 
of  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw ;  and  they  are  specially  distinguished  by  the  circum- 


38  MAMMALIA— ORDER  IL—CHIROPTERA. 


stance  that  these  latter  are  so  fixed  in  the  jaw  as  to  diverge  from  one  another, 
as  well  as  by  the  cheek-teeth  (that  is  to  say  premolars,  and  molars  together) 
forming  three  pairs  in  each  jaw.  A  further  distinctive  feature  is  to  be  found 
in  the  minute  size  of  the  second  upper  premolar  tooth,  while  the  ear  has  a 
characteristic  elongated  oval  form,  and  its  inner  tragtis  is  remarkably  narrow. 
The  genus  has  a  wide  geographical  distribution,  being  spread  over  the  tem- 
perate and  tropical  regions  of  both  hemispheres.  A  bat  belonging  to  this 
genus  (F.  welivitschi)  from  West  Africa,  closely  allied  to  the  British  Bechstein's 
bat  (F.  bechsteini},  is  remarkable  for  the  circumstance  that  the  wing-membranes 
are  coloured  orange  and  black;  the  Indian  F.  hodyamii  also  having  a  very 
similar  type  of  coloration.  Another  Indian  bat  with  black  and  orange  wings 
belongs  to  the  genus  Cerivoula,  distinguished  from  Vespertilio  by  the  upper 
incisor  teeth  being  vertical  instead  of  divergent.  A  fourth  peculiarly  coloured 
species  is  the  West  African  Nycticejus  albofuscus,  belonging  to  a  genus  closely 
allied  to  Vesperugo,  and  having  the  outer  portions  of  the  wing-membranes 
dazzling  white.  In  these  abnormally  coloured  bats  it  appears  that  those  in 
which  black  and  orange  obtain  are  in  the  habit  of  reposing  among  the  fruit 
and  leaves  of  various  tropical  trees,  in  which  an  orange  ground  is  frequently 
relieved  by  black  spots. 

Schreibers'  bat  (Miniopterus  schreibersi),  ranging  from  Germany  to  Japan 
and  Australia,  is  the  only  member  of  a  genus  differing  from  all  those  hitherto 
noticed  by  the  great  elevation  of  the  crown  of  the  head  above  the  face ;  the 
same  feature  also  characterises  the  South  American  and  West  Indian 
bats  forming  the  genus  Natalus.  Two  very  curious  bats  belonging  to  this 
family,  and  each  forming  a  genus  by  itself,  are  remarkable  for  having 
the  feet  furnished  with  adhesive  discs,  by  which  they  are  enabled  to  climb 
smooth,  polished  surfaces.  One  of  these  is  the  tricolor  bat  (Thyroptera 
tricolor)  of  Brazil,  in  which  the  suckers  form  circular  discs  on  the  lower 
surface  of  the  thumb  and  the  sole  of  the  hind-foot  ;  the  second  being  the 
golden  bat  (Myxopoda  aurita)  of  Madagascar,  in  which  the  sucker  on  the 
thumb  is  in  the  form  of  a  horse-shoe,  while  those  on  the  feet  are  of  smaller 
size.  Both  these  bats  are  distinguished  from  all  the  other  members  of  the 
family  by  having  three  joints  to  the  Miird  or  middle  finger  of  the  wing, 
thereby  resembling  the  undermentioned  family  Phyllostomatidce. 

In  the  preceding  families  of  the  Microchiroptera  the  tail  is  enclosed  in  the 
membrane  connecting  the  two  hind-legs,  but  in  the  two  families  of  this  group 
still  remaining  for  consideration,  this  appendage,  when  pre- 
Free-tailed  Bats,  sent,  generally  either  perforates  the  membrane  in  such  a 
— Family  manner  that  its  free  extremity  appears  on  the  upper  extrem- 
Emballonuridce.  ity  of  the  latter,  or  is  produced  considerably  beyond  the  free 
hinder  margin  of  the  same.  Another  feature  is  that-  the 
inner,  and  frequently  the  only,  pair  of  upper  incisor  teeth,  are  of  large  size 
and  placed  close  together  in  the  middle  line  ;  and  a  third  characteristic  is  to 
be  found  in  the  circumstance  that  when  the  wing  is  at  rest,  the  first  joint  of 
the  third  finger  is  folded  back  upon  the  supporting  metacarpal  bone  instead 
of  being  extended  forwards  in  the  same  line.  In  two  species,  each  repre- 
senting a  genus  by  itself,  the  last-named  characteristic  is,  however,  wanting. 
Only  a  single  species  cf  these  two  families  is  met  with  in  Europe,  the  second 
family  being  exclusively  American.  In  the  members  of  the  family  Em- 
ballonundce  there  are  but  two  joints  in  the  third  finger  of  the  wing,  and 
there  is  no  distinct  nose-leaf  ;  but,  as  a  rule,  the  ear  is  furnished  with  a 
small  inner  tragus,  and  there  is  but  a  single  pair  of  upper  incisor  teeth, 


THE  BATS. 


39 


which  are  inclined  towards  one  another.  An  oblique  truncation  of  the 
extremity  of  the  snout  causes  the  nostrils  to  project  more  or  less  in  advance 
of  the  extremity  of  the  lower  jaw.  These  bats  are  most  abundant  in  the 
zone  lying  thirty  degrees  on  each  side  of  the  Equator  ;  and  among  them  are 
the  only  two  indigenous  Mammals  found  in  New  Zealand.  Both  in  this 
and  the  next  family  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  more  interesting  types 
out  of  a  very  large  number  of  genera  will  be  noticed  in  this  place. 

The  typical  representatives  of  the  family  are  the  sheath-tailed  bats 
(Emballonura\  ranging  from  the  Malayan  countries  to  the  Philippine  Islands, 
and  also  found  from  Madagascar  to  the  Navigator  group.  They  belong  to  a 
group  of  several  genera  in  which  the  free  extremity  of  the  slender  tail 
perforates  the  membrane  between  the  legs,  while  the  legs  are  relatively  long, 
and  the  upper  incisor  teeth  are  weak  ;  two  pairs  of  these  teeth  being  present 
in  this  particular  genus.  Further  distinctive  characteristics  of  Emballonura, 
are  that  there  are  34  teeth,  that  the  muzzle  is  more  or  less  distinctly  pro- 
duced, the  top  of  the  head  flat,  the  ears  completely  separate  from  each  other, 
and  their  tragus  somewhat  oblong  and  expanded  above.  Tropical  America 
is  the  home  of  the  allied  pouch-winged  bats  (Saccopteryx),  all  of  which  are 
small-sized  creatures,  with  only  a  single  pair  of  upper  incisor  teeth,  and  a 
peculiar  glandular  pouch  on  the  under  side  of  the  wing  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  elbow- joint.  These  pouches,  which  are  rudimental  in  the  females, 
appear  to  have  a  sexual  function,  and  in  one  species  a  white  frill  of  skin 
protrudes  from  the  aperture  of  each. 

The  tomb-bats  (Taphozous)  form  another  large  genus,  with  representatives 
in  Africa,  the  Oriental  countries,  and  Australia,  and  differ  from  other 
members  of  the  group  in  having  only  two  pairs  of  lower  incisor  teeth,  and 
also  in  the  shedding  of  the  single  upper  pair  in  the  adult  condition.  The 
males,  and  in  some  cases  also  the  females,  of  many  species  have  glandular 
pouches  beneath  the  chin  ;  and  some  forms  which  hibernate  for  a  long  period 
accumulate  large  deposits  of  fat  about  the  root  of  the  tail  before  retiring  for 
their  torpor.  The  typical  representative  of  the  genus  is  found  in  large 
numbers  in  the  ancient  tombs  of  Egypt. 

The  two  species  of  white  bats  (Diclidurus)  from  Tropical  America  are  worthy 
of  notice,  on  account  of  the  yellowish  or  creamy-white  colour  of  the  tips  of  the 
fur.  Closely  allied  to  the  tomb-bats,  they  differ  in  having  three  pairs  of  lower 
incisor  teeth,  while  they  are  distinguished  from  all  other  bats  by  the  presence 
of  a  pouch  on  the  under  surface  of  the  membrane  between  the  hind-legs. 
Two  other  bats  from  the  same  region,  known  as  the  hare-lipped  bats  (Noctilio), 
take  their  name  from  the  curious  resemblance  of  their  folded  upper  lips  to 
those  of  the  Rodents,  while  one  species  is  remarkable  on  account  of  its  diet, 
which  consists  mainly,  if  not  exclusively,  of  small  fish.  Another  peculiar 
member  of  the  same  sub-family  is  the  long-tailed  bat  (Rhinopoma  microphyl- 
lum\  ranging  from  North-Eastern  Africa  through  India  to  Burma,  and  is 
easily  recognised  by  the  very  long,  whip-like  tail,  which  projects  far  beyond 
the  hinder  margin  of  the  extremely  short  membrane  joining  the  hind-legs. 

The  mastiff-bats  (Molossus),  so  named  on  account  of  their  very  broad  and 
wide-mouthed  muzzles,  are  the  first  representatives  of  a  second  sub-family  of 
the  JEmballonuridce  characterised  by  the  thickness  of  the  tail,  which,  save  in 
one  species,  is  produced  a  considerable  distance  beyond  the  free  margin  of  the 
membrane  joining  the  legs.  All  have  short,  strong  legs,  very  broad  feet,  and 
callosities  at  the  base  of  the  thumbs,  while  there  is  only  a  single  pair  of  incisor 
teeth  in  the  upper  jaw.  The  hind-feet  have  no  attachment  to  the  wings,  the 


40  MAMMALIA— ORDER  IL—CHIROPTERA* 


membranes  of  which  can  be  folded  away  between  the  arms  and  legs,  while  the 
membrane  joining  the  hind-legs  can  be  drawn  upwards  along  the  tail ;  and  it 
appears  that  all  the  members  of  the  sub-family  are  better  adapted  for  crawling 
than  are  any  other  bats.  The  mastiff-bats  are  confined  to  Tropical  and  Sub- 
Tropical  America,  and  generally  have  26  or  28  teeth,  with  two  pairs  of  lower 
incisors.  The  large  ears,  in  which  there  is  generally  a  small  tragus,  are 
united  at  their  bases  ;  the  lips,  in  common  with  those  of  two  allied  genera, 
are  very  large,  and  often  thrown  into  pouches  ;  while  the  wings  are  remark- 
ably long  and  narrow. 

The  large  Malayan  naked  bat  (Chiromeles  torquata)  takes  its  name  from  the 
thick  and  puckered  skin  being  almost  entirely  naked  ;  and  is  further  peculiar 
in  that  the  large  first  hind-toe  can  be  opposed  to  the  other  digits.  But  the  most 
curious  feature  about  the  animal  is  the  presence  of  a  large  pouch  on  the  under 
surface  of  the  body  below  the  armpits,  in  which  the  young  are  carried  during 
the  period  of  suckling.  The  object  of  this  special  development  is  sufficiently 
apparent,  since,  owing  to  the  absence  of  fur,  the  young  would  be  quite  unable 
to  cling  to  the  body  of  the  parent  in  the  usual  bat  fashion.  The  muzzle  of 
this  curious  bat  is  remarkably  long  and  pig-like  ;  and  the  rather  large  ears 
are  widely  separated  from  one  another.  Although  most  abundant  in  Africa 
south  of  the  Sahara,  the  wrinkled  -  lipped  bats,  constituting  the  genus 
Nyctinomus,  are  the  most  widely  spread,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  most 
numerously  represented  group  of  the  present  sub-family,  being  found  in 
India  and  Burma,  China,  Australia,  New  Guinea,  Tropical  America,  and 
Madagascar  ;  while  a  single  species  (N.  cestoni)  is  found  in  Southern  and 
Central  Europe,  where  it  is  the  sole  representative  of  the  entire  family. 
Closely  allied  to  the  rnastiff-bats,  the  members  of  the  present  genus  may  be  dis- 
tinguished by  the  gap  dividing  the  upper  incisor  teeth  in  the  middle  line,  and. 
likewise  by  the  greater  development  of  the  wrinkles  on  the  full,  fleshy  lips. 

The  last  member  of  the  family  that  will  be  mentioned  is  the  New  Zealand 
bat  (Mystacops  tuberculatus),  distinguished  by  having  three  joints  to  the 
third  finger  of  the  wing,  the  first  of  which,  when  at  rest,  is  folded  back 
beneath  the  metacarpal  bone,  instead  of  above  it,  as  in  the  other  members  of 
the  family.  Owing  to  a  peculiarity  in  the  structure  of  the  wings,  this  species 
is  better  suited  for  crawling  than  any  other  bat.  The  other  species  of  bat 
inhabiting  New  Zealand  (Chalinolobus  tuberculatus)  belongs  to  a  genus  nearly 
allied  to  Vesperugo,  and  is  also  found  in  Australia. 

The    great    family  of  vampire-bats   is   exclusively  confined  to   Tropical 

America    and   the   West  Indies,   and  bears   nearly   the    same   relation   to 

the  preceding  family  as  is  presented  by  the  horse-shoe  bats 

Vampire-Bats. —  to  the  typical  bats.     In  addition  to  the  features  common  to 

Jamily  Phyllo-  the   Emballonuridce,   all  have  three  joints    to    the   middle 

stomatidce.  or  third  finger  of  the  wing,  while  there  is  either  a  well- 
developed  nose-leaf,  or  folds  and  warts  are  present  on  the 
chin.  A  distinct  tragus  in  the  moderately-sized  ears  will  always  serve  to 
distinguish  the  numerous  representatives  of  this  family  which  have  a  nose- 
leaf  from  the  horse-shoe  bats,  without  the  necessity  of  counting  the  number 
of  joints  in  the  middle  finger  of  the  wing.  Vampire-bats  are  exceedingly 
numerous,  both  as  regards  genera  and  species,  so  that  only  a  few  of  the 
former  can  be  referred  to  here.  All  are  strong  flyers;  but  the  various  groups 
present  great  differences  in  the  nature  of  their  food,  some  devouring  insects 
and  fruits  alike,  while  others  are  wholly  frugivorous,  and  others  again  have 
taken  to  a  blood -sucking  habit. 


THE  BA  TS.  41 


In  two  small  genera  of  the  family  (Chilonycteris  and  Mormops)  the  nose- 
leaf  is  wanting,  and  its  place  supplied  by  two  or  more  lappets  of  skin  hanging 
from  beneath  the  skin.  One  of  these 
chin-leafed  bats  (M.  blainvillei)  is  remark- 
able for  its  bright  orange  fur,  and  like- 
wise for  the  extremely  fragile  structure 
of  the  whole  head  and  body.  The  harm- 
less vampires  (Vampirus)  belong  to  a 
group  of  genera  in  which  the  tail,  when 
present,  perforates  the  membrane  between 
the  legs,  while  the  nose-leaf  is  spear- 
shaped.  The  largest  is  the  great  vampire 
(F.  spectrum),  from  Brazil,  in  which  the 
expanse  of  wing  is  upwards  of  28  inches  ; 
the  tail  being  wanting.  Apparently  these 
bats  feed  exclusively  on  fruits.  Nearly  Fig.  21.— VAMPIRE-BAT  (Desmodus  rvfus). 
allied  are  the  three  species  of  javelin-bats 

(Phyllostoma),  which  may  be  distinguished  from  the  harmless  vampires  by  the 
shorter  and  broader  form  of  the  muzzle,  as  well  as  by  the  reduction  in  the 
number  of  the  lower  premolar  teeth  from  three  to  two  pairs.  There  is  some 
degree  of  doubt  whether  any  of  the  javelin-bats  are  addicted  to  blood-sucking 
propensities. 

More  remarkable  than  any  of  the  family  are  the  long-tongued  vampires, 
which  are  referred  to  several  genera,  such  as  Glossopkaga,  Chceronycteris, 
Phyllonycteris,  etc.,  easily  recognised  by  the  narrow  muzzle  and  the  long, 
slender,  extensile  tongue,  tipped  at  the  extremity  with  aensile  papillse,  and 
capable  of  being  protruded  a  long  distance  in  advance  of  the  tongue.  Like 
the  javelin-bats,  these  vampires  have  a  small  spear-shaped  jiose-leaf  rising 
vertically  from  the  muzzle  immediately  between  the  nostrils.  The  tongue 
appears  to  be  used  both  to  scoop  out  the  soft  interior  of  fruits,  and  likewise 
to  extract  small  insects  from  tubular  flowers. 

Another  well-marked  assemblage  is  formed  by  the  short-nosed  vampires, 
of  which  there  are  no  less  than  nine  genera,  and  among  which  Artibeus  and 
Stenoderma  may  be  mentioned  by  name.  All  these  bats,  which  are  for  the 
most  part  frugivorous  in  their  diet,  are  distinguished  by  the  extreme  short- 
ness of  their  muzzles,  which  are  generally  very  wide,  and  are  provided  with  a 
short  nose-leaf  ;  the  fore-part  of  the  latter  being  in  the  form  of  a  horse-shoe, 
and  the  hinder  moiety  spear-shaped.  One  of  these  species  (Artibeus  per- 
spicillatus)  is  very  common  in  the  plantations  of  Jamaica,  where  it  feeds  on 
mangoes,  bread-fruit,  etc. 

The  last  representatives  of  this  extensive  family  are  the  blood-sucking 
vampires,  of  which  one  species  alone  constitutes  the  genus  Desmodus, 
while  the  latter  represents  another  genus  named  Diphylla.  Both  these 
bats  are  characterised  by  the  short  and  conical  form  of  the  muzzle, 
which  carries  a  small  nose-leaf,  the  shortness  of  the  membrane  be- 
tween the  hind-legs,  the  absence  of  a  tail,  and  the  small  number  and 
peculiar  structure  of  the  teeth.  In  the  first-named  genus  the  total  number 
of  teeth  is  20,  molars  being  wanting  ;  but  in  the  second  it  is  22,  owing 
to  the  presence  of  a  pair  of  rudimentary  molars  in  the  upper  jaw.  Both 
have  a  single  pair  of  broad  chisel-like  incisor  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw, 
which  fill  up  the  whole  space  between  the  tusks  ;  and  the  two  pairs  of 
upper,  and  three  pairs  of  lower  premolars  have  sharp  cutting  edges.  In 


42  MAMMALIA—ORDER  IIL—INSECTIVORA. 


correlation  with  the  nature  of  their  diet,  the  stomach  of  these  bats 
is  narrowed  and  elongated  into  a  tube-like  organ.  The  common  vampire 
(Desmodus  rufus),  ranging  from  Central  America  to  the  south  of  Brazil, 
measures  about  three  inches  in  length,  and  has  reddish-brown  fur  on  the 
upper  parts.  The  second  species  (Diphylla  ecaudata)  is  rather  smaller,  and 
confined  to  Brazil.  These  bats  attack  animals  by  shaving  away  the  upper 
layer  of  the  skin  from  some  bare  part  with  their  incisor  teeth,  and  then  suck 
up  the  blood  as  it  oozes  from  the  capillary  vessels. 


ORDER  III.— INSECTIYORA. 
INSECT- EATING  MAMMALS. 

THE  third  order  of  Mammals  comprises  a  large  number  of  mostly  small-sized 
insectivorous  species,  structurally  nearly  allied  to  the  bats,  but  with  the  fore- 
limbs  of  normal  structure.  With  the  exception  of  the  tree-shrews  and  a  few 
aquatic  species,  they  are  all  more  or  less  completely  nocturnal  in  their  habits  ; 
but  the  group  as  a  whole  is  one  by  no  means  easy  of  definition.  As  a  rule, 
they  have  five  toes  to  each  foot,  all  of  which  are  furnished  with  claws,  and 
neither  the  thumb  nor  the  great  toe  is  capable  of  being  opposed  to  the  other 
digits.  In  walking  the  whole  sole  of  the  foot  is  applied  to  the  ground,  in 
what  is  termed  the  plantigrade  manner.  The  crowns  of  their  short  upper 
molar  toeth  are  surmounted  by  a  number  of  minute,  sharp  cusps,  which  may 
be  arranged  either  in  the  form  of  a  W  or  a  V  ;  and  the  incisor  teeth,  of  which 
there  are  not  less  than  two  pairs  in  the  lower  jaw,  are  never  chisel-like,  but 
the  first  pair  is  often  larger  than  the  others.  The  canines,  or  tusks,  are  very 
generally  not  distinctly  larger  than  the  other  teeth  ;  and  there  is  never  a 
pair  of  scissor-like  cheek-teeth  like  those  characterising  the  terrestrial 
Garni vora.  Except  in  one  or  two  species,  perfect  collar-bones  are  developed  ; 
and  the  lobes  of  the  brain  are  nearly  smooth,  thus  indicating  very  low 
mental  powers.  Externally,  Insectivores  very  generally  have  long  slender 
and  narrow  snouts,  with  the  muzzle  projecting  considerably  beyond  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  lower  jaw  ;  and  while  many  of  them  are  coated  with  fur, 
which  may  be  harsh  and  rough,  others  have  a  covering  of  spines,  or  spines 
mingled  with  fur. 

As  regards  their  geographical  distribution,  these  Mammals  present  some 
very  curious  features.  In  the  first  place,  they  are  totally  wanting  in  South 
America,  where  their  place  is  taken  by  the  Marsupial  opossums  ;  but  they 
are  represented  by  a  peculiar  family,  with  one  genus,  in  the  West  Indian 
Islands.  A  more  or  less  closely  allied  family  occurs  in  Madagascar,  where 
there  are  also  other  peculiar  types  ;  and  the  order  is  distributed  over  North 
America  and  all  the  great  continents  of  the  Old  World,  although  absent  from 
Australia  and  Papua.  From  geological  evidence,  coupled  with  its  abundance 
in  Madagascar,  the  order  is  evidently  an  ancient  one  ;  and  its  existing  members 
have  probably  been  enabled  to  survive  either  by  their  small  size  and  nocturnal 
habits,  their  protective  armour  of  spines,  or  from  dwelling  in  countries 
where  the  larger  Carnivora  are  either  absent  or  but  few  in  number,  or  by  having 
taken  to  a  subterranean  mode  of  life.  Whereas  the  majority  of  the  Insectivora 
are  terrestrial,  the  flying-lemurs  are  arboreal,  and  able  to  take  flying  leaps 


INSECT-EATING  MAMMALS. 


43 


from  tree  to  tree  ;  the  tree-shrews  are  also  arboreal  ;  the  moles  and  some  of 
the  shrews,  on  the  other  hand,  are  burrowers  ;  and  the  desmans,  certain 
shrews,  and  the  African  /  otamogale  are  aquatic  in  their  habits. 

From  all  other  members  of  the  order  the  so-called  flying-lemurs,  or  cobegos, 
are  at  once  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  an  expansion  of  the  skin  of  the 
sides  of  the  body  connecting  the  fore  and  hind -limbs,  and  _. 

also  by  the  toes  of  both  feet  being  webbed  right  up  to  the  Flvinff  Lemurs 
sharp  and  curved  claws.       The  hind-legs  are  likewise  con-        —Family 
nected  together  in  a  similar  manner  ;  the  connecting  skin   Galecpithecidce . 
involving  the  whole  of  the  long  tail.     Another  remarkable 
feature  is  to  be  found  in  the  conformation  of  the  incisor  teeth,  which  in  both 
jaws  are  flattened  from  back  to  front,  the  upper  ones  being  cusped,  while 
the  lower  ones  differ  from  those  of  all  other 
Mammals  in  being  of  a  comb-like  structure. 

The  cobegos,  of  which  there  are  two  species 
belonging  to  the  single  genus  Galeopithecus, 
range  from  Tenasserim  through  the  Malayan 
Peninsula  and  Islands  to  the  Philippines  and 
Siam.  Unlike  the  ordinary  members  of  the 
order  to  which  they  are  assigned,  they  subsist 
mainly  on  leaves  and  fruits.  During  the  day- 
time they  hang  head-downwards  in  a  bat-like 
manner  from  the  boughs  or  stems  of  trees  ; 
but  at  dusk  and  during  the  night  pass  from 
tree  to  tree  in  long  flying  leaps,  supported 
by  the  parachute,  such  leaps  being  at  times 
as  much  as  seventy  yards  in  length.  In  size, 
the  common  Malayan  species  may  be  com- 
pared to  an  ordinary  cat.  Owing  to  their 
great  structural  differences  from  the  other 
members  of  the  order,  the  cobegos  are  regarded  as  forming  a  sub -order 
by  themselves,  under  the  name  of  Dermoptera;  all  the  other  forms  con- 
stituting a  second  subordinal  group  known  as  the  Insectivora  Vera. 

The  tree-shrews,  or  tupaias,  of  the  Oriental  countries,  are  the  first  of  a 
group  of  five  families  characterised  by  having  broad  upper  molar  teeth,  upon 
the  summits  of  which  the  numer-     Tree_SilreWB  _ 
ous  small  cusps  are  arranged  more          Family 
or  less  in  the  shape  of  the  letter        TupaiidcB 
W.       In     appearance    the    tree- 
shrews,    except    as    regards    their   long,    pointed 
muzzles,    are   so    like  small   squirrels,    that  they 
might    easily    be    mistaken    for    those    animals  ; 
and  this  resemblance,  together  with  their  arboreal 
habits,    is   one   of   the   features    by   which    they 
are    most    easily    recognised.       From    the    next 
family  they  may  be  distinguished  by  the  socket  of 
the  eye  being  completely  surrounded  by  bone  in 
the  skull,  and  likewise  by  the  metatarsus,  or  upper 
portion  of  the  hind-foot,  being  of  normal  propor- 
tions.     They  are  all  animals  of  small  size,  with  thick  fur,  short  ears,  and 
the  long  tail  either  bushy  throughout  or  with  a  pen-like  expansion  near  the 
end.      Tree-shrews  subsist  on  both  insects  and  fruit,  taking  the  latter  in 


Fig.  22. — THE  FLYING-LEMUR 
(  Galeopithecums  volans). 


Fig.  23.— TREE-SHREW 
(Tupaia  tana). 


44  MAMMALIA— ORDER  IIL—INSECTIVORA. 


their  fore-paws  and  sitting  up  to  devour  it  in  a  squirrel-like  manner. 
Although  chiefly  arboreal,  they  at  times  seek  their  food  on  the  ground. 

The  typical  tree-shrews  (Tupaia),  which  range  from  India  to  the  Philippines, 
and  are  represented  by  a  large  number  of  species,  have  the  long  tail  bushy 
throughout,  although  the  longer  hairs  are  arranged  on  the  upper  and  lateral 
surfaces,  the  under  side  being  short-haired.  Two  species,  of  which  one  is 
from  Borneo  and  the  other  "from  Siam,  have  been  separated  as  Dendrogale, 
although  this  scarcely  seems  necessary.  Very  distinct  is,  however,  the  beauti- 
ful little  pen-tailed  shrew  (PtUocercus  lowi)  of  Borneo  and  some  of  the 
adjacent  islands,  in  which  the  exceeding  long  tail  is  evenly  short-haired  for 
the  greater  portion  of  its  length,  although  towards  its  extremity  it  bears  a 
double  row  of  long  hairs,  arranged  like  the  vanes  of  a  feather.  This  little 
creature  measures  between  five  and  six  inches  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  which 
is  considerably  longer  than  the  head  and  body. 

In   Africa    south   of   the  Sahara   the   place   of   the   tree-shrews  is  taken 
by    the   terrestrial    jumping-shrews,    one    species    of    the    typical   genus 
ranging  into  Northern  Africa.     From  the  tree-shrews  these 
Jumping1- Shrews,  animals  differ  not  only  by  their  terrestrial  habits,  but  also 
— Family          by  the  elongation  of  the  rnetatarsal  segment  of  the  hind-foot, 
Macroscdididce.    which  enables  them  to  take  the  leaps  from  which  they  derive 
their  name  ;  and  likewise  by  the  bony  rim  of  the  socket  of 
the  eye  being  incomplete  behind.     The  tail  also  is  not  bushy.     In  the  typical 
genus  the  snout  is  elongated  so  as  to  form  a  short  proboscis,  on  which 
account  the  name  of  elephant-shrew  is  applied  to  these 
creatures. 

In  the  typical  jumping-shrews  (Macrosceddes)  the 
number  of  teeth  is  usually  42,  and  there  are  five  toes 
on  the  fore-foot  and  generally  the  same  number  on  the 
hind-foot ;  while  the  ears  are  large,  and  the  tail  is  naked 
and  rat-like.  In  one  species  (M.  tetradactylus\  from  the 
Mozambique  Coast,  there  are,  however,  but  40  teeth, 
while  the  number  of  toes  on  the  hind-foot  is  reduced  to 
four  ;  and  on  this  account  the  animal  is  generically  sepa- 
rated by  some  as  Petrodomus.  A  very  distinct  genus  is 
formed  by  the  long  nosed  jumping-shrews  (Rkynchocyon) 
Fig.  24.— A  JUMPING-  from  the  East  Coast  of  Africa,  in  which  there  are  only 
SHREW  (Macroscelides).  33  ^^  and  bufc  four  toes  fco  b()th  the_front  and  hind. 

feet.  The  hind-legs  are  also  relatively  shorter.  Unlike  the  tree-shrews,  the 
members  of  this  family  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits. 

In    the    three   remaining    families    of    the    group    with    the    cusps    on 

the  upper  molars  arranged  in  the  form  of  the  letter  W,  the  brain-cavity  is 

relatively  smaller  than  in  the  two  preceding  families,  and 

Hedgehog  Tribe,  the   union  of   the  front   portion  of  the  lower   part  of  the 

—Family         pelvis  in  the  middle   line  of   the   body  either   shorter   or 

ErinaceidcB.  altogether  wanting,  while  not  only  has  the  socket 
of  the  eye  no  complete  bony  ring,  but  even  the  post- 
orbital  process  found  in  the  jumping-shrews  is  totally  absent.  Although 
the  hedgehogs  themselves  are  easily  distinguished  from  the  other  members 
of  the  group  by  their  spiny  covering,  this  is  not  the  case  with  their  more 
rat-like  allies  the  gymnuras  ;  and  accordingly  other  characters  have  to  be 
sought  in  order  to  define  the  family  Erinaceidce.  In  all  save  one  species  the 
feet  are  five-toed  and  furnished  with  claws  adapted  for  digging  ;  while  the 


INSECT-EATING  MAMMALS.  45 


first  and  second  upper  molar  teeth  have  five  distinct  cusps,  the  central  one  of 
which  is  minute. and  connected  with  the  two  inner  ones  by  oblique  ridges. 
The  family  is  confined  to  the  Old  World. 

The  hedgehogs  (Erinaceus)  are  sufficiently  distinguished  by  the  coat  of 
spines  covering  the  upper  surface  and  sides  of  the  body,  and  their  power  of 
rolling  themselves  up  into  a  ball  as  a  defence  against  attack,  and  are  likewise 
such  familiar  animals,  that  but  little  in  the  way  of  description  is  neces- 
sary. The  tail  is  extremely  short ;  and  the  total  number  of  teeth  is  36. 
Hedgehogs  are  distributed  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe  and  portions  of 
Africa  and  Asia,  although  unknown  in  the  countries  lying  east  of  the  Bay  of 
Bengal,  and  likewise  in  Madagascar.  The  European  species  (E.  europceus) 
differs  from  all  the  others  by  the  coarser  nature  of  the  fur  between  the  spines, 
and  by  the  upper  canine  tooth  being  inserted  by  one  instead  of  two  roots. 
In  habits,  all  hedgehogs  are  nocturnal  and  omnivorous,  their  diet  comprising 
insects,  molluscs,  eggs,  voles,  fruits,  and  roots.  In  cold  countries  they  hiber- 
nate in  a  nest  made  of  leaves  and  grass,  and  well  concealed  among  bushes. 

The  shrew-hedgehogs,  which  may  be  compared  to  large,  coarsely-haired 
shrews,  replace  the  hedgehogs  in  Burma  and  the  Malay  countries.  They 
differ  from  the  latter  by  being  covered  with 
coarse  hair  instead  of  spines,  as  well  as  in 
having  44  teeth.  There  are  two  species, 
of  which  Raffles' s  shrew-hedgehog  (Gymnura, 
rafflesi)  is  by  far  the  commoner,  and  con- 
siderably the  larger,  measuring  12  or  14 
inches  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  which  is  long 
and  rat-like.  The  smaller  shrew-hedgehog 
(Hylomys  suillus\  on  the  other  hand,  measures 
less  than  5  inches,  with  a  tail  of  only  an  inch 
in  length,  and  has  the  third  upper  premolar  .-- 

tooth  much  smaller  than  in  the  first  species.  (Gymnura  rafflesi). 

The  range  of  both  is  nearly  co-extensive. 

The  numerous  representatives  of  this  extensive  family  are  mouse-like  or 
rat-like  creatures,  with  soft,  short  fur,  long  and  pointed  snouts,   rounded 
ears,  closely  pressed  to  the  sides  of  the  head,  and  a  very 
peculiar  type  of  dentition.     From  ordinary  rats  and  mice     The  Shrews. — 
they  may  be  distinguished  by  their  typically  insectivorous  Family 

snouts  ;  but  it  is  remarkable  that  a  peculiar  rat  recently  dis-  Soricidce. 
covered  in  the  Philippines  is  curiously  like  a  shrew  in  this 
respect,  although  it  retains  the  characteristic  rodent  incisor  teeth,  which  are, 
however,  reduced  to  an  exceedingly  small  size.  As  regards  their  dentition, 
shrews  are  specially  characterised  by  the  first  pair  of  upper  incisor  teeth  being 
long  and  generally  sickle-shaped,  with  a  more  or  less  distinct  projecting  basal 
cusp  on  the  hinder  border,  while  those  of  the  lower  jaw  are  long,  and  projecting 
forwards,  in  some  cases  with  an  upward  curve  at  the  tip.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  one  African  species,  there  are  only  six  pairs  of  lower  teeth.  A  pecu- 
liarity of  the  skull  of  the  shrews  is  the  absence  of  the  bony  zygomatic  arch 
running  beneath  the  socket  of  the  eye,  although  the  same  deficiency  is  found 
in  one  species  of  hedgehog.  The  upper  molars  of  the  shrews  lack  the  fifth 
cusp  found  in  the  first  two  of  these  teeth  in  the  hedgehogs. 

The  shrews  are  not  only  more  numerous  in  genera  and  species  than  any 
other  family  of  the  order  to  which  they  belong,  but  have  likewise  a  much 
wider  geographical  distribution,  being  found  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe. 


46  MAMMALIA— ORDER  III.—INSECTIVORA. 


as  well  as  in  the  temperate  and  tropical  portions  of  Asia  and  North  America, 
and  also  in  Africa,  although  they  are  represented  in  Madagascar  only  by  a 
single  species,  which  is  not  improbably  introduced.  Although  the  majority 
of  the  shrews  are  terrestrial  and  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  a  few  have  taken 
to  an  aquatic  mode  of  life.  They  are  all  very  shy  and  retiring,  which  is  prob- 
ably their  chief  protection  ;  and  their  food  is  entirely  composed  of  insects, 
worms,  molluscs,  and  such  like.  Many  shrews  exhale  a  strong,  musky  odour ; 
and  at  certain  times  of  the  year  many  of  these  animals  are  found  lying  dead 
in  the  open,  the  cause  of  this  mortality  not  being  at  present  clearly  ascer- 
tained. Although  it  may  seem  a  trivial  character,  the  circumstance  of  the 
teeth  being  stained  reddish-brown,  or  simply  white,  serves  to  divide  the 
shrews  into  two  groups. 

The  typical  shrews,  or  those  forming  the  genus  Sorex,  belong  to  the  group 
with  reddish  teeth,  and  are  specially  characterised  by  having  32  teeth,  the  ear 
well-developed,  and  the  long  tail  covered  with  hairs  of  equal  or  nearly  equal 
length.  The  range  of  the  genus  includes  North  America,  Europe,  and  Asia 
north  of  the  Himalaya  ;  its  British  representatives  being  the  common  shrew 
(S.  arauens)  and  the  lesser  shrew  (S.  pygmceus).  Although  shrews  hibernate, 
specimens  have  been  occasionally  seen  running  over  the  snow  in  mid- winter. 
The  Oriental  shrews  (Soriculus),  which  are  the  only  representatives  of  the 
red-toothed  group  in  that  region,  are  nearly  allied  ;  but  they  have  generally 
only  30  teeth,  and  the  first  upper  incisor  has  an  inner  cusp.  Nearly  allied 
are  two  Mexican  species  constituting  the  genus  Notiosorex,  and  characterised 
by  having  only  28  teeth  and  no  inner  cusp  to  the  first  upper  incisor,  the  tail 
being  also  shorter.  A  larger  American  genus  is  Blarina,  which  is  mainly 
confined  to  the  northern  part  of  that  continent,  although  a  few  forms  descend 
into  Central  America.  Here  the  number  of  teeth  varies  from  30  to  32,  while 
the  ear  is  truncated  above  and  the  tail  short,  the  other  characters  being  the 
same  as  in  Soriculus.  The  water-shrews  (Crossopus),  which  are  the  last  repre- 
sentatives of  the  red-toothed  section,  have  30  teeth,  small,  non-truncated  ears, 
the  long  tail  fringed  on  its  lower  surface  with  elongated  hairs,  and  the  feet 
also  fringed.  The  single  species  (C.  fodiens)  is  thoroughly  aquatic,  and  ranges 
from  England  to  the  Altai  Mountains. 

Certain  shrews  from  Africa  constituting  the  genus  Myosorex  are  the  first 
representatives  of  the  white-toothed  section,  and  are  specially  characterised 
by  having  well-developed  ears,  a  long  tail  clothed  with  nearly  or  quite  equal 
hairs,  and  either  30  or  32  teeth,  one  minute  species  being  unique  in  having 
seven  pairs  of  lower  teeth.  More  numerous  are  the  well-known  musk-shrews 
(Crocidura),  differing  from  the  last  in  having  28  or  30  teeth,  and  the  long 
tail  covered  with  a  mixture  of  long  and  short  hairs.  These  shrews  range  from 
South  and  Central  Europe  to  Africa  and  Asia,  reaching  as  far  east  as  Amurland, 
and  being  represented  by  one  species  in  Madagascar.  Out  of  some  80  species 
one  of  the  best  known  is  the  Indian  musk-shrew  (C.  c<xrulea\  commonly 
known  as  the  musk-rat,  of  which  the  odour  is  so  strong  that  every  article  of 
food  is  rendered  uneatable  by  the  mere  passage  over  it  of  the  animal.  The 
Kirghiz  shrew  (Diplomesodon  pulchellus)  alone  represents  a  genus  differing 
from  the  last  by  the  shorter  tail,  the  hairy  soles  of  the  feet,  and  the  presence 
of  only  26  teeth.  The  two  mole-shrews  (Anurosorex),  of  which  one  is  from 
Assam  and  the  other  from  Tibet  and  China,  are  peculiar  in  being  of  fossorial 
habits,  and  may  be  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  the  external  conch 
of  the  ear,  the  short  tail,  the  naked  soles  of  the  scale-covered  feet,  and  the 
velvety  fur.  The  two  remaining  genera  are  aquatic,  and  thus  occupy  in  this 


INSECT-EATING  MAMMALS.  47 


section  a  position  similar  to  that  held  by  the  water-shrew  in  the  red-toothed 
division  of  the  family.  Of  these,  the  swimming  shrews  (Cfiimarroyale)  are 
represented  by  one  species  from  the  Himalaya,  the  hills  north  of  Burma,  and 
the  mountains  of  North  Borneo,  and  by  a  second  from  Japan.  They  have 
28  teeth,  the  long  tail  with  a  fringe  of  elongated  hair  beneath,  small  ears,  and 
the  toes  free.  On  the  other  hand,  the  web-footed  shrew  (Nectogale  elegans) 
of  Tibet,  while  agreeing  with  the  last  in  the  number  of  its  teeth,  differs  in  the 
absence  of  external  ear-conches,  its  webbed  toes,  and  in  the  development  of  the 
pads  on  the  soles  of  the  hind- feet  into  adhesive  suckers,  the  tail  being  longer 
than  the  body.  Probably  this  shrew  is  more  completely  aquatic  than  any 
other  member  of  the  family.  Its  eyes  are  very  minute,  and  the  dark  velvety 
fur  of  the  upper  parts  displays  a  beautiful  iridescent  lustre. 

Although  the  common  mole  is  sufficiently  distinct  from  a  shrew,  other 
forms  so  closely  connect  the  Talpidce  with  the  Soricidce  that  internal  char- 
acters have  to  be  relied  on  to  distinguish  the  two  families.  The 
present  family  may,  however,  be  differentiated  from  the  last  The  Desmans  and 
by  the  presence  of  a  bony  zygomatic  arch  in  the  skull,  and  Moles. — Family 
likewise  by  the  development  of  a  distinct  auditory  bulla  in  Talpidce. 
the  same,  as  well  as  by  the  conformation  of  the  teeth.  The 
eyes  are  always  small,  and  may  be  covered  by  the  skin  ;  the  short  ears  are 
buried  in  the  dense  fur  ;  the  fore-limbs  are  generally  modified  either  for  dig- 
ging or  swimming  ;  there  is  no  median  union  of  the  pubic  portion  of  the 
pelvis  on  the  under  surface  of  the  body  ;  in  the  lower  leg  the  tibia  and 
fibula  are  welded  into  a  single  bone  ;  and  the  first  pair  of  incisor  teeth  in 
each  jaw  are  of  simple  structure,  and  the  lower  pair  do  not  project  forwards. 
Thf-  range  of  the  family  includes  the  temperate  portions  of  Europe,  Asia,  and 
North  America,  two  moles  only  occurring  south  of  the  Himalaya.  A  few 
species  are  cursorial,  and  the  desmans  are  aquatic,  but  the  majority  of  the 
family  are  fossorial  in  their  habits. 

The  two  species  of  desman  (Myogale)  are  the  typical  representatives  of  a 
section  of  the  family  in  which  the  collar-bones  and  humerus  or  upper  arm 
bone,  are  moderately  elongated,  and  the  front 
paws  have  no  additional  sickle-shaped  bone. 
As  a  genus,  the  desmans  are  specially  distin- 
guished by  the  possession  of  44  teeth,  their 
webbed  feet,  the  long,  trunk-like  snout, 
which  projects  far  in  advance  of  the  upper  lip, 
and  the  long  scaly  tail.  The  Russian  desman 
(M.  Moschata),  which  measures  about  16 
inches  in  length,  has  a  compressed  tail  ; 
whereas  in  the  much  smaller  Pyrenean  species 
(M  pyrenaica)  the  tail  is  cylindrical,  and  the 
snout  relatively  longer  Both  inhabit  the  ^.-RUSSIAN  DESMAN 

banks    of    rivers    and    lakes,    are    excellent  (Myogale  moschata). 

swimmers,  and  live  on  water-insects  and  snails. 

The  shrew-moles,  of  which  there  are  two  genera,  form  a  connecting  link 
between  the  moles  and  shrews.  In  Urotrichus,  of  which  there  is  one 
Japanese  and  one  North  American  species  (the  latter  being  separated  by 
some  as  Neurotrichus),  there  are  36  teeth,  and  the  broad  fore-paws  are  adapted 
for  digging  ;  whereas  in  the  single  Tibetan  species  of  Uropsilus  there  are 
34  teeth,  the  fore-paws  are  narrow,  and  the  tail  is  naked  and  scaly. 

The   North   American  web-footed  moles  (Sccdops)  belong  to  the  second 


48  MAMMALIA— ORDER  IIL—INSECTIVORA. 


division  of  the  family,  in  which  the  collar-bones  and  humerus  are  very  short 
and  wide,  and  the  fore-paws  are  furnished  with  an  additional  sickle-like  bone 
next  the  thumb.  In  this  genus  the  tip  of  the  snout  is  simple,  the  hind-foot 
webbed,  the  tail  short  and  nearly  naked,  and  the  first  upper  incisor  tooth 
longer  than  the  second.  Curiously  enough,  in  spite  of  their  webbed  hind- 
feet,  these  animals  are  not  aquatic,  but  subterranean  in  their  habits,  burrow- 
ing after  the  manner  of  the  ordinary  mole.  The  two  North  American  hairy- 
tailed  moles  (Scapanus)  differ  in  having  44  teeth,  and  the  tail  hairy.  Having 
the  same  number  of  teeth  as  the  last,  the  star-nosed  mole  (Condylura  cristata) 
of  North  America  is  sufficiently  distinguished  by  the  curious  star-like  ring  of 
appendages  surrounding  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle.  The  tail  is  nearly  equal 
in  length  to  the  body  ;  and  the  front-paws  are  less  powerful  than  in  the  true 
moles,  and  have  no  cleft  in  the  bones  of  their  terminal  joints. 

From  all  the  American  representations  of  the  section  the  true  moles 
(Taipei)  of  the  Old  World  may  be  at  once  distinguished  by  the  first  pair  of 
upper  incisor  teeth  scarcely  exceeding  the  second  in  size.  As  a  rule, 
there  are  44  teeth,  and  the  fore-paws  are  characterised  by  their  extra- 
ordinary width  and  power  ;  the  tail  being  very  short,  and  in  a  Nepalese 
species  (T.  micrura)  concealed  by  the  fur.  With  the  exception  of  the 
common  mole  (T.  enropwa),  the  eyes  are  covered  by  a  membrane;  and  in  all 
they  are  functionally  useless.  The  appearance  and  habits  of  the  moles  are 
too  well  known  to  need  description.  The  common  species,  although  un- 
known in  Ireland,  ranges  from  England  to  Japan,  and  a  second  European 
species  (T.  cceca)  is  found  to  the  south  of  the  Alps.  The  other  seven  species 
are  exclusively  Asiatic,  two  only  occurring  to  the  south  of  the  Himalaya,  one 
of  which  inhabits  Nepal  and  Assam.  By  some  the  Tibetan  musk-mole 
(T.  moschata)  is  generically  separated  as  Scaplochirus.  The  only  other  member 
of  the  family  is  the  yellow-tailed  mole  (Scaptonyx  fuscicaudatus)  of  Eastern 
Tibet,  which  differs  from  the  true  moles  in  having  only  two  pairs  of  lower 
incisor  teeth,  and  also  in  the  narrower  fore-feet,  thus  approximating  to  the 
shrew-moles. 

Two  very  remarkable  Insectivores,  the  one  from  Western  Africa,  and  the 
other  from  Madagascar,  differ  from  all  the  preceding,  and  agree  with  the 
following  families  in  having  narrow  upper  teeth,  with  their 
Family  Pota-     cusps  arranged  in  the  form  of  the  letter  V  ;  this  section 
mogalidce.        being  apparently  less  specialised  than  the  one  in  which  they 
form  a  W.     In  the  skull  the  zygomatic  arch  is  wanting,  and 
the  auditory  bulla  is  represented  by  a  simple  ring  ;  collar-bones  are  want- 
ing; and  the  pubic  portion  of  the  pelvis  is  united  inferiorly  only  by  ligament. 

The  African  Potamogale  is  a  thoroughly 
aquatic  creature,  measuring  about  two 
feet  in  length,  with  40  teeth,  a  long 
cylindrical  body,  long  and  compressed 
tail,  short  legs,  unwebbed  feet,  and  the 
nostrils  with  protecting  valves.  In  colour 
it  is  dark  brown  above,  with  violet  re- 
flexions, and  whitish  below.  Very  differ- 
ent is  the  small  mouse-like  Geogale  of 
Madagascar,  which  has  oidy  34  teeth,  and 
Ftg.W.-Potamogalevelox.  ^  differg  in  having  fche  lower  ends  of 

the  tibia  and  fibula  in  the  leg  separate,  although  it  is  not  known  whether 
collar-bones  are  present. 


INSECT-EATING  MAMMALS.  49 


Two  curious  Insectivores,  one  inhabiting  Cuba  and  the  other  Hayti,  form 
the  genus  Solenodon,  which  alone  represents  a  family  agreeing  in  the  general 
characters  of  the  teeth  and  skull  with  the  last,  but  differing 
in  that  there  is  a  short  bony  union  between  the  pubic  por-     Family  Solen- 
tion  of  the  pelvis  ;  and  also  in  that  the  teats  are  situated  on        odontidce. 
the  buttocks.     These  animals  have  a  very  long  cylindrical 
snout,  with  the  nostrils  opening  on  its  sides,  a  long  naked  tail,  feet  adapted 
for  walking,  and  the  fur  long  and  coarse.     They  resemble  Potamogale  in 
having  the  second  pair  of  lower  incisor  teeth  much  larger  than  the  first,  but 
are  peculiar  in  that  the  crowns  of  the  former  are  deeply  excavated.     These 
animals  probably  feed  on  flesh  as  well  as  on  insects. 

The  tenrecs  of  Madagascar  and  the  Comoro  Islands,  of  which  there  are 
five  genera  and  a  considerable  number  of  species,  constitute  another  closely 
allied  family,  mainly  distinguished  from  the  last  by  the  teats 
being  situated  on  the  breast  and  abdomen.  The  true  tenrec  The  Tenrecs. 
(Centetes  ecaudatu&\  which  is  the  largest  member  of  the  — Family 
order  and  the  sole  member  of  its  genus,  is  characterised  by  Centetidce. 
the  absence  of  a  tail,  and  the  possession  of  40  teeth,  among 
which  there  are  four  pairs  of  upper  molars — the  latter  feature  being  almost 
unique  among  Mammals  other  than  the  Marsupials.  The  adult  males  differ 
from  most  Insectivores  in  possessing  large 
tusks  in  both  jaws  ;  and  while  the  young  have 
long  rows  of  white  spines  along  the  back, 
these  disappear  in  the  adult.  The  total  length 
of  a  full-grown  specimen  varies  from  12  to  16 
inches.  The  number  of  young  produced  at  a 
birth  is  very  great,  upwards  of  twenty-one 
having  been  recorded  in  one  instance.  Nearly  _. 
allied  are  the  two  species  of  streaked  tenrecs ,**  *-*«««>  (Centetes  ecaudate). 
(Hemicentetes),  distinguished  by  having  three  in  place  of  two  pairs  of  upper 
incisor  teeth,  and  probably  only  three  of  upper  molars,  as  well  as  by  the 
smaller  dimensions  of  the  canines,  which  scarcely  exceed  the  incisors  in  size. 
In  these  animals,  which  may  be  compared  in  size  to  a  mole,  the  rows  of 
spines  on  the  back  are  permanently  retained.  The  small  animals  known  as 
hedgehog-tenrecs  (Ericulus)  take  their  title  from  their  resemblance  to  minia- 
ture hedgehogs,  although  it  is  probable  that  they  are  incapable  of  rolling 
themselves  into  such  a  complete  ball-like  form  as  are  the  latter.  The  whole 
of  the  back  and  sides  are  protected  by  a  coat  of  parti-coloured  short  spines  ; 
and  these  animals  are  further  distinguished  by  the  possession  of  a  short  tail. 
While  in  one  species  (E.  setosus)  the  number  of  teeth  is  36,  in  the 
second  (E.  telfairi)  it  is  reduced  to  34.  By  some  the  latter  is  made 
the  type  of  a  distinct  genus,  under  the  name  of  Echinops.  The  two  mouse- 
like long-tailed  tenrecs,  forming  the  genus  Microgale,  differ  from  all  tho 
foregoing  in  the  absence  of  spines  in  the  fur  at  all  ages,  and  likewise  by  the 
extraordinary  length  of  the  tail,  which  in  one  of  the  two  is  double  that  of 
the  head  and  body.  The  number  of  teeth  is  40.  Lastly,  the  two  mole- 
like  rice-tenrecs  (Oryzorictes),  while  agreeing  with  the  preceding  genus  in  the 
absence  of  spines  among  the  fur,  differ  by  the  shortness  of  the  tail  and 
their  burrowing  habits.  Whereas  in  one  species  (0.  hova)  the  fore-foot 
has  the  usual  five  toes,  in  the  other  (0.  tetradactylus)  the  number  is 
reduced  to  four,  of  which  the  three  inner  ones  are  armed  with  strong 
digging  claws.  These  animals  do  much  harm  to  the  rice  crops  in  Mada- 
5 


50  MAMMALIA-ORDER  IV.— CARNIVORA. 


gascar  by  burrowing  beneath  the  roots  of  the  plants  in  search  of  insects 
and  grubs. 

The  last  family  of  the  Insectivora  is  represented  by  the  golden  or  Cape 

moles  (Chrysochioris))  which  take  their    name  from  the  iridescent  golden, 

green,  and  purple  metallic  tints  adorning  the  fur;  and  all  of 

Golden  Moles,     which  are  restricted  to  South  and  East  Africa.     From  the 

— Family         preceding  families  of  the  present  section  of  the  order  the 

Chrysocliloridce.   golden  moles  are  distinguished  by  the  possession  of  a  bony 

zygomatic  arch  and  auditory  bulla  in  the  skull;  and  their 

triangular  molar  teeth  are  remarkable  for  the  height  of  their  crowns.     In 

form,  these  animals  are  shorter  and  thicker  than  ordinary  moles,  with  the 

head  deeper,  and  the  muzzle  much  more  blunt.     The  eyes  are  covered  with 

skin,  and  the  ears  completely  buried  in  the 
fur.  The  fore-feet  are  modified  into  special 
digging  instruments,  and  have  but  four 
toes,  of  which  the  middle  pair  are  provided 
with  large  and  powerful  triangular  claws. 
Usually  there  are  40  teeth,  although  in 
some  species  the  number  is  reduced  to 

Fig.  29.-CAPE  GOLDEN  MOLB  86>    ™in3,  to    **".   loss   °*    th®    anterjor 

(Chrysochloris).  premolars  in  eacli  jaw.      I  he  golden  moles 

x  burrow  in  much  the  same  manner  as  the 

European  mole,  but  their  runs  are  made  so  little  below  the  surface  that  the 
earth  is  raised  as  a  continuous  ridge,  and  no  hillocks  are  thrown  up,  Like 
the  common  mole,  they  feed  almost  exclusively  on  earth  worms. 


ORDER  IV.— CARNIYORA. 

FLESH-EATING  MAMMALS. 

THIS  great  and  important  order  of  Mammals  includes  all  the  terrestrial  beasts 
of  prey,  together  with  the  aquatic  seals  and  walruses.  Although  their  car- 
nivorous propensities  form  one  of  the  most  distinctive  features  of  the 
majority  of  the  members  of  the  order,  ifc  must  not  be  assumed  that  by  any 
means  all  the  Garni  vora  are  exclusively  flesh-eaters,  many  of  the  bears  feeding 
largely  on  fruits  and  roots,  while  some  of  the  smaller  forms  subsist  largely 
on  insects.  Whether  the  typical  Carnivora  are  more  highly  organised  animals 
than  the  Primates,  is  a  matter  regarding  which  different  views  may  be 
entertained  ;  but  it  is  certain  that  for  their  particular  mode  of  life  these 
animals  have  attained  the  highest  development  of  which  the  Mammalian  type 
is  capable,  and  the  beauty  of  form  and  coloration  of  the  larger  cats,  as  well 
as  their  extreme  agility,  cannot  but  draw  forth  the  admiration  of  all.  A 
striking  feature  of  Carnivora  in  general  is  the  wide  geographical  range  of 
families,  genera  and  species,  and  the  large  number  of  specific  types  by  which 
the  former  are  represented  ;  the  order  presenting  in  this  respect  a  most 
marked  contrast  to  the  Insectivora,  in  which,  as  shown  above,  most  of  the 
families  and  genera  have  an  exceedingly  limited  distribution,  while  the 
number  of  species  contained  in  a  genus  is  usually  very  small.  The  reason 
of  this  is  obvious.  Carnivora  are  enabled  to  obtain  suitable  prey  in  every 


FLESH-EATING  MAMMALS.  51 


part  of  the  globe,  and  there  is,  in  consequence,  practically  no  limit  to  tho 
range  over  which  a  species  may  extend  itself  ;  while  being  dominant  forms, 
the  number  of  species  in  a  genus  has  naturally  multiplied  to  a  great  extent. 
As  might  be  expected  in  such  a  case,  the  different  species  of  many  large 
genera  display  a  marked  tendency  to  variation,  so  that  there  is  frequently 
much  difficulty  in  deciding  as  to  what  constitutes  a  species,  and  what  a  mere 
variety ;  this  being  remarkably  exemplified  among  the  great  groups  of  the 
cats  and  foxes. 

Although  certain  extinct  forms,  of  which  no  further  mention  will  be  made 
in  this  volume,  tend  to  connect  them  with  the  Insectivora,  the  modern  Car- 
nivora  form  a  tolerably  well-defined  group,  which  would,  however,  be  easier 
of  definition  were  the  seals  and  walruses  referred  to  a  separate  order. 
Throughout  the  group  the  number  of  toes  is  very  generally  five,  and  never 
falls  below  four  on  each  foot ;  and  in  all  cases  these  toes  are  armed  with 
claws,  which  are  usually  curved  and  sharp,  and  bear  no  resemblance  to  nails. 
Neither  the  equivalent  of  the  thumb  or  the  great  toe  of  the  Primates  can  be 
in  any  way  opposed  to  the  other  digits.  Very  frequently  collar-bones  are 
wanting,  and  in  no  instance  are  they  complete  ;  that  is  to  say,  they  never 
connect  the  blade-bone,  or  scapula,  with  the  breast-bone,  as  they  do  in  the 
Primates  and  Insectivora  (except  the  Potamogalidce).  The  teeth,  which  are 
divisible  into  the  ordinary  four  series,  are  generally  well-developed  ;  the 
number  of  incisors  being  usually  three  on  each  side  of  both  jaws,  and  the 
outer  pair,  especially  in  the  upper  jaw,  is  considerably  longer  than  either  of 
the  other  two.  The  canines  almost  invariably  form  large  tusks  ;  and  the 
more  anterior,  or  the  whole  of  the  cheek-teeth  have  compressed  and  pointed 
crowns,  frequently  consisting  of  one  large  central  cone,  supported  by  a 
smaller  cusp  in  front  and  behind.  In  the  terrestrial  Carnivora  the  last 
premolar  in  the  upper,  and  the  first  molar  in  the  lower  jaw,  are 
specially  modified  to  bite  against  one  another  with  a  scissor-like  action, 
and  are  accordingly  spoken  of  as  the  carnassial,  or  sectorial  teeth. 
These  teeth  attain  their  maximum  specialisation  and  perfection  among 
the  cats  :  whereas  in  the  bears  and  some  of  the  raccoon  family  their 
sectorial  character  is  much  less  marked,  although  it  is  still  noticeable.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  the  seals  and  walruses  all  the  cheek-teeth  are  nearly  alike, 
and  are  generally  cusped  and  sharp -pointed  throughout  the  series,  although 
blunt  in  the  latter  family.  The  modification  of  the  limbs  into  flippers  affords, 
however,  an  easy  method  of  distinguishing  the  whole  of  the  seal  group  from 
other  Mammals.  As  a  rule,  when  the  number  of  cheek-teeth  is  reduced  below 
the  normal,  the  reduction  takes  place  at  the  hinder,  or  molar  end  of  the  series, 
whereas  in  most  other  Mammals  it  is  the  anterior  premolars  that  tend  to 
disappear. 

In  the  skull  of  all  Carnivores  the  lower  jaw  is  articulated  by  a  transversely- 
extended  sub-cylindrical  condyle,  clasped  in  front  and  behind  by  two  over- 
lapping processes  from  the  skull  itself,  which  are  sometimes  so  prominent  as 
(in  the  badger)  to  prevent  the  dislocation  of  the  lower  jaw  without  fracturing 
the  bone.  Very  generally,  the  socket  of  the  eye  is  freely  open  behind,  al- 
though in  certain  cats  and  the  mungooses  it  is  surrounded  by  a  complete  bony 
ring.  The  zygomatic  arch,  so  frequently  absent  in  the  Insectivora,  is  almost 
invariably  well  developed  in  the  present  order.  A  peculiarity  in  the  wrist- 
joint  of  all  the  Carnivora  is  that  the  two  bones  known  as  the  scaphoid  and 
lunar,  forming  the  inner  and  upper  elements  of  the  upper  row  of  this  part 
of  the  skeleton  in  other  Mammals,  are  here  fused  together  to  form  but  a 


MAMMALIA—ORDER  IV.— CARNIVORA. 


single  bone.  Moreover,  the  central  bone  of  the  wrist,  which  is  present  in  all 
the  Primates,  save  man  and  some  of  the  man-like  apes  in  the  Carnivora,  is 
invariably  lacking.  From  the  Insectivora  the  Carnivora  are  further  distin- 
guished by  the  numerous  convolutions  on  the  surface  of  the  large  hemispheres 
of  the  brain. 

In  common  with  the  three  following  families  of  the  terrestrial  Carnivora,  the 
cats  are  distinguished  from  the  other  members  of  the  order  by  certain  very  im- 
portant structural  features  connected  with  the  hinder  part  of 
The  Cat  Tribe. —  the  base  of  the  skulL  In  all  these  families  that  chamber  of 
Family  Felidcu.  the  inner  ear  known  as  the  auditory  bulla  forms  a  thin  blad- 
der-like expansion,  divided  (except  in  the  hyaenas)  into  two 
compartments  by  a  vertical  bony  partition  ;  while  the  bony  auditory  meatus, 
or  tube,  leading  into  this  bulla,  is  remarkable  for  its  shortness.  From  their 
allies,  existing  cats  are  distinguished  by  the  strong  development  of  the  canine 
teeth,  by  the  molar  teeth  never  exceeding  one  pair  in  both  the  upper  and 
lower  jaws,  and  also  by  the  three  pairs  of  incisors  occupying  the  same  trans- 
verse line,  instead  of  the  middle  pair  being  pushed  up  above  the  level  of  the 
other  two.  The  single  upper  molar  is  a  flat  functionless  tooth,  with  its 
crown  considerably  wider  than  long,  and  placed  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
upper  carnassial,  which  consists  of  three  distinct  lobes.  The  lower  molar,  or 
carnassial,  is  a  highly  specialised  tooth,  usually  consisting  solely  of  a  two-lobed 
cutting  blade,  although  in  a  few  species  a  small  ledge  on  its  hinder  surface 
represents  the  large  heel  characterising  the  same  tooth  in  most  other  members 
of  the  order.  There  are  three  upper  and  two  lower  premolars ;  the  last  in 
the  upper  jaw  being  the  carnassial,  and  the  first  small  and  functionless.  The 
skull,  in  conformity  with  the  shape  of  the  head,  is  characterised  by  the  short- 
ness of  its  facial  portion  and  the  great  width  of  the  zygomatic  arches.  The 
general  form  of  the  cats  is  too  well  known  to  need  description  ;  but  it  may 
be  mentioned  that  the  fur  is  generally  thick  and  close,  and  that  its  markings 
usually  take  the  form  either  of  dark  transverse  stripes,  spots,  rosettes,  or 
dark-margined  cloudings  on  a  lighter  ground.  As  a  rule,  the  tail  is  long, 
cylindrical,  and  tapering  ;  while  it  is  very  frequently  marked  with  dark  and 
light  rings.  In  the  extreme  elongation  of  the  body,  a  few  cats,  like  the 
South  American  eyra,  approximate  to  the  civet-tribe  ;  but,  in  most  cases,  the 
body  is  of  moderate  length,  and  the  limbs  by  no  means  remarkably  short.  All 
cats  have  five  front  and  four  hind  toes,  the  first  front  toe  being  raised-  above 
the  others.  They  walk  on  the  tips  of  their  toes,  in  the  digitigrade  manner  ; 
and  in  the  great  majority  the  claws  are  capable  of  complete  retraction  within 
hollow  horny  sheaths,  by  specially  arranged  muscles,  and  are  thus  always  kept 
sharp  and  fit  for  use.  In  the  hunting-leopard  this,  however,  is  not  the  case, 
and  thab  animal  is  accordingly  referred  to  a  genus  apart  from  the  one  con- 
taining the  whole  of  the  other  species.  The  tongue  cf  cats  is  remarkable 
for  the  rough  rasping  papillae  with  which  its  upper  surface  is  coated  ;  and  in  the 
eye  the  pupil,  when  contracted,  frequently  assumes  the  form  of  a  vertical  slit. 

With  the  exception  of  New  Guinea,  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  cats  have 
a  world- wide  distribution,  and  inhabit  all  climates  and  stations,  save  the  ex- 
treme north. 

The  typical  cats  (Ftlis\  which  include  about  forty-six  different  species,  and 
have  a  distribution  co-extensive  with  that  of  the  family,  are  characterised  by 
the  claws  being  capable  of  withdrawal  into  the  aforesaid  protecting  sheaths, 
and  likewise  by  the  presence  of  a  distinct  tubercle  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
upper  carnassial  tooth.  The  largest  and  most  powerful  members  of  the  genus 


FLESH-EATING  MAMMALS.  53 


are  the  lion  (F.  Zeo),  common  to  Africa,  Persia,  and  India,  although  rapidly 
disappearing  from  the  latter  country  ;  the  tiger  (F.  tigris),  ranging  from 
India  to  China  and  Siberia,  although  unknown  in  Ceylon  ;  the  leopard  or 
panther  (F.  pardus\  also  common  to  Asia  and  Africa  ;  the  snow-leopard,  or 
ounce  (F.  undo)  of  Central  Asia  ;  the  jaguar  (F.  onca)  of  South  and  Central 
America  ;  and  the  puma  (F.  concolor),  which  has  the  widest  range  in  latitude 
of  any  animal,  extending  from  the  south  of  Patagonia  to  the  Great  Slave 
Lake.  Of  these,  the  lion  and  puma  are  uniformly  tawny -coloured  species, 
although  showing  traces  of  spots  in  the  young  state  and  sometimes  in  certain 
lights  even  in  the  adult  ;  the  male  lion  being  distinguished  from  all  other 
members  of  the  genus  by  the  large  mane  (which  may  be  dark  coloured), 
covering  the  head,  neck,  and  shoulders,  and  the  tuft  at  the  tip  of  the  tail, 
in  which  is  a  small  horny  claw  of  unknown  function.  The  tiger  has 
double  transverse  black  stripes  on  an  orange  or  tawny  ground  ;  while  all 
the  other  species  named  are  marked  by  dark  rosettes  or  rings  on  a  light 
ground.  In  both  the  leopard  and  jaguar  the  central  portion  of  the  rosette 
is  darker  than  the  general  ground  colour  of  the  fur  ;  but  whereas  in 
the  former  the  rosettes  form  simple  rings,  in  the  latter  there  is  one  or  more 
solid  black  spots  in  the  centre.  On  the  head  and  limbs  the  spots  are  solid, 
and  the  tail  is  ornamented  with  rings.  In  the  ounce  the  fur  is  much  longer 
than  that  of  the  ordinary  leopard,  and  the  Siberian  variety  of  the  tiger  differs 
in  the  same  manner  from  Indian  examples.  Although  the  lion  is  a  much 
noisier  animal  than  the  tiger,  in  power,  size,  and  habits,  the  two  are  very 
similar.  It  would  be  out  of  place  to  enter  into  any  detailed  discussion  as  to  the 
dimensions  of  either  lions  or  tigers,  as  this  has  been  fully  investigated  in 
other  works.  In  regard  to  tigers,  it  may,  however,  be  mentioned,  that  it  is 
now  generally  admitted  that  males  do  occasionally  reach,  or  even  slightly 
exceed  12  feet  in  total  length,  measured  along  the  curves  of  the  body  in  what 
is  termed  sportsman's  style  ; 
one  shot  by  Colonel  Boileau 
in  1861  being  slightly  over  12 
feet,  while  General  Sir  C. 
Reid's  tiger,  exhibited  in 
London  stuffed  in  1862,  is 
recorded  to  have  measured 
12  feet  2  inches  as  it  lay 
on  the  ground.  Further  in- 
formation is  required  as  to 
the  maximum  weights  at- 
tained by  male  tigers.  Sander- 
son gives  the  weight  of  a 
well-grown  male  shot  by  him- 
self as  350  pounds;  while  Fi«.  30. -THE  LION. 
Elliot  has  recorded  examples 
respectively  weighing  362  and  380  pounds.  The  late  Captain  J.  Forsyth  has, 
however,  estimated  the  weights  of  tigers  killed  by  himself  at  from  450  to 
500  pounds,  and  these  large  weights  have  been  confirmed  of  late  years  by 
Mr.  Hornaday,  who,  in  his  work,  "  Two  Years  in  the  Jungle,"  records  a  tiger 
of  9  feet  11£  inches  in  length,  which  weighed  upwards  of  495  pounds  ;  while 
the  Maharajah  of  Cuch  Behar  has  given  weights  varying  from  540  to  481 
pounds,  and  a  tiger  killed  by  Mr.  F.  A.  Shillingford,  measuring  9  feet  10 
inches,  weighed  528  pounds,  One  killed  by  Sir  Samuel  Baker  weighed  437 


54 


MAMMALIA-ORDER  IV.-CARNIVCRA. 


pounds  after  losing  about  a  gallon  of  blood,  so  that  its  whole  weight  was 
probably  about  447  pounds.  Of  course,  much  depends  upon  how  fat  the 
animal  is  at  the  time  of  its  death.  Sir  S.  Baker  estimating  that,  while  a  very 
fine  tiger  in  average  condition  will  weigh  some  440  pounds,  the  same  animal, 
when  unusually  fat,  will  scale  500  pounds.  If,  however,  a  tiger  just  under 
10  feet  in  length  will  weigh  about  500  pounds,  it  may  be  safely  assumed  that 
an  11  or  12  feet  example  in  similar  condition  will  considerably  exceed  this 
weight,  and  it  is,  therefore,  probable  that  the  maximum  weight  attained  by 
the  tiger  has  yet  to  be  recorded.  It  is  accordingly  earnestly  to  be  desired 
that  sportsmen  will  not  only  measure,  but  will  likewise  weigh  any  unusually 
large  tigers  they  may  have  the  good  fortune  to  kill. 

Those  who  have  the  opportunity  of  seeing  an  attack  by  a  tiger  on  large 
animals  like  buffalo  or  gaur,  which  he  is  unable  to  overthrow,  will  do  good 
service  if  they  can  throw  any  light  on  the  mode  of  attack  in  those  instances 
where  the  prey  is  hamstrung.  Mr.  Blanford  considers  that  in  this  occasional 
mode  of  attack  the  hamstringing  is  probably  effected  by  a  blow  from  the 
claws,  and  states  that  he  has  known  two  instances  where  buffaloes  were  left 
hamstrung  by  tigers.  This  mode  of  attack  being  apparently  very  rare,  will 
of  course  be  seldom  seen  by  European  eyes,  so  that  should  it  come  under 
notice  a  record  will  be  of  extreme  value. 

As  a  rule,  however,  it  is  believed  that  a  tiger  seizes  large  animals  by  the 
fore -quarters,  throwing  one  paw  over  the  shoulder,  and  attacking  the  throat 
with  the  jaws  ;  a  sudden  upward  wrench,  during  which  the  destroyer  often 
springs  to  the  opposite  side  of  his  victim,  serving  to  dislocate  the  neck.  On 
the  other  hand,  some  writers  are  of  opinion  that  the  tiger  first  seizes  the 
animal  by  the  back  of  the  neck.  Thus  Sir  S.  Baker  writes  that  "  the  attack 
of  a  large  tiger  is  terrific,  and  the  effect  may  well  be  imagined  of  an  animal  of 
such  vast  muscular  proportions,  weighing  between  400  and  500  pounds,  spring- 
ing with  great  velocity  and  exerting  its  momentum  at  the  instant  that  it 
seizes  a  bullock  by  the  neck.  It  is  supposed  by  the  natives  that  the  tiger, 

when  well  fastened  upon  the 
crest,  by  fixing  its  teeth  in  the 
back  of  the  neck  at  the  firsh 
onset,  continues  its  spring,  s<? 
as  to  pass  over  the  animal 
attacked.  This  wrenches  the 
neck  suddenly  round,  and  as 
the  animal  struggles,  the  dis- 
location is  easily  effected  ;  the 
tiger  then  changes  the  hold 
to  underneath  the  throat,  and 
drags  the  body  to  some  con- 
venient retreat,  where  the  meal 
may  be  commenced  in  security. 
With  very  few  exceptions,  the 
tiger  breaks  the  neck  of  every 
animal  it  kills." 

Another  observer,  Mr.  Mervyn  Smith,  who  had  the  good  fortune  to  see  two 
buffaloes  killed  by  a  tiger,  writes  as  follows  : — "  The  animals,  when  first  seen 
by  me,  were  about  a  hundred  yards  off,  and  a  little  to  my  left  front.  There 
was  a  distance  of  perhaps  ten  yards  between  them.  I  noticed  the  farthest 
buffalo  suddenly  stumble  and  fall,  as  I  thought,  but  it  did  net  rise  again ;  its 


Fig.  31.— THE  TIGER. 


FLESH-EATING  MAMMALS.  55 


mate  looked  up  and  gazed  in  the  direction  of  its  companion,  and  then  turned 
its  head  as  if  to  flee,  but  before  it  could  do  so  a  dark  object  rose  out  of  the 
ground,  as  it  were,  and  seized  it  by  the  throat,  and  flung  it  on  its  side.  My 
horse  had  also  caught  sight  of  the  dark  object,  and  instinct  told  him  at  once 
what  it  was,  for  he  galloped  like  mad,  and  never  stopped  till  he  got  to  the 
bungalow.  It  was  fully  an  hour  before  I  could  assemble  the  villagers  and 
return  to  the  spot,  where  we  found  both  buffaloes  stone  dead.  In  both  cases 
the  bite  was  on  the  under  part  o'f  the  throat,  so  as  to  close  the  windpipe  and 
prevent  the  animal  making  any  cry.  The  necks  also  appeared  to  have  been 
broken  by  a  sudden  wrench  of  the  head  to  one  side,  by  the  tremendously 
powerful  fore-arm  of  the  tiger.  There  appeared  to  have  been  very  little 
struggle,  and  death  must  have  been  almost  instantaneous.  Now,  what  I 
would  particularly  like  to  draw  attention  to,  is  the  stealthy  method  of  attack. 
There  was  absolutely  no  noise — no  roar,  scarcely  a  rustling  of  the  bushes 
when  the  second  animal  was  struck  down — and  very  little  of  the  tiger  to  be 
seen.  Had  not  my  eyes  been  on  the  buffaloes  at  the  time,  I  hardly  think  I 
should  have  been  disturbed  at  all.  In  fact,  I  should  not  have  known  that  the 
buffaloes  had  been  killed  by  a  tiger  within  a  few  yards  of  me.  I  scarcely  saw 
the  tiger  at  all — only  his  head,  which  appeared  to  rise  up  out  of  the  ground  and 
seize  the  second  buffalo  by  the  throat."  A  tiger  almost  invariably  commences 
his  meal  on  the  hind-quarters  ;  and  neither  this  animal  nor  the  lion  are  by 
any  means  averse  to  carrion.  Both  have  a  very  similar  roar,  although  that  of 
the  tiger  is  but  rarely  uttered  ;  and  both  differ  from  the  majority  of  cats  in 
their  inability  to  climb  trees.  In  common  with  cats  in  general,  lions  and  tigers 
go  about  either  singly,  in  pairs,  or  in  small  family  parties,  and  although  a  few 
may,  it  is  said,  combine  to  drive  their  prey  to  one  another,  they  never  hunt  in 
packs  after  the  manner  of  dogs.  The  stealthy  manner  in  which  cats  stalk, 
with  their  body  elongated  to  its  utmost  extent  and  almost  touching  the  ground, 
and  the  rigid  tail  occasionally  twisting  nervously,  is  well  known  to  all. 

Among  the  smaller  species  of  the  genus,  the  clouded  leopard  (F.  nebidosa) 
and  the  marbled  cat  ( F.  marmorata),  of  the  Oriental  countries,  may  be  cited 
as  excellent  examples  of  the  clouded  type  of  coloration.  The  Bornean  Bay 
cat  (F.  badia)  is  one  of  the  few  uniformly-coloured  species ;  a  second  being 
the  South  American  eyra  (F.  eyra\  which  is  more  remarkable  on  account  of 
its  elongated  and  weasel-like  form.  One  of  the  most  variable  of  all  is  the 
Oriental  leopard-cat  (F.bengalensis).  The  African  serval  (F.  served)  is  a  long- 
legged  and  short-tailed  species,  in  which  the  dark  spots  are  solid ;  while  the 
caffer  cat  (F.  caffra)  of  the  same  country  is  generally  regarded  as  the  ancestral 
stock  of  the  domestic  cats  of  Europe,  although  there  has  probably  been  a 
considerable  amount  of  crossing  with  the  wild  cat  (F.  catus\  which  has  led 
to  the  prevalence  of  the  tabby  type  of  coloration.  In  South  America  the 
very  variable  ocelot  (F.  pardalis)  exhibits  a  modification  of  the  clouded  type 
of  coloration,  while  the  tiger-cat  (F.  tigrina)  is  more  distinctly  spotted ;  the 
pampas  cat  showing  a  striped  pattern.  The  jungle-cat  (F.  chaus\  which  is 
common  to  India  and  Africa,  together  with  certain  allied  Asiatic  species, 
forms  a  transition  from  the  more  typical  cats  to  the  lynxes,  the  latter  being 
characterised  by  the  long  pencils  of  hairs  terminating  the  ears  and  the 
moderately  long  or  short  tail.  In  the  caracal  (F.  caracal),  which  is  a  uniformly- 
coloured  species  common  to  India  and  Africa,  and  connecting  the  jungle-cat 
with  the  true  lynxes,  the  tail  is  of  considerable  length ;  but  in  the  latter 
group,  all  the  members  of  which  are  confined  to  the  Northern  Hemisphere, 
it  is  very  short,  and  the  pellage  is  always  spotted,  at  least  during  some 


MAMMALIA— ORDER  IV.  —  CARNIVORA. 


portion  of  the  year.  Whether  the  Canadian  lynx  (F.  canadensis)  is  distinct 
from  the  common  lynx  (F.  lynx)  of  Europe  and  Northern  Asia  is  a  moot 
point  ;  but  the  Spanish  lynx  (F.  pardina)  is  a  well-marked  form. 

The  slender-bodied  and  long-limbed  cat,  known  as  the  hunting-leopard 
(Cynwlurus  jubatus),  is  referred  to  a  genus  apart  from  the  other  members  of 

the  family  on  account  of  the  claws  be- 
ing only  partially  retractile,  although 
their  extremities  are  protected  by 
sheaths  ;  while  a  further  point  of  dis- 
tinction is  to  be  found  in  the  rudi- 
mental  condition  of  the  tubercle  on 
the  inner  side  of  the  upper  carnassial 
tooth.  The  hunting-leopard,  which 
is  found  both  in  India  and  Africa,  has 
the  fur  marked  with  solid  black  spots. 
In  habits  it  differs  somewhat  from  the 
true  cats — two  individuals  hunting 
together,  and  making  a  simultaneous 
sudden  rush  when  their  prey  comes 
within  striking  distance.  These  animals  are  kept  for  hunting  in  India. 

The  nearest  allies  of  the  cats  are  the  great  tribe  of  civets,  palm-civets, 
mungooses,  etc.,  all  of  which  differ  from  the  Felidce  in  that  the  auditory 
bulla  of  the  skull  is  marked  by  a  transverse  external  con- 
striction, indicating  the  position  of  the  internal  bony 
septum,  while  the  middle  pair  of  lower  teeth  are  raised 
above  the  level  of  the  other  two,  as  in  all  other  land  Carniv- 
ora.  From  the  living  Felidce  the  Viverridce  are  further  dis- 
tinguished by  the  more  numerous  series  of  teeth,  the  number  of  premolars 
varying  from  three  to  four  on  each  side  of  the  jaws  ;  while  there  are  generally 
two  pairs  of  molars  in  each  jaw,  although  occasionally  these  may  be  reduced 
to  a  single  pair  in  the  upper,  and  very  rarely  also  in  the  lower  jaw.  The 
toes,  which  may  be  either  digitigrade  or  plantigrade,  are  generally  five  in 
number  on  each  foot,  although  they  may  be  reduced  to  four  in  either  the 
front  or  hind  pair,  or  even  in  both.  Considerable  difference  obtains  in  regard 
to  the  retractibility  of  the  claws,  and  likewise  as  to  the  extent  to  which  the 
sole  of  the  hind-foot  is  clothed  with  hair.  From  ordinary  cats  civets  differ 
externally  in  the  more  elongated  form  of  the  body,  the  longer  head  and 
sharper  muzzle,  and  the  shorter  legs  ;  although  in  these  respects  they  are 
approached  by  the  eyra.  In  coloration  they  are  generally  striped,  spotted, 
or  blotched  ;  some  of  them  having  distinct  longitudinal  stripes,  which  are 
never  seen  in  the  cats.  The  family  is  strictly  confined  to  the  Old  World, 
exclusive  of  Australia  and  Papua,  and  attains  its  maximum  development  in 
Africa  and  the  Oriental  countries — Europe  having  only  a  couple  of  species 
in  its  southern  districts.  Madagascar  is  the  home  of  several  peculiar  genera. 
Upwards  of  twenty-three  distinct  generic  types  are  now  recognised. 

The  most  aberrant  of  all  is  the  fossa  (Cryptoprocta  ferox)  of  Madagascar, 

which  in  the  number  and  structure  of  its  teeth  approaches  the  cats,  and  is 

regarded  by  many  authorities  as  entitled  to  constitute   a 

Fossa  (Crypto-    family  by  itself.     In  the  form  of  the  auditory  bulla  of  the 

procta).         skull  this   animal  is   somewhat   intermediate   between   the 

civets  and  the  mungooses  ;  and  each  foot  has  five  toes,  with 

completely  retractile  claws.      There  are  four  pairs  of  premolar  teeth,  of 


-  32.— SPANISH  LYNX  (Fdls  pardina). 


Civet  Tribe.— 

Family 
Viverridce.. 


FLESH-EATING  MAMMALS.  57 


which  the  first  is  shed  at  an  early  period,  and  a  single  pair  of  molars, 
which  are  cat-like  in  form,  the  lower  one  having  only  a  small  pos- 
terior ledge,  as  in  the  lynxes,  and 
no  inner  cusp.  The  nose  and  upper 
lip  have  a  median  groove  ;  and  the 
feet  are  sub-plantigrade,  the  tarsus 
and  metatarsus  being  naked.  The  fossa 
measures  about  five  feet  in  total  length, 
and  is  nearly  uniform  sandy  brown  in 
colour. 

Together  with  several  allied  genera, 
the  true  civets  (Fwerrtt)  are  character- 
ised by  the  conical  form  of  the  auditory 
bulla  of  the  skull,  in  which  the  hinder 
border  is  broad,  truncated,  and  nob 
everted,  while  in  front  it  is  narrow  and  Fi  ^  I^7FossA  (Cryptoproctafvrox). 
compressed,  with  the  anterior  chamber 

small.     Usually  there  are  highly  odoriferous  glands  in  front  of  the  scrotum  ; 
and  the  curved  claws  are  generally  more  or  less  retractile.    In      „.     .  „ 
form  and  number  the  teeth  come  very  close  to  those  of  the        * 
dogs,  there  being  always  four  pairs  of  premolars  in  each  jaw.     The  blade  of 
the  upper  carnassial  tooth  differs  from  that  of  the  cats  in  consisting  of  only 
two  lobes,  and  there  is  a  well-developed  tubercle  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
same  tooth  ;  while  the  lower  carnassial  is  composed  of  an  anterior  cutting 
blade,  and  a  long  posterior  tuberculated  heel.     In  shape,  the  upper  molars 
are  triangular ;  the  first  of  the  two  being  placed  behind  the  carnassial  tooth, 
and  not  on  its  inner  side. 

From  the  allied  genera  the  true  civets  are  distinguished  by  the  folio—ing 
characters.  A  vertical  groove  divides  the  middle  of  the  upper  lip  :  the  rather 
long  tail  is  ringed  dark  and  light ;  the  feefc  are  completely  digitigrade,  with 
the  tarsus  and  metatarsus  fully  haired  ;  and  there  are  no  tufts  of  hair  on  the 
ears.  The  upper  molar  teeth  are  two  in  number  on  each  side  ;  a  black  gorget 
ornaments  the  throat  ;  an  elongated  crest  of  erectile  hairs  usually  runs  down 
the  back  ;  and  the  whole  hair  is  loose  and  long.  The  rather  short  and  blunt 
claws  can  be  only  partially  retracted  ;  and  the  pupil  of  the  eye  contracts  to 
a  circular  form.  There  are  five  species  of  civet,  one  of  which  (Viverra  civetta) 
is  African,  while  the  other  four  are  Oriental.  Four  are  of  nearly  equal  size, 
and  may  be  compared  in  this  respect  to  a  large  cat  ;  but  the  rasse  (Viverra 
malaccensis),  which  differs  somewhat  in  the  structure  of  the  skull  from  the 
four  others,  and  is  referred  by  many  writers  to  a  distinct  genus,  under  the 
name  of  Viverricula,  is  a  much  smaller  animal.  An  inhabitant  of  India, 
China,  and  the  Malayan  countries,  it  has  been  introduced  into  Madagascar. 
All  civets  have  comparatively  short,  stout,  and  rather  compressed  bodies, 
with  the  limbs  proportionately  longer  than  in  the  allied  genera.  Their 
coloration  takes  the  form  of  black  or  blackish-brown  streaks  and  blotches 
on  a  greyish  ground.  Most  of  them  are  non-arboreal  ;  and  all  are  strong- 
smelling  creatures,  one  of  their  secretions  being  used  in  perfumery.  For  the 
purpose  of  collecting  the  perfume,  tame  civets  are  kept  in  cages  by  the 
Malays,  and  their  secretion  periodically  scraped  from  the  pouch  with  a 
wooden  spoon.  Daubenton's  civet  (Fossa  daubentoni)  of  Madagascar  closely 
resembles  the  above-mentioned  rasse  in  general  characters,  but  differs  from 
all  the  species  of  Viverra  in  the  presence  of  two  small  bare  spots  on  the 


58  MAMMALIA—ORDER  1V.—CARN1VOKA. 


under  surface  of  the  metatarsus  •  and  the  scent-pouch  is  apparently  wanting. 
The  limbs  are  slender  ;  and  there  is  neither  a  dark  line  down  the  back,  nor 
a  black  gorget  on  the  throat.  Nearly  allied  to  the  civets  are  the  six  species 
of  genets  (Genetta),  five  of  which  are  exclusively  African,  while  the  ordinary 
genet  is  common  to  Northern  Africa,  Southern  Em  ope,  and  Syria.  From 
both  Viverra  and  Fossa  they  may  be  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  a  bare, 
longitudinal  strip  along  the  lower  surface  of  the  metatarsus  ;  a  hairy  space 
dividing  this  naked  strip  from  the  foot-pads.  The  absence  of  a  scent-pouch 
forms  a  further  distinction  from  Viverra,  while  the  presence  of  a  dark  stripe 
down  the  back  constitutes  another  difference  from  Fossa.  All  the  genets 
are  comparatively  small  animals,  which  live  chiefly  on  the  ground,  where 
they  prey  upon  small  rodents,  birds,  and  eggs.  None  have  a  black  gorget 
on  the  throat,  although  there  may  ba  a  short  crest  of  erectile  hairs  down  the 
back. 

The  beautifully-coloured  Oriental  viverroids  known  as  linsangs  (Linsangs) 
have  the  under  surface  of  the  tarsus  and  metatarsus  as  fully  clothed  with 
hair  as  in  the  true  civets,  but  differ  in  possessing  only  a  single  pair  of  upper 
molar  teeth.  All  the  three  sp.cies  are  very  long-bodied  and  short-limbed 
animals,  with  the  claws  of  the  five-toed  feet  almost  as  retractile  as  in  the  cats ; 
and  the  fur  remarkably  short,  close,  and  erect,  resembling,  in  fact,  velvet- 
pile.  There  are  no  scent-glands  corresponding  to  those  which  yield  the  per- 
fume in  the  civets.  Upon  a  white  or  greyish-white  ground-colour  the  fur 
is  beautifully  marked  with  black  or  dark  brown  patches,  such  patches  form, 
ing  either  a  small  number  of  large,  dark  areas  extending  transversely  across 
the  body,  or  being  broken  up  into  smaller  quadrangle  spots.  Dark  longi- 
tudinal streaks,  some  of  which  may  break  up  into  spots,  traverse  the  neck 
and  shoulders,  while  there  are  smaller  ones  on  the  head  ;  and  tho  long 
cylindrical  is  marked  with  alternate  dark  and  light  rings  of  considerable 
length.  When  contracted,  the  pupil  of  the  eye  is  circular.  The  skull  and 
teeth  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the  genets,  but  the  heel  of  the  lower 
carnassial  tooth  is  relatively  smaller.  In  West  Africa  the  linsangs  are  re- 
presented by  the  closely  allied  Foiana  poensis,  distinguished  by  having  a 
naked  strip  on  the  under  surface  of  the  metatarsus,  as  in  the  genets.  Lin- 
sangs are  good  climbers,  feeding  chiefly  on  small  birds.  They  produce  two 
litters  in  a  year,  giving  birth  to  a  pair  of  young  at  a  time. 

The  two  Malayan  species  of  Hemigale  differ  from  all  the  preceding  mem- 
bers of  the  group  except  Fossa  in  the  absence  of  distinct  rings  on  the  tail, 
except,  at  most,  near  the  root  ;  while  they  are  further  distinguished  by  the 
front  of  the  auditory  bulla  of  the  skull  being  pointed  instead  of  blunt.  The 
carnassials  are  also  relatively  smaller  and  of  a  less  trenchant  type,  A  dis- 
tinctive feature  of  the  genus  is  the  concentration  of  the  pads  of  the  hind-foot 
to  form  a  naked  space  on  the  metatarsus,  ending  in  a  sharp  point  behind  ; 
the  tarsus  being  fully  haired.  The  hair  on  the  back  of  the  neck  is  peculiar 
in  being  directed  forwards  ;  and  when  there  are  any  dark  markings  on  tho 
back  they  take  the  form  of  uninterrupted  transverse  bands.  The  claws  on 
the  five-toed  feet  are  strongly  curved  ;  and  the  nose  and  upper  lip,  as  in  ail 
the  preceding  genera,  are  grooved.  Numerically,  the  teeth  are  the  same  as 
in  Viverra.  Hardwicke's  hemigale  (H.  hardwickei),  from  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
Sumatra,  and  Borneo,  measures  about  15 £  inches  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  and  has 
dark  transverse  bands  on  the  back  ;  whereas  H.  hosei,  from  the  mountains  of 
North  Borneo,  is  uniformly  dusky. 

Tht  palm  QITGCS  form  three  nearly  allied  genera,  one  of  which  is  African, 


FLESH-EATING  MAMMALS. 


59 


Fig.  24.— PALM-CIVET 
(Paradoxurus). 


while  the  other  two  are  Oriental.  The  two  species  of  African  palm-civets 
(Naudinia),  one  of  which  is  from  the  west,  and  the  other  from  the  east  side 
of  the  continent,  agree  with  Hemigale  in  the  form  of  the  naked  area  on  the 
metatarsus,  but  differ  in  the  incomplete  ossification  of  the  auditory  bulla  of 
the  skull.  Otherwise  the  genus  is  very  similar  to  the  true  palm-civets,  the 
marking  taking  the  form  of  spots,  and  the  tail  being  ringed.  The  two  species 
of  small-toothed  palm-civets  (Arctogale\  from  Burma  and  the  Malayan 
countries,  differ  from  the  preceding  genus  in  the  uniformly-coloured  tail ; 
and  are  further  distinguished  by  the  relatively  small  size  of  the  teeth,  the 
narrow  palate,  which  is  produced  far  behind  the  last  rnolar,  and  the  ossifica- 
tion of  the  bulla  of  the  skull.  The  dark  markings  take  the  form  of  longi- 
tudinal rows  of  stripes  or  spots  on  the  back.  Represented  by  ten  species,  the 
true  palm-civets  (Paradoxurus)  range 
throughout  the  Oriental  countries  from 
India  to  the  Philippines  and  Celebes, 
and  are  distinguished  from  the  last  by 
their  larger  teeth,  the  less  prolonga- 
tion of  the  palate  backwards,  and  the 
presence  of  a  naked  glandular  area  in 
front  of  the  scrotum  of  the  males,  and 
in  a  similar  position  in  the  females. 
Like  Arctogale,  they  have  the  whole  of 
the  metatarsus  and  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  tarsus  bare,  tho  hair  ex- 
tending in  an  evenly  curved  line  across 
the  hinder  part  of  the  heel.  The  claws 
of  the  five-toed  feet  are  as  curved  and 
retractile  as  in  the  genets  ;  the  tail  is  long  and  generally  not  ringed  ;  the 
markings  are  usually  in  the  form  of  elongated  streaks,  although  more  rarely 
spots,  but  some  species  are  uniformly  coloured  ;  and  the  pupil  of  the  eye 
contracts  to  a  vertical  slit.  The  teeth  are  numerically  the  same  as  in  Viverra, 
but  the  carnassials  relatively  shorter  and  less  trenchant.  In  size  these 
animals  may  be  compared  to  an  ordinary  cat.  Palm-civets  are  essentially 

nocturnal  and  arboreal  creatures,  feed- 
ing upon  small  birds,  mammals,  eggs, 
and  lizards  ,  and  frequently  taking  up 
their  abode  among  the  leaves  of  palm- 
trees,  From  their  habit  of  drinking 
the  palm- juice, or  toddy,  from  the  vessels 
suspended  from  the  trees  for  its  recep- 
tion, they  are  termed  toddy-cats. 

From  all  other  members  of  the  family, 
the  binturong  (J.rcfo'c£  is  binturong),  rang- 
ing from  the  Eastern  Himalaya  to  the 
Malayan  countries  and  Siam,  differs 
by  its  prehensile  tail  and  tufted  ears, 
as  well  as  by  the  tarsus  and  meta- 
tarsus of  the  plantigrade  hind-feet  being  completely  naked.  The  ears  are 
short,  the  short  claws  only  partially  retractile,  the  hair  very  long,  coarse,  and 
loose,  and  the  long  tail  very  bushy  ;  the  general  colour  being  black.  The 
binturong,  which  may  be  compared  in  size  to  a  cat,  is  a  thoroughly  nocturnal 
and  arboreal  creature. 


Fig.  35. — THE  BINTUKONG 
(Arctictis  binturong). 


60  MAMMALIA— ORDER  1V.—CARN1VORA. 


The  last  member  of  the  sub-family  is  the  peculiar  Bennett's  civet  (Cynogale 
bennetti)  from  the  Malay  Peninsula,  Sumatra,  and  Borneo,  which  is  a  grizzled 
grey  animal,  readily  distinguished  from  all  the  foregoing  by  the  absence  of  a 
groove  on  the  nose  and  upper  lip,  the  short  tail,  the  partially  webbed  feet, 
and  by  the  under  surface  of  the  metatarsus  and  tarsus  being  somewhat 
less  naked,  In  size  it  may  be  compared  to  the  larger  civets,  the  length  of 
the  head  and  body  being  about  32  inches.  Its  habits  are  believed  to  be 
partially  aquatic. 

With  the  exception  of  the  fossa,  which  forms  a  sub-family  by  itself,  the 
whole  of  the  foregoing  members  of  the  family  constitute  the  sub-family 
FttJcrritME,  characterised  by  the  features  noticed  above. 
The  Mungoose  The  mungooses,  or  ichneumons,  are  the  first  representatives 
Group.  of  a  second  sub-family  (Herpestince)  presenting  the  following 

distinctive  characters.  The  auditory  bulla  of  the  skull  is 
pear-shaped,  and  its  hinder  margin  distinctly  everted,  with  the  so-called 
paroccipital  process  not  projecting  beyond,  but  spread  over  it,  and  in  the 
adiilt  becoming  merged  in  its  hinder  surface.  The  claws  are  long  and  non- 
retractile  ;  and  there  are  no  glands  in  front  of  the  scrotum.  As  a  genus,  the 
mungooses  may  be  distinguished  from  their  allies  by  the  presence  of  five 
toes  to  each  foot,  a  vertical  groove  on  the  nose,  and  usually  four  pairs  of 
premolar  teeth  ;  the  molars  being,  as  usual,  two  in  each  jaw.  The  muzzle  is 
sharply  pointed,  the  body  long  and  weasel-like,  the  legs  very  short,  the  ears 
short  and  rounded  ;  and  the  tail  generally  long  and  tapering,  with  loose, 
elongated  hair.  The  feet  are  plantigrade ;  but  there  is  much  variation  in 
the  extent  of  the  bare  portion  of  the  soles  of  the  hind  ones  ;  in  some  species 
this  area  extending  back  to  the  heel,  while  in  others  the  lower  surface  of  the 
tarsus  is  hairy.  The  coarse  and  lofcse  fur  has  a  peculiar  speckled  appearance, 
owing  to  the  nresence  of  dark  and  light  rings  on  the  hairs,  and  the  tail  is 
never  ringed.  The  sharp  cusps  of  the  cheek-teeth  are  in  marked  contrast  to 
the  bluntly-cusped  ones  of  the  palm-civets  ;  and  the  skull  is  remarkable  for 
a  sharp  constriction  behind  the  sockets  of  the  eyes,  and  likewise  for  the  cir- 
cumstance that  the  latter  generally  have  a  complete  bony  ring.  Mungooses 
range  over  Africa  and  the  Oriental  countries  as  far  as  the  Philippines,  the 
Egyptian  species  (H.  ichneumon)  entering  Southern  Europe.  All  these 
animals  are  terrestrial,  and  very  active  in  their  habits,  generally  living  in 
holes.  They  are  deadly  enemies  to  rats  and  other  Rodents,  as  they  are  to 
snakes.  The  most  venomous  serpents  are  attacked  without  hesitation,  the 
immunity  of  the  mungoose  from  harm  in  such  encounters  being  apparently 
due  to  its  extreme  activity  and  watchfulness.  From  the  majority  of  species 
of  Herpestes,  the  Africa'i  small  mungoose  (Helogale  parva)  differs  in 
having  only  three  pairs  of  premolar  teeth  in  each  jaw ;  the  first  of  these 
being  approximated  to  the  canine,  and  thus  distinguishing  the  genus 
from  the  few  species  of  Herpeses  with  a  similar  number  of  teeth,  in  all  of 
which  there  is  a  gap  between  the  canine  arid  the  first  tooth  of  the  premolar 
series. 

Africa  is  the  home  of  several  peculiar  generic  types  of  mungooses.  First, 
there  are  the  three  species  of  four-toed  mungooses  (Bdeoyale),  distinguished 
by  having  but  four  toes  to  each  foot ;  the  soles  of  the  hirid-f eet  being  hairy. 
The  South  African  pencilled  mungoose  (Cynictis  penicillata)  is  the  sole 
member  of  another  genus  with  five  front  and  four  hind  toes ;  but  more  easily 
defined  by  the  presence  of  a  hole  in  the  centre  of  the  peculiarly-shaped 
auditory  bulla  of  the  skull,  the  soles  of  the  hind-feet  being  hairy.  A  third 


FLESH-EATING  MAMMALS.  6l 


genus  is  represented  by  the  large  red  Heller's  mungoose  (Rhynchogale 
melleri)),  easily  distinguished  from  all  the  preceding  members  of  the  sub- 
family by  the  absence  of  a  vertical  groove  on  the  nose  and  upper  lip.  Each 
foot  is  furnished  with  five  toes,  there  are  four  pairs  of  premolar  teeth  in  each 
jaw,  and  the  under  surface  of  the  tarsus  and  metatarsus  is  hairy.  The  fourth 
African  genus  (Crossarchus)  contains  the  five  species  of  cusimanses,  which 
while  resembling  the  last  in  the  absence  of  a  groove  on  the  muzzle,  differ  by 
having  only  three  pairs  of  premolar  teeth  in  each  jaw,  the  flat  bony  palate  of 
the  skull,  and  the  naked  soles  of  the  hinder  portion  of  the  hind-feet. 
Several  of  the  species,  such  as  C. 
fasciatus,  have  a  number  of  dark  trans- 
verse bands  across  the  back.  Lastly, 
the  pretty  little  meerkat  (Suricata 
tetradactyla)  of  South  Africa  differs 
from  all  the  other  smooth-nosed  mun- 
gooses in  having  only  four  toes  to  each 
foot,  and  is  further  characterised  by 
possessing  three  pairs  of  upper,  and 
four  of  lower  premolars,  as  well  as  by 
the  naked  under  surface  of  the  whole 
of  the  tarsus  and  metatarsus.  The 
muzzle  is  sharp,  the  front  claws  are 

very  long,  and  the  profile  of  the  face  is  *-^D«>  MOTOQM 

convex.      Ihe  general  colour  of  the  fur  (Crossarchus fasciatus). 

is  light  grizzled  grey,  with  black  bands 

across  the  hinder  part  of  the  back,  and  a  black  ring  round  each  eye. 
Meerkats  measure  from  14  to  15  inches  to  the  root  of  the  tail ;  and  are  viva- 
cious little  animals,  living  in  holes  in  colonies,  and  coming  out  to  air  them- 
selves in  the  sun,  when  they  survey  passers-by  with  a  peculiarly  inquisi- 
tive expression. 

The  Island  of  Madagascar  is  inhabited  by  four  peculiar  genera  of  mun- 
gooses,  three  of  which  are  more  or  less  closely  related  to  the  Herpestitue, 
while  the  fourth  certainly  forms  a  sub-family  by  itself.    From 
all  other  members   of   the   Viverridce,    the   two  species   of      Madagascar 
striped  mungoose  are   distinguished  by  the  numerous  con-       Mungooses. 
tinuous  dark  stripes  running  down  the  whole  length  of  the 
back  and  sides.     They  have  but  three  pairs  of  premolar  teeth  in  each  jaw,  the 
first  of  which  is  placed  close  to  the  canine  ;  and  the  canines  themselves  are 
of  large  size.     The  five-toed  feet  have  longer  claws  than  in  the  typical  mun- 
gooses ;  the  muzzle  is  grooved  inferiorly;  the  tail  is  covered  with  elongated 
hairs;  and  the  under  surface  of  the  tarsus  is  bare.     From  the  last,  the  elegant 
mungoose  (Galidia  eleyans)  may  be  distinguished  by  the  smaller  size  of  the 
lower  canine  teeth,  the  presence  of  short  sparse  hairs  oh  the  lower  surface 
of  the  tarsus  and  metatarsus,  the  uniform  coloration  of  tlie  body,  and  the 
ringed  tail.     The  two  species  of  brown-tailed  mungoose  (Hemigalidia)  differ 
from  the  preceding  by  the  presence  of  four  pairs  of  premolars  in  each  jaw, 
the  larger  size  of  the  second  upper  molar,  the  uniformly-coloured  tail,  the 
more  pointed  form  of  the  muzzle,  and  the  smaller  degree  of  curvature  of  the 
claws. 

Finally,  there  is  the  small-toothed  mungoose  (Eupleres  goudoti),  distin- 
guished from  all  other  mungooses  by  the  non-eversion  of  the  hinder  border 
of  the  auditory  bulla  of  the  skull,  and  from  the  rest  of  the  family  by  its  very 


62 


MAMMALIA— ORDER  IV.—CARN1VORA. 


The  Aard-Wolf. 
— Family 

Proteleidce. 


remarkable  dentition.  The  canines  are  minute,  and  like  the  first  three 
premolars,  whicl  are  widely  separated  from  one  another,  and  the  molars 
are  but  little  different  from  the  premolars.  Indeed,  the  whole  dentition 
is  strikingly  like  that  of  an  Insectivore,  and  there  can  be  little  doubt 
that  this  highly  modified  mungoose  subsists  entirely  or  chiefly  on 
insects. 

A  peculiar  hysena-like  animal  from  Africa,  known  to  the  Dutch  as  the  aard- 
wolf,  and  scientifically  as  Proteles  cristatus,   is  regarded  as  representing  a 
family  by  itself,  distinguished  by  having  the  auditory  bulla 
of  the  skull  divided  by  a  septum  into  two  chambers,  and  by 
the  small  and  degraded  characters  of  the  cheek-teeth,  among 
which  there  is  but  a  single  pair  of  molars  in  each  jaw.     In 
the  fore-feet  there  are  five  toes,  but  in  the  hinder  pair  the 
number  is  redu?ed  to   four  ;    their  claws  being   strong,    blunt,    and    non- 
retractile.     In  appearance,    the    aard- 
wolf  is  curiously  like   a   small  striped 
hysena,    with  a   more    pointed  muzzle, 
longer  ears,  and  a  thick  mane  of  elon- 
gated erectile  hair  along  the  neck  and 
back.      Common  in  South  Africa,   this 
animal   has   also    been    recorded    from 
Angola  and  Somaliland.      It  feeds   on 
carrion,  grubs,  and  white  ants. 

From  the  two  preceding  families  the 
hyaenas,  of  which  all  the  three  existing 
species  may  be  included  in  the  single 
genus  Hycena,  differ  by  the  absence  of 
any  internal  partition  in  the  auditoiy  bulla  of  the  skull.  In  the  living 
species  there  is  only  one  pair  of  molar  teeth  in  each  jaw, 
the  upper  one  being  small,  and  placed  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
carnassial.  The  latter  tooth  resembles  the  upper  carnassial 
of  the  cats  in  having  three  distinct  lobes  to  the  blade  ;  and 
the  lower  carnassial  has  a  bi-lobed  blade  and  a  very  small 
All  the  teeth  are  very  strong  and  powerful  ;  the  anterior 
premolars  being  in  the  form  of  blunt  cones  ;  and  the  skull,  in  which  the 
sockets  of  the  eyes  are  freely  open  behind,  is  remarkable  for  the  great  height 
of  the  crest  on  the  middle  of  the  upper  part.  The  limbs  are  somewhat 
elongated,  especially  the  front  pair  ;  the  tail  is  relatively  short ;  and  the  fur 
is  loose  and  long. 

In  appearance,  hysenas  are  the  most  ungainly  of  all  Carnivora,  and  thereby 
present  a  marked  contrast  to  the  cats.  They  are  nocturnal,  gregarious,  and 
cowardly,  feeding  chiefly  on  carrion  and  carcases  ;  and  being  generally 
unable  or  indisposed  to  kill  the  larger  animals  for  themselves,  feast  on  the 
remnants  of  carcases  left  by  lions  and  tigers.  For  cracking  the  bones  of  such 
derelicts  their  powerful  teeth  and  strong  jaw-muscles  are  most  admirably 
adapted. 

.The  striped  hynana  (H.  striata)  of  India,  South-West  Asia,  and  North  and 
East  Africa,  is  easily  recognised  by  its  transversely  striped  pellage,  long  fur, 
which  forms  a  mane  on  the  shoulders  and  back,  and  large  pointed  ears.  The 
teeth  are  characterised  by  the  relatively  large  size  of  the  upper  molar  and 
by  the  lower  carnassial  having  a  heel  of  considerable  size,  and  a  cusp  on 
the  inner  side  of  the  blade.  The  brown  hysena  (H.  brunnea)  of  South 


Fig.  37.— AARD-WOLF  (Proves  cristatus). 


The  Hyaenas. 

Family 
Hycenidce. 

posterior  heel. 


FLESH-EATING  MAMMALS.  63 


Africa,  although  nearly  allied,  has  some  points  of  resemblance  to  the  third 
species.  The  largest  and  most  powerful  of  all  is  the  spotted  hysena 
(H.  crocuta),  now  confined  to  South 
Africa,  and  characterised  by  the  spot- 
ted coloration  of  the  body,  smaller 
proportionate  length  of  the  fore- 
limbs,  large  head,  with  moderate- 
sized  and  rounded  ears,  the  pre- 
sence of  a  mane  on  the  neck  and 
back,  and  the  smoother  and  shorter 
tail.  The  last  upper  molar  tooth  is 
very  small,  or  even  wanting,  and 
the  lower  carnassial  has  no  inner 
cusp  and  a  very  small  poste-  — *•  — 

rior     heel,     thus     closely    approach-  Ffo  ^.-SPOTTED 

ing   the  corresponding  tooth   of   the  (Hycena  crocuta). 

cats. 

As  regards  the  auditory  bulla  and  adjacent  regions  of  the  skull,  the  Dog  Tribe 
are  in  many  respects  intermediate  between  the  preceding  group  of  families  and 
those  which  follow.     The  bulla  itself  is  inflated  and  bladder- 
like,   but  has   no   internal  partition;    and  the  paroccipital  The  Dog  Tribe. 

process,  although  in  contact  with  the  bulla,  is  prominent,  Family  Canidce. 
and  not  applied  to  it,  as  it  is  in  the  cats  and  civets.  Another 
distinctive  feature  of  the  group  is  the  presence  of  a  long  and  coiled  coecum, 
or  blind  appendage,  at  the  junction  of  the  large  and  small  intestine  ;  that 
appendage  being  either  very  small  or  absent  in  the  preceding  families.  The 
crowns  of  the  upper  molar  teeth  are  triangular  in  shape  ;  and  these  teeth, 
which  are  nearly  always  two  in  number,  are  situated  behind  the  carnassial. 
The  latter  tooth,  as  in  the  civets,  has  two  lobes  to  the  blade  ;  and  the  lower 
carnassial  generally  has  a  large  tubercular  heel  behind  the  blade,  and  a  well- 
developed  cusp  on  its  inner  side.  In  most  cases  there  are  three  lower  molars 
(of  which  the  carnassial  is  the  first),  whereas  in  the  civets  there  are  never 
more  than  two  of  these  teeth ;  and  there  are  always  four  pairs  of  premolar  teeth 
in  each  jaw.  Dogs,  under  which  title  may  be  included  wolves,  jackals,  and 
foxes,  have  a  cosmopolitan  distribution,  and  differ  markedly  in  their  habits 
from  the  cats.  Although  a  few  will  run  up  the  stems  of  sloping  trees,  none  are 
climbers  ;  and  many  consort  in  packs  to  hunt  their  prey  by  scent.  Many  form 
burrows  in  the  ground  ;  and  while  they  are  more  or  less  carnivorous,  some 
will  supplement  a  flesh  diet  with  fruits,  insects,  or  garbage.  All  walk  on  the 
tips  of  their  toes,  and  are  thus  digitigrade  ;  and  the  claws  are  short,  blunt, 
slightly  curved,  and  non-retractile. 

By  far  the  great  majority  of  the  members  of  the  family  may  be  included  in 
the  genus  Cants,  which  has  a  geographical  distribution  equal  in  extent  to  that 
of  the  former.     It  is  characterised  by  the  general  presence  of 
42  teeth,  and  there  are  five  front  and  four  hind  toes.     The    Typical  Genus. 
tail  is  of  moderate  length  or  long,  and  generally  more  or 
less  bushy  ;    and   the  pupil   of   the  eye  may  contract   either  to  a  vertical 
slit  or  a  circle.      The  general   form  is  too  well  known  to  require  descrip- 
tion.     The  genus  may  be  divided,  from  the  characters  of  the  skull,  into  two 
primary  series,  the  first  typified  by  the  wolves,  and  the  second  by  the  foxes. 

This  series  includes  the  wolves,  jackals,  and  wild  dogs,  together  with  the 
domesticated  breeds,  and   is  best  characterised   by  the  circumstance  that 


64  MAMMALIA— ORDER  IV.—CARNIVORA. 


the  postorbital  process  of  the  frontal  bone,  that  is  to  say  the  one  forming 
the  hinder  boundary  of  the  socket  of  the  eye,  has  its  superior  surface 
smooth  and  convex,  and  its  free  extremity  bent  downwards. 
Wolf-like  Series.  In  this  group  the  wolves  are  the  largest  wild  representa- 
tives ;  the  common  wolf  (G.  lupus)  ranging  over  the  northern 
portions  of  both  the  Old  and  New  Worlds.  There  are  no  wolves  either  in 
Africa  or  South  America,  although  it  is  curious  that  the  so-called  Antarctic 
wolf  (C.  antarcticus)  of  the  Falkland  Islands  appears  to  belong  to  the  group. 
In  Asia  there  are  several  wolves,  although  none  are  found  in  the  countries  to 
the  east  and  south-cast  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  and  there  is  some  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  their  relationship  to  the  common  wolf.  With  regard  to  the 

wolf  inhabitingthe  plains  of  India, 
most  persons  not  specially  versed 
in  the  mysteries  of  zoology  would 
probably  be  unable  to  distinguish 
it  from  its  European  cousin,  un- 
less specimens  were  placed  side 
by  side,  and  even  then  would  find 
some  difficulty.  It  appears,  how- 
ever, that  there  are  certain  differ- 
ences in  the  habits  of  the  two 
animals,  which  suggest  the  pro- 
bability of  their  specific  distinct- 
ness from  one  another.  For  in- 
stance, the  Indian  wolf  is  re- 
markable for  its  silence,  only  very 
Fig.  39. -COMMON  WOLF.  rarely,  if  ever,  uttering  the  well- 

known    howl    of     the     common 

species  ;  although  it  is  stated  that  it  will  occasionally  bark,  after  the  manner 
of  a  pariah  dog.  Then,  again,  Indian  wolves,  although  sometimes  found  in 
small  family  parties  of  half-a-dozen  or  so,  are  never  known  to  collect  in  the 
enormous  packs  which  make  the  European  species  so  dreaded  in  winter.  It 
is  probable  that  these  differences  in  habits  would  net  by  themselves  alone  be 
regarded  as  sufficient  to  establish  the  right  of  the  Indian  wolf  to  rank  as  a 
distinct  species.  When,  however,  it  is  found  that  there  are  in  addition 
certain  points  by  which  the  two  animals  can  be  distinguished  from  one 
another,  these  differences  in  habits  become  of  importance  in  adding  to 
their  distinctness.  The  Indian  wolf  is,  indeed,  a  somewhat  smaller  and 
slighter  animal  than  the  European  species,  the  average  difference  in  the 
length  of  the  two  animals  being  about  six  inches.  Then,  also,  the  hair 
is  rather  shorter,  and  there  is  little  or  no  under-fur ;  while  the  colour  is 
generally  rather  more  inclined  to  brown  than  in  the  common  wolf.  The 
absence  of  under-fur  in  the  Indian  wolf  might,  we  think,  be  well  explained 
by  the  hotter  climate  in  which  it  dwells  ;  but,  in  spite  of  this,  naturalists 
are  probably  right  in  regarding  it  as  a  distinct  species,  under  the  name  of 
Canis  pallipes. 

The  Indian  wolf  does  not  range  into  the  Himalaya,  neither  is  it  found  to 
the  westward  of  the  Indus,  or  in  Ceylon.  That  island  seems,  indeed,  to 
enjoy  a  happy  immunity  from  the  presence  of  several  of  the  larger  Indian 
Carnivora,  as  it  has  neither  wolves,  wild  dogs,  hyaenas  nor  tigers.  In  the  case- 
of  the  tiger  it  has  been  attempted  to  account  for  this  absence  by  the  sugges- 
tion that  this  animal  is  but  a  comparatively  recent  immigrant  into  India  from 


FLESH-EATING  MAMMALS. 


Fig.  40.— INDIAN  WOLF  (Cam's  pallives). 


the  north,  and  had  not  reached  that  country  at  the  time  Ceylon  was  united 
with  the  mainland.  If  this  were  so,  it  would  seem,  however,  that  the  same 
explanation  ought  to  hold  good  for  hyaenas  and  wolves  ;  but  as  both  the 
latter  are  known  to  have  been  well  represented  in  India  in  the  later 
geological  epochs,  some  other  reason  must  apparently  be  sought,  at  least,  in 
their  cases. 

It  is  difficult  to  leave  the  Indian  wolf  without  referring  to  the  subject  of 
v.-olf-nurtured  children.  Many  of  the  stories  relating  to  these  have  been 
brought  together  by  Professor  V. 
Ball,  in  his  "Jungle  Life  in  India," 
where  it  is  related  that  in  all  the 
recorded  instances  the  children 
were  boys,  and  that  the  greater 
number  of  cases  have  occurred  in 
Oude.  Many  persons  refuse  to 
attach  any  credence  to  such 
stories,  but  Mr.  Ball  strongly 
urges  a  suspension  of  judgment 
until  further  evidence  be  attained. 
If  such  stories  be  really  based  on 
fact,  we  can  only  look  to  Euro- 
peans who  are  stationed  or  travel- 
ling in  the  wilder  parts  of  India 
to  bring  to  light  decisive  evidence 
in  support  of  any  new  cases  that 
may  occur. 

It  has  been  already  mentioned  that  the  Indian  wolf  does  not  extend  west- 
ward of  the  Indus  ;  and  in  Sind,  Baluchistan,  and  Gilgit  its  place  is  taken  by 
the  European  wolf,  which  not  improbably  may  also  range  into  the  northern  part 
of  the  Punjab.  Large  wolves,  distinguished  by  their  long  soft  hair  and  pale 
colour,  are  common  on  the  farther  side  of  the  snowy  range  in  Ladak  and 
Tibet,  where  they  are  known  to  the  natives  by  the  name  of  Changu.  These 
Tibetan  wolves  have  been  generally  regarded  as  a  distinct  species,  described 
as  Canis  laniger  or  chanco,  and  considered  to  be  more  nearly  allied  to  the 
Indian  than  to  the  European  wolf.  It  seems,  however,  that  this  view  is  in- 
correct, and  that  the  Tibetan  wolf  is  nothing  more  than  a  pale-coloured  and 
woolly-haired  variety  of  the  common  wolf.  Occasionally  long-haired  black 
wolves  are  met  with  in  Tibet,  which  have  been  regarded  as  indicating  yet 
another  species  (C.  niger).  There  is,  however,  no  doubt  but  that  these  are 
merely  varieties  of  the  ordinary  Tibetan  wolf,  similar  to  the  dark  variety  of 
the  short-haired  wolf  of  Europe.  It  is  to  a  considerable  extent  for  the  pur- 
poses of  protecting  their  flocks  against  the  ravages  of  wolves  that  Tibetan 
villages  and  encampments  are  guarded  by  the  huge  mastiffs,  which  not  un- 
frequently  make  themselves  so  extremely  unpleasant  to  the  European  visitor. 

The  following  interesting  account  of  the  habits  of  wolves  in  Norway,  where 
these  animals  are  still  abundant,  is  given  by  a  writer  in  the  Asian  newspaper 
of  August  19th,  1893  :— 

"  The  pairing-season  occurs  in  February,  and  in  nine  weeks  the  female 
brings  forth  her  young.  When  the  time  of  birth  approaches,  the  mother 
retires  to  the  most  remote  and  unfrequented  parts  of  the  forest,  where  in 
some  cleft  or  cave  in  the  rocks,  surrounded  by  close  undergrowth,  she  con- 
ceals her  offspring.  These  remain  blind  for  ten  or  eleven  days,  and  for  six 


66  MAMMALIA— ORDER  1V.—CARN1VORA. 


or  eight  weeks  are  nourished  by  the  mother,  but  when  only  a  month  old  they 
leave  the  den  for  short  distances,  and  play  about  with  one  another  like 
puppies.  The  she-wolf  is  a  good  mother,  and  as  long  as  her  young  are  small 
she  never  goes  any  great  distance  from  them,  and  they  remain  with  her  till 
the  pairing- season  comes  round  again,  when  they  themselves  are  capable  of 
procreation.  At  first  they  are  dark  coloured,  the  end  of  the  tail  being  black, 
but  after  they  have  got  to  be  about  a  couple  of  feet  in  length  they  are  of  a 
yellowish-grey,  of  a  darker  shape  on  the  back,  and  have  a  black  muzzle. 

"During  the  summer  months  wolves  are  partial  to  extensive  woodland 
solitudes,  especially  those  interspersed  with  mossy  tarns  and  streams.  In 
winter,  on  the  other  hand,  especially  during  severe  cold  and  rough  weather, 
they  tend  towards  the  more  inhabited  and  open  districts.  Wolves  always 
make  their  excursions  at  night,  and  between  sunset  and  sunrise  they 
frequently  cover  great  distances  ;  while  during  the  day  they  rest  in  close 
covert.  When  pressed  by  hunger,  in  extreme  cold,  when  they  leave  or  are 
returning  to  their  young,  or  when  they  have  been  deprived  of  these,  they 
send  forth  long-drawn  and  melancholy  howls.  In  woods,  arid  generally  speak- 
ing, in  narrow  surroundings,  wolves  are  cowardly  and  cunning  ;  while  on  ex- 
tensive plains  or  tracts  of  ice,  where  they  can  see  about  them,  they  are  much 
more  courageous,  especially  when  in  company  ;  but  even  under  such  circum- 
stances they  rarely  assume  the  offensive  towards  man.  In  districts  frequented 
by  these  animals  they  have  certain  paths  which  they  almost  invariably  follow, 
and  so  closely  do  they  keep  in  one  another's  tracks  it  is  difficult  to  say  that 
more  than  one  has  passed.  In  going  to  and  from  the  place  where  the  young 
are  concealed  they  invariably  follow  the  same  route,  and  so  a  regular  beaten 
track  is  formed.  Only  when  in  droves  will  they  attack  the  larger  animals, 
such  as  the  elk;  at  first  they  steal  as  near  their  victim  as  possible,  and 
endeavour  to  seize  it  by  making  long  bounds  ;  failing  in  this,  they  set 
about  running  it  down,  two  or  three  following  the  hunted  beast  closely,  the 
rest  trying  to  cut  it  off,  or  by  lying  in  wait  and  springing  at  its  throat.  If 
captured  when  quite  young,  wolves  remain  comparatively  tame  for  some  time, 
but  their  savage  nature  generally  breaks  out  ere  long,  and  they  cannot  be 
depended  on." 

Of  other  species,  the  North  American  coyote  (C.  lairans]  is  a  smaller  form, 
with  very  long  hair,  which  appears  to  connect  the  true  wolves  with  the 
jackals.  The  latter  animals  are  really  nothing  more  than  small  wolves,  and 
usually  have  the  bushy  tail  equal  to  about  one-third  the  length  of  the  head 
and  body.  The  common  jackal  (C.  aureus)  extends  from  Burma  and  India 
through  South -Western  Asia  to  South-Eastern  Europe  and  North  Africa  ; 
but  is  replaced  in  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara  by  several  allied  forms,  such  as 
the  side-striped  jackal  (C.  adustits)  and  the  handsome  black-backed  jackal 
(C.  inesomelas).  The  dingo  (C.  dingo)  of  Australia  is  generally  reckoned  as  a 
domesticated  species,  but  there  is  considerable  evidence  that  it  existed  in 
Australia  previous  to  the  advent  of  men. 

Most  sportsmen  who  have  shot  in  India,  whether  in  the  plains  or  in  the 
hills,  are  probably  more  or  less  familiar  with  those  animals  commonly  known 
as  wild  dogs.  Although  they  are  not  often  seen  actually  hunting  their  prey, 
yet  they  may  not  unfrequently  be  met  with  when  shooting  in  or  near  forests  ; 
while  in  the  hills  the  frightened  and  disturbed  condition  of  ibex  and  other 
large  game  will  often  indicate  their  presence  in  a  district  where  it  would 
otherwise  be  unsuspected.  Like  many  of  the  colloquial  names  applied  to 
animals,  the  term  wild  dogs  by  which  these  creatures  are  generally  known  is 


FLESH-EATING  MAMMALS.  67 

an  exceedingly  inappropriate  one,  because  it  is  just  this  particular  group  of 
dog-like  animals  which  differs  more  from  ordinary  dogs  than  do  most  others 
of  the  larger  Canidie.  It  would  indeed  be  far  better  if  wolves  and  jackals 
were  spoken  of  as  "wild  clogs,"  since  it  is  those  members  of  the  family 
which  come  closest  to  our  domestic  dogs,  of  some  of  which  they  are  probably 
the  parent  stock.  In  such  cases,  however,  it  is  utterly  hopeless  for  the 
naturalist  to  attempt  to  fight  against  popular  usage,  and  we  must  accordingly 
be  content  to  accept  the  ordinary  names  for  the  animals  under  consideration. 

All  who  have  ever  seen  an  Indian  wild  dog,  whether  in  the  flesh  or  stuffed, 
will  not  be  likely  to  mistake  it  for  any  other  member  of  the  canine  family. 
In  size  it  is  somewhat  larger  than  a  jackal  of  average  dimensions,  and  is 
characterised  by  the  generally  ruddy  colour  of  the  hair,  and  especially  by  the 
black  tip  of  the  moderately  long  and  bushy  tail.  Moreover,  the  muzzle 
and  legs  are  relatively  rather  short  in  comparison  with  the  size  of  the  head 
and  body  ;  while  the  profile  of  the  face  differs  from  that  of  other  canine 
animals  by  being  slightly  convex  instead  of  concave  or  straight. 

The  reader  may  ask  whether  such  characteristics  as  the  above  offer  any 
justification  for  the  objection  to  the  term  wild  dog  as  applied  to  these  ani- 
mals; and  if  it  were  these  alone  on  which  naturalists  rely,  he  would  be 
perfectly  justified  in  so  doing.  To  obtain,  however,  any  true  ideas  as  to  the 
relationships  of  an  animal,  we  are  compelled  not  only  to  study  its  colour  and 
proportions,  but  likewise  to  take  into  consideration  its  skeleton  and  other 
parts  of  its  organisation.  Now,  if  we  take  the  skull  of  a  wild  dog  and  com- 
pare the  number  of  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw  with  those  of  a  wolf,  jackal,  or 
fox,  we  shall  find  an  important  point  of  difference.  In  the  lower  jaws  of  all 
the  three  animals  last  mentioned,  and  also  in  those  of  domestic  dogs,  we 
shall  find  that  there  are  11  teeth  on  each  side  ;  the  eleventh  being  the 
smallest  of  all  those  situated  behind  the  tusk.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we 
examine  the  lower  jaw  of  any  wild  dog,  we  shall  find  that  the  small  eleventh 
tooth  is  wanting,  so  that  there  are  only  10  lower  teeth.  A  wild  dog  has, 
indeed,  only  10  teeth  on  each  side  of  both  the  upper  and  lower  jaws,  where- 
as in  dogs,  wolves,  jackals,  and  foxes  there  are  10  upper  and  11  lower 
teeth.  We  have  here,  therefore,  an  easily  recognised  point  of  distinction 
between  a  wild  dog  and  most  other  members  of  the  family.  There  are,  how- 
ever, two  African  and  one  South  American  representatives  of  the  family, 
which,  while  differing  from  the  ordinary  type  as  regards  the  number  of  their 
teeth,-  have  no  intimate  connection  with  the  wild  dogs.  A  difference  of  one 
tooth  more  or  less  in  the  lower  jaws  of  different  members  of  the  family  may 
not  appear  a  very  important  one — and  to  a  certain  extent  it  is  not  so.  But 
it  at  any  rate  serves  to  show  that  wild  dogs  cannot  possibly  be  the  parents  of 
any  of  our  domestic  breeds  of  dogs,  since  it  is  a  well  ascertained  fact  that 
when  once  a  tooth  has  been  lost  in  any  group  of  animals  it  never  reappears 
(unless  it  may  be  as  an  occasional  abnormality)  in  their  descendants.  An- 
other point  of  distinction  between  wild  dogs  and  other  members  of  the  family 
is  that  there  are  either  12  or  14  teats  in  place  of  the  usual  10. 

Relying  on  the  two  points  of  difference  last  noticed,  many  naturalists  have 
considered  that  wild  dogs  ought  not  to  be  included  in  the  same  genus  as 
wolves  and  jackals,  and  the  former  have  accordingly  been  described  under  a 
separate  generic  title,  as  Cuon,  or  more  correctly  Cyon,  from  the  Greek  name 
for  a  dog.  Such  a  distinction  appears,  however,  unnecessary,  and  it  is  pre- 
ferable to  include  wolves,  jackals,  foxes,  and  wild  dogs  under  the  common 
title  of  Caw's. 


63  MAMMALIA— ORDER  1V.—CARNIVORA. 


As  regards  their  distribution,  wild  dogs  are  found  in  India,  Burma,  Siam, 
and  the  Malayan  Peninsula  and  islands  ;  while  in  Central  Asia  they 
extend  as  far  northwards  as  the  Altai  Mountains,  which  divide  Mongolia  from 
Siberia,  and  as  far  westwards  as  Amurland,  and  the  Isle  of  Saghalien  in  the 
Sea  of  Okhotsk.  It  is,  however,  somewhat  curious  that,  so  far  as  our  informa- 
tion goes,  these  animals  are  quite  unknown  both  in  Northern  China  and 
Japan.  Wild  dogs  are,  therefore,  at  the  present  day  exclusively  confined  to 
Asia,  where  they  do  not  appear  to  extend  eastwards  of  the  longitude  of  the 
Ural  Mountains.  This  distribution  wijl,  however,  only  hold  good  for  the 
present  epoch,  since  there  have  been  found  in  the  caves  of  various  parts  of 
Europe  lower  jaws  of  canine  animals  agreeing  with  those  of  living 'wild  dogs 
in  having  10  instead  of  11  teeth  ;  and  we  shall,  therefore,  "DC  justified  in 
considering  at  or  about  the  time  when  the  mammoth  flourished  that  wild  dogs 
hunted  over  Europe  as  they  do  at  the  present  day  in  Asia.  The  circum- 
stances of  the  occurrence  at  a  former  epoch  in  Europe  of  a  group  of  animals, 
now  confined  to  Asia  is  by  no  means  an  isolated  one,  since  there  is  evidence 
that  at  stiil  earlier  periods  of  the  earth's  history  deer,  like  the  muntjac  and 
spotted  deer  of  India,  and  long-snouted  crocodiles  akin  to  the  garials  of  the 
Ganges  and  Borneo,  flourished  in  various  parts  of  Europe.  All  these  facts 
in  distribution  seem,  indeed,  to  point  to  the  conclusion  that  Asia  has  served 
as  a  kind  of  refuge  for  groups  of  animals  which,  for  some  reason  or  another, 
were  unaole  to  exist  any  longer  in  Europe. 

Naturalists  have  long  been  exercised  as  to  whether  the  wild  dog  of  the 
Himalaya  was  identical  with  that  of  the  plains  of  India,  and  also  whether  one 
or  both  of  these  could  be  distinguished  from  the  wild  dog  of  Burma  and  the 
Malayan  islands.  In  many  works  the  wild  dog  of  India  and  the  Himalaya 
will  be  found  alluded  to  by  the  name  of  Cyon  rutilans — a  name  properly  be- 
longing to  the  Malayan  form.  These  writers  probably  derived  their  informa- 
tion from  the  late  Dr.  Jerdon,  who  in  his  "  Indian  Mammals"  included  the 
Malayan,  Indian,  and  Himalayan  forms  under  this  single  name.  Colonel 
Sykes  had,  however,  long  before  separated  the  Indian  wild  dog  under  the 
name  of  C.  dukhunensis,  while  for  the  Himalayan  form  Hodgson  proposed  the 
name  of  C.  primawis.  Mr.  Blanford,  who  states  that  he  can  find  no  difference 
between  the  wild  dog  of  the  Himalaya  and  that  of  the  plains  of  India,  con- 
siders that  these  are  probably  distinct  from  the  kind  found  in  Burma  and 
the  Malayan  region.  The  difference  between  the  two  is,  however,  very  slight ; 
but  the  Himalayan  and  Indian  species  (C.  deccanensis)  is  a  rather  larger  and 
stouter  animal,  with  longer  hair,  and  a  woolly  under-fur,  and  the  general 
colour  varying  from  a  ferruginous  red  to  tawny  ;  while  the  Burmese  and 
Malayan  species  (C.  rutilans)  is  smaller  and  slighter,  with  shorter  hair, no  under- 
fur,  and  a  brighter  colour.  The  Indian  species  extends  to  the  north-west  as 
far  as  Gilgit  and  Hunza,  from  whence  it  ranges  eastwards  through  Ladak  into 
Tibet.  Curiously  enough,  it  is  found  that  this  wild  dog  is  quite  distinct 
from  the  species  inhabiting  the  Altai  (C.  alpinus)  which  has  much  larger 
upper  molar  teeth.  This,  as  Mr.  Blanford  well  observes,  is  a  most  remark- 
able feature  in  distribution,  for  whereas  most  of  the  animals  of  the  Himalaya, 
like  the  ibex  and  the  great  Tibetan  sheep,  are  either  identical  with  or  closely 
related  to  those  of  the  Altai  and  adjacent  regions,  here  we  have  a  case  where 
the  Himalayan  form  is  identical  with  one  inhabiting  the  plains  of  India,  and 
perfectly  distinct  from  the  one  found  in  the  Altai.  This  may,  however,  be 
explained  by  the  greater  facility  with  which  the  Carnivora  can  adapt  them- 
selves to  different  surroundings,  owing  to  the  circumstance  that  wherever 


FLESH-EATING  MAMMALS.  69 


they  go  they  are  sure  to  meet  with  herbivorous  animals,  on  which  they  can 
prey.  Herbivorous  animals,  on  the  other  hand,  are  generally  more  or  less 
completely  dependent  on  one  or  more  particular  kinds  of  plants  for  susten- 
ance, and  are  consequently  unable  to  exist  in  regions  where  such  plants  do 
not  grow. 

In  the  same  series  with  the  wolves  and  jackals  are  included  a  number  of 
South  American  species,  commonly  spoken  of  as  foxes,  which  they  much 
resemble  in  external  aspect,  although  having  wolf -like  skulls.  Among  these 
are  Azara's  dog  (C.  azarce)  and  the  crab-eating  dog  (C.  cancrivorus).  A  much 
larger  South  American  form  is  the  so-called  maned  wolf  (C.  jubatus) — a  large 
reddish-coloured  animal.  The  so-called  raccoon-dog  (C.  procyonides),  which 
has  been  generically  separated  as  Nyctereutes,  is  distinguished  by  its  long  loose 
fur,  short  ears,  and  abbreviated  bushy  tail,  its  general  colour  being  dusky. 

Probably  every  Englishman  thinks  he  knows  a  fox  when  he  sees  it ;  and  it 
is  not  unlikely  that  he  would  be  disposed  to  resent  the  suggestion  that  he 
could  not  distinguish  between  foxes  and  certain  other 
members  of  the  canine  family,  or  that  there  could  be  any  Fox-like  Series, 
hesitation  in  deciding  whether  any  foxes  he  might  be  shown 
were  or  were  not  specifically  identical  with  the  common  English  kind. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  determine  from  external  characters 
alone  whether  a  given  canine  animal  is  or  is  not  a  fox  ;  while  the  difficulty  of 
deciding  whether  many  of  the  larger  foxes  of  Asia  and  America  should  be  re- 
garded merely  as  varieties  of  the  common  fox,  or  as  distinct  species,  has  long 
exercised  the  minds  of  naturalists.  Indeed,  the  latter  question  has  only 
recently  been  decided  by  the  leading  zoologists  of  England  in  favour  of  the 
former  view  ;  and  we  are  by  no  means  sure  that  their  opinions  are  accepted 
by  all  American  zoologists. 

Probably  most  people  would  say  that  a  fox  is  sufficiently  characterised  by 
his  slight  build,  elongated  body,  short  limbs,  long  ears,  sharp  muzzle,  and 
long  bushy  tail,  of  which  the  length  always  considerably  exceeds  half  that  of 
the  head  and  body.  So  far,  indeed,,  as  they  go,  these  characteristics  are  ex- 
cellent, and  they  will  serve  to  distinguish  a  fox  from  a  wolf  or  jackal.  The 
whole  of  them  are,  however,  not  applicable  to  all  foxes,  the  Arctic  fox  having 
comparatively  short  ears,  while  they  will  not  serve  to  distinguish  foxes  from 
the  above-mentioned  South  American  representatives  of  the  family,  such  as 
the  so-called  Azara's  dog.  The  latter  animals  have,  indeed,  the  general 
build  and  appearance  of  foxes,  their  muzzles  being  sharp,  their  ears  long,  and 
their  tails  of  great  length  and  thickly  haired.  The  naturalist  says  emphati- 
cally, however,  that  they  are  not  true  foxes,  and  it  is,  therefore,  evident 
that  he  has  certain  characteristics  to  rely  on  which  are  not  included  among 
those  just  mentioned. 

A  more  careful  examination  of  a  fox  will  show  that  the  pupil  of  the  eye 
forms  merely  a  narrow  vertical  ellipse  when  seen  in  a  strong  light,  whereas 
that  of  wolves,  jackals,  and  dogs  is  circular.  Unfortunately,  however,  even 
this  character  will  not  serve  to  distinguish  foxes  from  the  above-mentioned 
South  American  species.  Of  more  importance  is  the  circumstance  that 
vixen  foxes  have  but  6  teats,  whereas  the  females  of  wolves,  jackals,  and 
dogs  generally  have  10,  but  occasionally  only  8  teats,  while  in  the 
Indian  wild  dogs  the  number  is  increased  to  12  or  14.  As  usual,  how- 
ever,' when  he  wants  to  find  a  feature  which  shall  be  absolutely 
characteristic,  the  naturalist  has  recourse  to  the  skull  in  order  to  definitely 
separate  foxes  from  all  other  members  of  the  family.  If,  indeed,  we  examine 


70  MAMMALIA— ORDER  IV.—CARNIVORA. 


the  skull  of  any  kind  of  domestic  or  wild  dog,  of  a  wolf,  or  a  jackal,  we  shall 
not  fail  to  observe,  as  noticed  above,  that  the  triangular  bony  projection 
from  the  middle  of  the  skull  which  forms  the  hinder  border  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  socket  of  the  eye — hence  known  as  the  postorbital  process — is 
highly  convex,  and  curves  from  above  downwards.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
the  skull  of  any  species  of  fox,  the  same  process  has  a  very  distinct  hollow  on 
its  upper  surface,  and  it  does  not  curve  downwards  in  the  smallest  degree. 
A  further  examination  will  also  show  that  in  a  dog,  jackal,  or  wolf  the 
middle  portion  of  the  skull  is  considerably  elevated  above  the  level  of  the 
extremities  of  these  two  processes  ;  whereas  in  a  fox  the  whole  surface  of 
this  part  of  the  skull  lies  nearly  in  a  horizontal  plane.  If  we  were  to  make  a 
vertical  section  of  the  two  skulls,  we  should  find  that  in  the  skulls  of  the 
dog,  jackal,  and  wolf  the  bone  forming  the  roof  was  honeycombed  by  a 
number  of  cells,  whereas  in  the  fox  it  is  solid  ;  and  it  is  the  presence, 
or  absence,  of  these  cells  which  causes  the  great  difference  in  the  contour  of 
the  skulls  of  a  dog  and  a  fox. 

The  above  feature  absolutely  distinguishes  the  skulls  of  all  species  of 
foxes  from  those  of  all  other  members  of  the  family,  and  we  are  accordingly 
now  able  to  give  a  much  more  satisfactory  definition  of  a  fox,  which  will  be 
somewhat  as  follows,  viz.  :  A  long -bodied,  short-limbed  member  of  the 
canine  family,  with  a  long  and  bushy  tail  exceeding  half  the  length  of  the 
head  and  body,  generally  long  ears,  a  sharp  muzzle,  elliptical  pupils  to  the 
eyes,  6  teats,  and  the  forehead  of  the  skull  not  honeycombed  by  cells,  and 
with  the  postorbital  processes  hollowed  above.  From  these  important 
differences  some  writers  are  inclined  to  separate  the  foxes  from  the  genus 
Canis  under  the  name  of  Vulpes. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  as  to  whether  foxes  and  dogs  will  breed 
together.  Thus,  Mr.  Bartlett,  the  superintendent  of  the  Zoological  Society's 
Gardens,  whose  wide  experience  entitles  him  to  rank  as  a  high  authority  on 
the  point,  writing  in  1890,  says  that,  "  So  far  as  my  experience  goes,  I  have 
never  met  with  a  well-authenticated  instance  of  a  hybrid  between  a  fox  and 
a  dog,  notwithstanding  numerous  specimens  of  supposed  hybrids  of  this  sort 
which  from  time  to  time  have  been  brought  to  my  notice."  Since  that  date, 
several  writers  in  Land  and  Water  have,  however,  asserted  the  existence  of 
such  hybrids,  but  further  evidence  is  still  desirable  on  the  subject.  And  if 
such  a  hybrid  be  proved  to  exist,  it  would  be  very  desirable  that  the  form 
of  the  pupils  of  its  eyes,  and  the  number  of  its  teats,  should  be  care- 
fully recorded  during  life,  while  after  death  an  examination  of  its  skull 
by  a  qualified  observer  would  be  of  the  highest  interest. 

Turning  to  the  numerous  varieties  of  the  common  fox  and  their  distribu- 
tion, it  is  almost  needless  to  observe  that  in  England  the  fox  is  of  a  bright 
reddish-brown  colour  on  the  upper-parts,  with  the  under-parts  and  the  tip  of 
the  brush  white,  and  the  back  of  the  ears  and  the  lower  portions  of  the  limbs 
black.  There  are,  however,  some  local  or  individual  variations  even  in  this 
country,  which  have  given  rise  to  the  names  of  greyhound,  mountain,  and 
bush  foxes  ;  but  all  these  are,  at  the  most,  of  trivial  import.  Occasionally 
English  foxes  are  killed  with  the  tip  of  the  brush  grey  or  black,  and 
there  is  one  instance  on  record  of  a  white  English  fox.  Of  far  more  im- 
portance is  the  circumstance  that  ome  time  previous  to  1864  an  im- 
mature fox  was  killed  in  Warwickshire  with  all  the  under-parts  of  a  greyish 
black  hue.  Now,  as  a  general  rule,  the  foxes  of  Northern  and  Central 
Europe  are  similar  in  colour  to  the  ordinary  English  form,  but  in  Southern 


FLESH-EATING  MAMMALS.  71 


Europe  they  are  all  paler  above,  with  the  under-parts  dusky.  There  can, 
however,  be  no  question  but  that  these  are  all  of  one  species,  and  it  is  there- 
fore very  interesting  to  find  one  instance  of  the  occurrence  of  the  Southern 
variety — assuming  that  the  Warwickshire  specimen  was  not  an  imported 
animal — in  this  country. 

Proceeding  eastwards  into  Asia,  we  find  two  large  foxes  differing  very 
markedly  from  the  ordinary  English  form.  The  first  of  these  is  the  yellow 
fox  of  Central  Asia,  formerly  regarded  as  a  distinct  species  under  the  name  of 
C.  flavescens,  and  characterised  by  its  general  pale  and  yellowish  colour,  and 
the  large  size  of  its  magnificent  brush.  It  has,  however,  still  the  dark  ears 
and  white  brush-tip  of  the  English  fox,  arid  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
modern  writers  are  right  in  regarding  it  merely  as  a  pale  variety  of  the 
latter.  This  variety  inhabits  open  country,  and  lives  in  burrows,  or  among 
rocks  or  bushes. 

The  handsome  animal  known  as  the  mountain-fox  (the  so-called  C. 
montanus)  of  the  Himalaya,  although  nearly  allied  to  the  last,  is  frequently 
so  strikingly  different,  when  in  its  winter  dress,  from  the  ordinary  English 
fox,  that  most  sportsmen  would  regard  it  as  a  distinct  species.  The  fur  of  the 
back  varies  in  colour  from  chestnut  to  iron-grey,  and  the  shoulders  are  often 
marked  by  a  conspicuous  dark  transverse  stripe,  while  the  under-parts,  and 
especially  the  throat,  are  more  or  less  dusky.  The  black  outer  surfaces  of  the 
ears  and  the  white  tip  to  the  brush  proclaim,  however,  the  affinity  of  this  fox 
to  the  southern  variety  of  the  European  fox  ;  and  it  appears  to  be  merely 
another  variety  of  the  latter.  This  Himalayan  fox  differs  from  the  Central 
Asian  variety  in  that  it  does  not  excavate  burrows,  but  lives  in  thickets  or  on 
cultivated  land.  When  we  add  that  the  so-called  Nile  fox  (C.  niloticus)  is  but 
another  variety  of  the  same  species,  it  will  be  evident  that  if  he  can  but  obtain 
a  pack  of  hounds  and  suitable  ground,  the  sportsman  may  hunt  one  and 
the  same  species  of  fox,  whether  he  be  in  England,  in  the  South  of  Europe,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Nile,  in  the  deserts  of  Central  Asia,  or  in  the  vale  of  Kashmir. 

This  is,  however,  by  no  means  all,  for  if  the  fox-hunter  cares  to  cross  the 
Atlantic  he  may  again  hunt  the  common  fox  in  Virginia  and  other  parts  of 
North  America.  It  is  true,  in- 
deed, that  these  large  North 
American  foxes  have  been  con- 
sidered distinct  species,  underthe 
names  of  the  red  fox  (C.  fulvus) 
and  the  cross-fox  (C.pennsyhani- 
cus).  The  cross-fox  is,  however, 
obviously  but  a  variety  of  the  red 
fox,  distinguished  by  the  presence 
of  a  more  or  less  distinct  dark 
stripe  across  the  shoulders  ;  and 
since  both  forms  have  the  black  Fig.  41.— THE  COMMON  Fox. 

ears  and   white  tail-tip  of   the 

European  species,  there  can  be  little  hesitation,  in  spite  of  their  variation  in 
colour,  in  regarding  them  merely  as  local  races  of  the  same  widely-spread  form. 

Again  the  so-called  silver  or  black  fox  (C.  argentatus)  from  California  and 
the  Western  United  States,  so  valued  on  account  of  its  beautiful  fur,  is  only  a 
melanistic  (dark)  variety  of  the  red  fox,  and  is  therefore  merely  another  race 
of  Canis  vulpes.  The  silver  fox,  we  may  observe  in  passing,  is  a  comparatively 
rare  animal,  of  which  perfectly  black  skins,  with  only  the  characteristic  white 


72  MAMMALIA— ORDER  IV.—CARNIVORA. 


tip  of  the  tail,  are  so  scarce  that  they  fetch  from  £50  to  £70  in  the  market. 
It  thus  appears  that  an  animal  may  vary  in  colour  from  foxy-red  above,  with 
white  under-parts  and  tail-tip  and  black  limbs  and  ears,  to  one  in  which  the 
whole  of  the  fur  is  black  save  the  tip  of  the  tail,  and  yet  belong  to  one  and 
the  same  species. 

No  account  of  the  distribution  of  the  common  fox  would  be  complete  with- 
out some  reference  to  the  fact  that  it  is  one  of  the  very  oldest  of  our  British 
Mammals,  its  fossilised  remains  having  been  dug  up  in  the  topmost  beds  of  the 
so  called  red  crag  of  the  Suffolk  coast.  These  deposits  far  ante-date  the  river 
gravels  and  cavern-mud  in  which  occur  the  remains  of  the  mammoth  and  other 
gigantic  extinct  Mammals  ;  and  it  will  thus  be  evident  that  this  extreme 
antiquity  of  the  British  fox  will  readily  account  for  its  present  unusually  wide 
geographical  distribution. 

Before  taking  leave  of  the  common  fox  and  its  numerous  varieties  we  may 
refer  to  the  circumstance  that  there  has  been  much  discussion  as  to  whether 
badgers  are  hurtful  to  young  foxes.  As  the  result  of  these  it  appears  that  the 
charge  against  the  badger  has  been  effectually  disproved,  more  than  one 
writer  recounting  instances  where  fox  and  badger-cubs  have  been  brought  up 
in  amity  as  inhabitants  of  the  same  earth.  In  spite,  however,  of  this,  it 
appears  that  there  is  still,  at  least  in  some  districts,  war  waged  by  sportsmen, 
against  the  unfortunate  badger. 

With  regard  to  North  American  foxes,  it  may  be  observed  that  in  addition 
to  the  red  and  cross-fox,  the  so-called  grey  fox  or  Virginian  fox  (C.  mrginianus) 
is  largely  hunted  with  hounds  in  some  parts  of  the  States.  This  fox  is  much 
smaller  than  the  European  species,  the  length  of  its  head  and  body  being 
only  about  19  inches,  in  place  of  some  24  inches.  It  is  further  distin- 
guished by  its  relatively  shorter  muzzle,  and  also  by  the  presence  of  a  ridge 
of  long  stiff  hairs  running  along  the  middle  of  the  upper  part  of  the  tail. 
The  general  colour  of  this  fox,  as  its  common  name  implies,  is  some  shade  of 
grey  ;  but  there  is  considerable  individual  variation  in  this  respect,  and  some 
specimens  show  a  more  or  less  marked  reddish  tinge.  If  an  English  hunts- 
man were  to  see  his  quarry  suddenly  rush  straight  up  the  trunk  of  a  tree  in 
the  midst  of  a  run,  his  astonishment  would  certainly  be  great,  yet  we  are 
assured  by  American  writers  that  tree-climbing  is  a  frequent  habit  of  the  grey 
fox.  Thus  Dr.  EHzey  writes  in  Shields'  "Big  Game  of  North  America,"  that 
"  whether  the  greys  ever  climb  trees  in  pursuit  of  prey  I  am  uncertain  ;  but 
they  take  to  a  tree  as  readily  as  a  cat,  when  hard  run  by  hounds.  I  think  it 
nearly  certain  that  they  climb  for  persimmons,  grapes,  and  berries.  Red 
foxes  never  climb  trees  under  any  circumstances  ;  when  hard  run  they  go  to 
earth."  If  the  above  explanation  of  this  curious  habit  is  the  trus  one,  it 
would  seem  that  grapes  are  not  sour  to  the  grey  fox.  Grey  foxes  alFord  but 
a  poor  run  in  comparison  with  the  common  species,  their  course  only  holding 
for  a  short  distance,  and  that  accompanied  by  many  doublings  ;  while  the  run 
usually  terminates  either  by  the  capture  of  a  fox  within  an  hour,  or  by  the 
animal  either  climbing  a  tree  or  taking  refuge  in  a  hole  of  the  same.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  American  red  fox  runs  as  strongly  as  his  European  relative  ; 
his  course,  it  is  said,  generally  taking  the  form  of  a  large  parallelogram.  The 
cubs  of  the  grey  fox  have  been  compared  to  small  black  puppies,  and  are  thus 
very  different  in  appearance  from  those  of  our  own  species.  A  second  North 
American  species  is  the  kit-fox  (C.  velox),  which  is  still  smaller  than  the 
grey,  its  brush  being  only  about  11  inches  in  length,  against  1G  inches  in 
the  latter.  Above.  thi§  fox  is  light  grey,  with  an  admixture  of  long  white 


FLESH-EA  TING  MAMMALS.  73 


hairs,  while  the  flanks  are  yellowish  and  the  under-parts  white,  the  brush 
having  no  white  tip.  This  species  lives  in  burrows,  and  takes  its  name  from 
its  extreme  speed.  Whether  it  is  commonly  hunted  with  hounds  I  am  un- 
aware. More  distinct  than  either  of  the  above  is  the  long-eared  fox  ((/. 
macrotis),  of  California,  in  which  the  ears  are  nearly  as  large  as  in  the  under- 
mentioned fennecs.  Its  general  colour  above  is  grizzled  grey.  South 
America  has  no  true  foxes. 

In  India  the  place  of  the  common  fox  is  taken  by  two  small  species — the 
Indian  desert-fox  (C.  leucopns)  and  the  Bengal  fox  (C.  bengalensis).  The 
former,  which  is  somewhat  the  larger  of  the  two,  agrees  with  the  common 
species  in  the  white  tip  to  the  brush,  and  also  in  the  dark  brown  or  black  out- 
sides  to  the  ears  ;  while  the  latter  has  a  black  tip  to  the  brush  and  greyish 
ears.  The  desert-fox,  as  its  name  implies,  inhabits  sandy  wastes,  and  has  a 
considerable  turn  of  speed  ;  Jerdon  stating  that  it  "  gives  a  capital  run 
sometimes,  even  with  English  dogs." 

The  Bengal  fox,  which  only  measures  about  20  inches  from  the  tip  of 
the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  is  found  in  more  or  less  open  country  over 
the  greater  part  of  India,  and  may  not  unfrequently  be  seen  by  residents  in 
Calcutta  playing  about  the  Maidan  near  Fort- William.  Jerdon  writes  that 
"this  fox  is  much  coursed  with  greyhounds  in  many  parts  of  India,  and  with 
Arab  or  country  dogs,  or  half-bred  English  dogs  it  gives  a  most  excellent 
course,  doubling  in  a  most  dexterous  manner,  and  if  it  is  within  a  short 
distance  of  its  earth,  racing  the  dogs.  Its  numerous  earths  prevent  in  general 
much  sport  being  had  in  hunting  it  with  foxhounds,  and  its  scent  is  poor." 
Another  small  Asiatic  species,  with  a  dark  tip  to  the  brush,  is  the  Corsac  fox 
(C.  corsac),  whose  habitat  extends  from  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  through  the 
Russian  steppes  to  Mongolia.  The  skin  of  this  species  is  an  article  of  con- 
siderable commercial  importance,  an  average  of  about  50,000  coming  annually 
into  the  market.  There  are  several  other  allied  species  of  foxes  inhabiting 
Asia,  such  as  the  Japanese  fox  (C.  japonicus)  and  the  Tibetan  fox  (C.  ferrilatus\ 
but  as  they  are  mostly  but  little  known  in  Europe,  it  is  unnecessary  to  make 
further  allusion  to  them  on  this  occasion.  Mention  must,  however,  be  made 
of  the  Arctic  fox  (0.  lagopus),  characterised  by  its  short  ears,  extremely 
bushy  brush,  and  the  long  hair  clothing  the  soles  of  the  feet.  As  a  rule,  this 
fox  is  bluish-grey  in  summer  (when  it  is  known  as  the  blue  fox),  but  changes 
to  pure  white  in  winter ;  although  in  some  cases,  more  especially  in  Iceland, 
the  dark  tint  is  retained  throughout  the  year.  This  species  is  practically 
circumpolar,  and  on  an  average  from  25,000  to  60,000  skins  annually  find 
their  way  into  the  market.  The  Arctic  fox,  in  order  to  provide  a  supply  of 
food  for  the  long  and  dreary  winter  of  its  native  habitat,  is  in  the  habit  of 
laying  up  stores  of  lemmings  and  other  small  animals  concealed  in  holes  and 
fissures  of  the  rocks. 

South  and  Central  Africa  is  the  home  of  an  entirely  different  group  of 
small  foxes,  known  as  fennecs  (C.  zerda,  C.  famelicus,  and  C.  cania),  and 
characterised  by  the  enormous  length  of  their  ears.  These  fennecs  are  more 
or  less  sandy-coloured  animals,  with  a  dark  tip  to  the  tail,  and  differ  from 
the  European  fox  in  their  social  habits,  dwelling  together  in  small  companies. 
A  skin  of  an  apparently  allied  species  has  been  obtained  from  Afghanistan. 

The  Cape  hunting-dog  (Lycaon  picius)  is  the  sole  living  representative  of 
a  genus  differing  from  Canis  in  having  but  four  toes  to  each  foot.  Its  skull 
approximates  to  that  of  the  wolves,  but  is  somewhat  shorter  and  broader,  and 
there  is  a  slight  difference  in  the  form  of  the  teeth.  This  animal  is  of  large 


74 


MAMMALIA— ORDER  IV.—CARNIVORA. 


size,  and  marked  with  unsymmetrical  blotches  of  white,  yellow,  and  black, 
the  distribution  of  which  shows  considerable  individual  variation,     lumbers 
combine  in  packs  to  hunt  their  prey.     A  second  well-marked 
Other  Genera,     genus  of  the  Canidce  is  formed  by  the  bush-dog  (Idioyon 
venations)  of  British  Guiana  and  Brazil,  which  is  a  dark- 
coloured  animal  not  larger  than  a  fox,  with  a  short,  sparsely-haired  tail, 
short  limbs,  very  small  ears,  close  hair,  and  a  very  aberrant  dentition.    In 
the  first  place,  the  number  of  molars  is  reduced  to  one  pair  in  the  upper  and 

two  in  the  lower  iaw,  while  the 
lower  carnassial  has  no  cusp  on  the 
inner  side  of  the  blade,  and  its 
posterior  heel  is  secant  instead  of 
tubercular,  so  that  practically  the 
entire  tooth  is  reduced  to  a  cutting 
blade.  The  last  member  of  the  dog 
family  is  Lalande's  fennec  (Otocyon 
mcyalotis)  of  South  Africa,  which, 
while  agreeing  in  many  respects 
with  the  true  fennecs,  has  very 
much  larger  ears,  but  is  specially 
distinguished  by  having  four  pairs 
'  *%.42.-CAPE  HUNTING-DOG  of  lower  molar  teeth,  and  either 

(Lycaon  pictus).  three  or  four  pairs  of  the  same  in 

the  upper  jaw,  the  total  number  of 
teeth  thus  being  either  46  or  48.     Its  habits  are  like  those  of  the  fennecs. 

In  the  three  remaining  families  of  the  terrestrial  Carnivora  the  auditory 
bulla  of  the  skull  possesses  a  simple  undivided  septum,  and  its  bony  external 
tube,  or  meatus,  leading   to   the  outer  ear,  has  its  lower 
The  Bear  Tribe,    margin  considerably  produced,  while  the  triangular  paroc- 
• — Family         cipital  process  stands  quite  apart  from  the  bulla.     In  the  in- 
Ursidce.         testine  the  blind  appendage  or  coecum  is  entirely  absent.     The 
bears  themselves  are  specially  characterised  by  the  broad,  flat, 
tuberculated  crowns  of  the  molar  teeth,  of  which  there  are  two  upper  and  three 
lower  pairs  ;   and  likewise  by  the  rudi- 
mentary development  of  the  first  three 
pairs  of  premolars  in  each  jaw,  which  are 
in  many  cases  entirely  lost.     The  upper 
carnassial  is  very   short  and   triangular, 
and  both  this  tooth  and  the  lower  car- 
nassial have  but  little  resemblance  to  the 
true  sectorial  type,  as  shown  in  the  cats 
and  dogs.     In  the  skull  the  auditory  bulla 
is  very  flat,  and  scarcely  at  all  inflated. 
The  large  feet  are  furnished  with  five  toes 

each,    and   are    completely    plantigrade  ;  j^  43._Busn-Doo 

while  their  long  and  slightly  compressed  (Iciicyon  venations). 

claws   are  non-retractile.      The   body  is 

very  stout,  the  tail  short,  the  ears  moderate,  the  hair  generally  long  and 
loose,  and  the  gait  clumsy  and  shambling.  Bears  go  about  either  in 
pairs  or  in  small  family-parties,  and  are  all  excellent  climbers.  Most 
of  them  eat  roots,  fruits,  and  other  vegetable  substances,  although  they 
will  also  consume  the  flesh  of  dead  animals  and  carrion;  and  in  cold 


FLESH-EATING  MAMMALS.  75 


countries  all  hibernate  during  the  inclement  season,  their  hiding-places 
being  frequently  caverns,  the  clefts  of  rocks,  or  hollow  trees.  The  typical 
genus  UrsiiSj  in  which  there  are  42  teeth,  and  some  of  the  premolars  are  de- 
ciduous, includes  all  the  existing  members  of  the  family  except  two.  Of 
these  the  polar  bear  (U.  maritimus)  of  the  Arctic  regions  stands  apart  from 
the  rest  on  account  of  its  relatively  smaller  head,  small  and  narrow  molars, 
more  hairy  soles,  and  creamy  white  colour.  Its  food  consists  mainly  of  flesh. 
The  brown  bear  (U.  arctus)  is  a  very  widely-spread  species,  ranging  all  over 
Europe  and  Northern  Asia,  and  represented  in  Syria  by  one  variety  (U. 
syriacus),  in  the  Himalaya  by  the  pale  isabelline  bear  (U.  isabellinus),  and  in 
North  America  by  the  grizzly  bear  (U.  horribitis)  and  the  American  black 
bear  (U.  americanus),  both  of  which  are  now  considered  merely  as  varieties  of 
the  European  species.  The  Himalayan  black  bear  ( U.  torqnatus),  with  shaggy 
black  fur  and  a  white  gorget,  is  a  very  distinct  species  ;  as  is  also  the  small 
Malayan  bear(t7.  malayanus),  rang- 
ing from  North-Eastern  India  to 
the  Malayan  countries,  and  dis- 
tinguished by  its  long  extensile 
tongue  and  short  black  fur,  with  a 
light  gorget  on  the  throat.  Another 
well-marked  form  is  the  spectacled 
bear  (U.  ornatus)  of  the  Chilian 
Andes.  With  the  exception  of  U. 
crowther,  of  the  Atlas  range,  which 
may  be  only  a  variety  of  the  common 
species,  Africa  has  no  bear.  The 
Indian  sloth  bear  (Mclnrsns  iwsmiw)  m  44b_pARTIK!OMIUWa)  BEAK 

differs  in  having  only  two  pairs  of  (^Elm-opus  mdanoieucus'). 

upper  incisor  teeth,  small  molars, 

large  extensile  lips,  and  a  deeply  hollowed  palate  ;  the  black  fur  being  very 
long,  loose,  and  harsh,  and  the  throat  marked  by  the  usual  light  gorget.     It 
feeds  chiefly  on  ants,  other  insects,  fruit,  flowers  and  honey.     More  different 
than  all  is  the  parti -coloured  bear  (JEluropu-s  mdanoieucus)  of  Tibet,  with  a 
total  of  40  teeth,  the  premolars  large  and,  except  the  first,  two-rooted,  arid 
the  first  upper  molar  broader  than  long,  instead  of  longer  than  broad,  as  in 
other  bears.     In  colour  it  is  black  and  white,  with  black  rings  round  the  eyes. 
Mainly  American,  the  raccoon  tribe  includes  small  carnivores  with  two 
pairs  of  molars  in  each  jaw,  which  may  be  either  many-cusped  or  tuber- 
culated,  a  short  and  broad  upper  carnassial  tooth,  planti- 
grade feet,  and  the  tail  ringed.     The  single  Old  World  form  Eaccoon  Tribe, 
is  the  panda  or  cat-bear  (/Elurus  fulgens)  of  the  Eastern      Family  Pro- 
Himalaya,  which  is  a  reddish-coloured  animal,  of  the  size  of         cyonidce. 
a  cat,  with  .a  long,  ringed  tail.      It  has  a  total  of  38  teeth, 
very  broad  many-cusped  upper  molars,  and  a  curiously  rounded  and  vaulted 
skull.     The  face  is  cat-like,  the  .ears  are  moderate  and  rounded,  and  the 
limbs  stout,  with  large   partially  retractile  claws.      The  panda  is  a  good 
climber,  and  feeds  chiefly  upon  vegetable  substances.     The  American  raccoons 
(Procyon)  have  40  teeth,  broad  and  tuberculated  molars,  and  three  lobes  to 
the  blade  of  the  upper  carnassial.     The  body  is  stout,  the  head  broad,  with 
a  sharp  muzzle,  the  whole  sole  of  the  foot  not  applied  to  the  ground  in 
walking,  and  the  toes  capable  of  being  widely  spread,  with  sharp  non-retractile 
claws.      The  tail  is  rather  short  and  ringed,  and  the  fur  thick  and  soft. 


76 


MAMMALIA— ORDER  Il\  — CARNIVORA. 


Frg.  45.— THE  PANDA  (^wru*-  fulgens). 


Raccoons  are  almost  omnivorous  animals,  obtaining  much  of  their  food  along 
the  banks  of  lakes  and  streams,  and  swimming  well.  Much  of  their  time 
is,  however,  spent  in  trees,  in  hollows  of  which  the  young  are  brought  forth  ; 

and  in  North  America  they  hibernate  dur- 
ing the  cold  season.  The  cacomistles 
(Bassariscus),  represented  by  one  species 
from  the  Southern  United  States  and  Mexico 
and  another  from  Central  America,  form 
a  closely  allied  genus,  distinguished  by  the 
more  slender  build,  sharper  nose,  longer 
tail,  and  less  completely  plantigrade  feet. 
Another  genus  is  Bassaricyon,  of  Central 
America,  which  has  raccoon -like  teeth,  but 
an  external  form  very  like  that  of  the 
kinkajou.  The  coatis  (Nasua),  which  range 
from  Central  America  to  Paraguay,  are  easily 
recognised  by  the  prolongation  of  the 
muzzle  into  a  long  and  somewhat  upturned 
mobile  snout ;  the  long  and  tapering  tail 
being  ringed.  The  dentition  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  raccoons,  with  the  exception  that 
the  upper  canines  are  longer  and  more  pointed,  and  the  molars  smaller. 
Coatis  are  arboreal  animals,  going  about  the  forest  in  small  parties,  and 
feeding  chiefly  on  birds,  eggs,  insects,  lizards,  and  fruits.  Lastly,  the 
kinkajou  (Cercoleptes  caudivolwdus)  differs  from  all  the  rest  in  its  long  and 
taper  tail  being  prehensile  ;  the  number  of  teeth  being  36.  It  is  a  pale 
yellowish-brown  animal,  of  the  size  of  a  cat,  entirely  nocturnal,  and  arboreal 
in  its  habits. 

The  last  family  of  the  land  Carnivora  is  the  large  and  widely-spread  one  of 
the  weasels,  which  includes  the  otters,  badgers,  shunks,  etc.     Except  in  the 

ratels   (where   there  is 
Weasel  Tribe. —  but  a  single  pair  in  each 
Family  Muste-    jaw),   the   members   of 
lidce.  this  family  may  be  dis- 

tinguished from  the  two 
preceding  ones  by  having  one  pair  of 
upper,  and  two  of  lower  molars,  and 
by  the  inner  portion  of  the  upper  molars 
being  longer  from  back  to  front  than 
the  outer  blade.  The  auditory  bulla 
of  the  skull  is  but  little  inflated. 

The  otters   (Lutra)  form  an  aquatic 
group  characterised   by  the  short  and 
rounded  feet,  the  webb- 
Otters.  ed  toes,  tho  small,  curv- 

ed,   and    blunt    claws, 

and  the  broad  and  flattened  head.  The  jaws  are  short,  with  large,  closely 
packed  teeth  ;  the  upper  molar  being  especially  large,  quadrangular  in  form, 
and  its  inner  tubercular  portion  much  expanded  from  back  to  front  ;  and 
all  the  cheek  teeth  sharply  cusped.  The  body  is  very  elongated,  the  ears 
are  short  and  rounded,  the  limbs  short,  the  tail  long,  thick,  and  tapering 
rapidly,  and  the  fur  very  short  and  close.  In  certain  species  the  claws 


Fig.  46. — CACOMISTLE  (Bassariscus  astutus). 


FLESH-EATING  MAMMALS.  77 

may  be  rudimental  or  wanting.  With  the  exception  of  Australia  and  New 
Guinea,  otters  are  cosmopolitan  in  their  distribution,  the  largest  species 
being  the  Brazilian  otter.  They  are  expert  divers  and  swimmers,  feeding 
entirely  on  fish,  for  the  capture  and 
retention  of  which  their  powerful  and 
sharply-cusped  teeth  are  admirably 
suited.  The  total  number  of  teeth  is 
30.  Nearly  allied  to  the  otters  is  the 
sea-otter  (Latax  lutris),  distinguished  by 
having  only  32  teeth,  among  which  the 
lower  incisors  are  reduced  to  two  pairs, 
the  blunt  and  rounded  tubercles  of  the 
molars,  and  the  flipper-like  hind-feet,  in 
which  the  toes  are  flattened,  as  in  the 
seals,  and  the  fifth  toe  is  the  longest 
and  stoutest.  The  head  is  rounded,  the 
ears  very  small,  the  tail  short  and  Fig.  47.— CoA.ii(Nasuaritfa). 

bushy,  and  the  pellage  with  a  beautiful 

under-fur.  The  total  length  of  the  animal  is  about  four  feet.  Natur- 
alists have  hitherto  believed  that  the  sea-otter  when  on  land  has  the 
hind-toes  turned  forwards,  but  Mr.  Snow,  of  Yokohama,  states  that  this  is 
incorrect,  and  that  they  are  really  doubled  backwards,  beneath  the  soles. 
The  southern  range  of  the  sea-otter  extends  as  far  as  Southern  California  and 
Mexico.  On  the  Asiatic  side,  it  occurs  at  the  Komandorski  Islands,  Kam- 
schatka,  and  the  Kurile  Islands.  As  a  rule,  only  one  is  produced  at  birth,  but 
occasionally  two.  Mr.  Snow  has  seen  two  smajj.  pups  with  their  mother,  and 
has  taken  two  from  the  inside  of  an  otter  he  killed.  It  is  not  absolutely 
known  at  what  age  the  otter  arrives  at  maturity.  Mr.  Snow  believes  that  it 
does  so  in  the  third  year.  Crabs  and  sea-urchins  are  the  usual  contents  of 
the  stomach,  but  occasionally  small  fish  and  spawn  are  also  found.  The 
crabs  are  crushed  by  the  strong  molar  teeth,  it  being  impossible  that  the 
crushing  is  produced  by  the  striking  of  two  shells  together,  as  the  form  of 
the  fore-feet  will  not  allow  of  anything  being  grasped.  The  otter  dives  for 
its  food,  and  returns  to  the  surface  with  the  prey  held  between  its  two  fore- 
paws,  in  which  it  continues  to  hold  it  while  eating  it.  On  many  occasions 
Mr.  Snow  has  seen  schools  of  from  10  to  50  or  more  otters  together  some  10 
or  15  miles  from  any  land,  but  not  of  late  years.  The  mode  of  capture 
adopted  by  Europeans  is  to  "run"  the  sea-otter  with  three  boats,  each 
manned  by  four  or  five  men,  a  hunter  being  in  the  bow  armed  with  a  rifle. 
When  an  otter  is  "  raised  "  (as  it  is  called),  the  boats  proceed  to  surround  it, 
lying  some  500  to  600  yards  apart  in  the  form  of  a  triangle.  The  boats  are  so 
manoeuvred  that  the  otter  is  kept  between  them.  Every  time  the  animal 
makes  its  appearance  above  the  water,  it  is  shot  at,  until  it  is  secured.  When 
the  sea-otter  is  netted,  it  becomes  entangled  in  the  meshes  and  drowned. 
The  long  white  hairs  of  the  fur  are  its  chief  beauty.  They  are  not  removed 
when  it  is  prepared  for  use.  A  skin  has  sold  for  upwards  of  £225. 

The  skunks  of  America  are  the  first  representatives  of  a  second  sub-family 
in  which  the  feet  are  elongated,  with  straight  toes,  and  non-retractile,  slightly 
curved,  somewhat  compressed,  and  blunt  claws,  which  are  of 
very  large  size  in   the   hind-foot  ;  the  form   of  the   upper          Skunks, 
molar  being  variable.     The  typical  skunks  (Mephitis),  which 
are  confined  to  North  and  Central  America,  are  easily  recognised  by  their 


78  MAMMALIA— ORDER  IV.—CARNIVORA. 


black  fur,  relieved  on  the  back  with  broad  longitudinal  stripes  of  white,  and 
the  busliy  black  and  white  tail,  which  is  generally  carried  over  the  back.     They 

have  34  teeth,  and  are  provided  with 
special  glands  for  the  secretion  of  the 
noisome  fluid  to  which  they  owe  their 
name.  The  little  skunk  (Spilogale  puto- 
rius)  of  the  Southern  United  States  and 
Central  America  isamuchsmalleranimal, 
and  the  only  member  of  thegroup  that  can 
climb.  The  South  American  skunk  (Con- 
cpatus  mapurito),  ranging  from  Texas  to 
Patagonia,  differs  in  having  only  32  teeth, 
and  also  in  its  heavier  build,  and  by  the 
nostrils  opening  do  wnwardsand  forwards, 
instead  of  on  the  sides  of  the  muzzle. 
Mr.  Aplin,  writing  of  this  species,  ob- 
serves that  "  the  scent-gland  cannot  be 

Fig.  48. -COMMON  SKUNK  (Mephitis  °Pened  U^6SS  the  taU  is  afc  a  right  angle 

mephitica).  or  something  near  it,  with  the  line  of 

the   body ;    and    that    therefore    when 

held  by  the  tail  the  weight  of  the  skunk's  body  keeps  the  tail  more 
or  less  in  a  line  with  it,  and  the  skunk  is  unable  to  discharge  its  vile 
secretion.  To  perform  this  operation  it  is  of  course  necessary  to  catch 
the  skunk  asleep,  or  otherwise  deeply  occupied  (digging  roots,  for  instance), 
and  to  run  the  risk  of  its  waking  up  or  turning  round  and  seeing  you.  I  be- 
lieve I  could  have  easily  done  it  myself,  as  I  have  more  than  once  seen  a 
skunk  lying  curled  up  asleep  in  the  daytime.  Indeed,  while  looking  for  a 
parrot  1  had  shot  among  some  bushes,  I  very  nearly  stepped  upon  one 
which  was  curled  up  on  the  ground  ;  and  there  it  remained  until  I  put  a  re- 
volver bullet  through  its  body.  However,  I  never  cared  to  risk  the  loss  of 
useful  garments,  it  having  been  proved,  I  believe,  that  clothes  once  well 
dosed  at  close  quarters  may  as  well  be  burnt.  The  skunk  passes  the  day- 
time in  sleep,  \\hen  undisturbed.  In  Soriano  I  used  to  find  them  laid  up  in 
holes  and  under  clefts  in  the  granite  boulder  rocks,  in  desertec?  ant-nests, 
among  paja  grass,  or  in  the  crown  of  a  big  hassock  of  this,  and  in  one  or  two 
cases  on  the  ground  among  bushes.  In  the  latter  case  it  lies  on  its  side 
curled  round.  When  roused  in  a  hole  by  a  dog,  it  presents  a  rather  diaboli- 
cal appearance  as  it  pops  its  little  vicious  head  out.  Notwithstanding 
demonstrations  of  this  kind,  I  have  only  once  seen  a  skunk  use  its  teeth.  In 
this  case  one  fastened  on  to  Jim's  flanks,  and  the  old  dog  walked  about  with 
it  hanging  on  for  half  a  minute,  looking  round  at  it  in  much  astonishment  at 
this  unusual  and  unseemly  behaviour —the  fact  being  that  he  could  not  get 
hold  of  his  enemy,  which  turned  with  him.  The  skunk  seems  to  be  an  om- 
nivorous feeder.  Its  long  strong  claws  are  well  adapted  for  digging,  and 
places  where  they  have  been  scratching  are  to  be  seen  all  about  the  camp. 
They  probably  feed  on  small  mammals,  reptiles,  and  insects,  as  well  as 
roots,  and  are  always  credited  with  robbing  hen-roosts.  With  regard  to  the 
distance  at  which  you  can  smell  a  skunk,  I  cannot  give  an  opinion  ;  but  you 
"  often  smell  them  when  you  cannot  see  them,  and  just  about  sunclown  the 
smell  is  a  usual  and  familiar  one  about  the  camp  ;  at  night,  too,  a  strong 
whiff  of  it  as  you  sit  or  stroll  in  the  patio  is  a  very  common  occurrence.  At 
a  hundred  yards  to  leeward,  with  the  slightest  breeze  the  smell  of  a  discharge 


FLESH-EATING  MAMMALS.  79 


would  be  very  pungent.  The  smell  is  said  to  be  a  good  remedio  for  the 
headache."  Although  skunks  are  essentially  nocturnal  animals,  they  may 
occasionally  be  seen  walking  about  on  the  open  Argentine  pampas  in  broad 
daylight. 

The  next  group  of  the  sub-family  includes  the  badgers,  of  which  there  are 
likewise  several  genera,  none  of  which  are  found  in  South  America.  Of 
these  the  sand-badgers  ( A  rctonyx\  of  the  Oriental  countries, 
form  a  genus  characterised  by  having  38  teeth,  of  which  the  Badgers, 
lower  incisors  project  forwards,  the  anterior  premolars  are 
often  rudimental  or  wanting,  and  the  upper  molar  is  much  larger  than  the 
carnassial,  and  longer  than  broad.  The  naked  mobile  snout  is  pig -like,  the  ears 
are  minute  and  rounded,  the  eyes  small,  the  feet  digitigrade  when  walking, 
the  tail  moderately  long  and  tapering,  and  the  fur  bristly,  with  a  soft  under- 
f  ur.  The  Indian  species  is  rather  larger  than  the  ordinary  badger.  Nearly 
allied  is  the  Malayan  badger  (Mydaus  meliceps),  from  Java,  Sumatra,  and 
Borneo,  which  is  a  small  burrowing  animal,  distinguished  from  the  last  by 
the  nostrils  being  inferior,  instead  of  terminal  in  position,  and  by  the 
extreme  shortness  of  the  tail,  which  is  clothed  with  rather  long  bushy  hair. 
In  the  true  badgers  (Meles)  the  number  of  the  teeth  is  also  38,  but  the  first 
premolar  in  each  jaw  is  minute,  and  often  shed  at  an  early  age,  while  the 
very  large  upper  molar  is  quadrangular,  as  broad  as  long,  and  much  surpass- 
ing the  carnassial  in  size.  Moreover,  the  lower  law  is  so  firmly  articulated 
to  the  skull  that  it  cannot  be  separated  without  fracture.  The  skull  differs 
from  that  of  the  sand-badgers,  and  thereby  resembles  the  Malayan  badger, 
in  that  its  bony  palate  is  only  produced  a  comparatively  short  distance 
behind  the  last  pair  of  teeth.  The  muzzle  is  pointed,  the  body  stout  and 
broad,  the  ears  and  tail  very  short,  and  the  limbs  short  and  strong,  with 
partially  plantigrade  feet.  The  coloration  of  the  common  badger  is  too  well 
known  to  need  description.  The  genus  includes  only  a  few  species, 
which  are  confined  to  Europe  and  Asia  north  of  the  Himalaya,  one  kind 
inhabiting  Persia  and  another  Japan.  Badgers  are  nocturnal,  omnivorous, 
and  burrowing  animals,  producing  three  or  four  blind  young  at  a  birth.  In 
North  America  the  group  is  represented  by  the  American  badgers  ( Taxidea), 
in  which  the  first  upper  premolar  appears  to  be  always  wanting,  and  the 
upper  carnassial  is  nearly  as  large  as  the  molar,  and  the  tubercular  heel  of 
the  lower  carnassial  relatively 
smaller  than  in  the  Old  World 
badgers.  The  stout  body  is  de- 
pressed, and  the  tail  very  short. 
Nearly  allied  to  the  badgers  are 
the  ratels  (Mellivora)  of  India  and 
Africa  south  of  the  Sahara,  which 
differ  from  all  other  members  of 
the  family  in  having  but  a  single 
pair  of  lower  molars,  and  are  fur- 
ther distinguished  by  the  limbs 
and  under  surface  of  the  body  Fig.  49.— COMMON  BADGER. 

being  black,  while  the  upper-parts 

are  greyish.  In  this  genus  the  upper  carnassial  is  a  large  tooth,  with  its  inner 
tubercle  at  the  front  end,  as  in  the  remaining  genera  of  the  sub-family ;  the 
upper  molar  being  short  from  back  to  front,  with  its  inner  portion  much 
expanded.  In  the  lower  carnassial  the  posterior  heel  is  very  minute.  Ex- 


So  MAMMALIA— ORDER  ir.  —  CARNIVORA 


ternally,  the  ratels  have  a  stout  body,  a  flattened  head,  rather  pointed  nose, 
rudiment*!  ears,  stout  and  short  limbs,  and  a  very  short  tail.  They  subsist 
chiefly  on  honey-comb,  which  they  dig  out  with  their  powerful  claws.  The 
so-called  ferret-badgers  (Helictis),  from  the  Oriental  countries,  some  of  which 
are  remarkable  for  their  brilliant  coloration,  form  a  very  distinct  genus. 
They  have  38  teeth,  a  long  head,  with  a  sharp  naked  muzzle,  obliquely 
truncated  at  the  tip,  small  ears,  elongated  body,  short  limbs,  and  a  rather 
short  or  moderate  bushy  tail.  All  are  small  animals,  climbing  well,  and  sub- 
sisting on  a  mixed  diet.  The  last  genus  of  the  sub-family  is  typified  by  the 
Cape  polecat  (Ictonyx  zorilla)  ;  another  species  occurring  in  Egypt,  and,  it  is 
said,  Asia  Minor.  These  animals  have  a  dentition  and  bodily  form  very 
similar  to  those  of  the  true  polecats,  from  which  they  may  at  once  be 
distinguished  by  their  coloration,  which  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the 
skunks. 

The  last  sub-family  of  the  Mustelidce  comprises  the  true  weasels  and  their 
allies,  and  is  characterised  by  the  toes  being  short  and  partially  webbed,  the 
claws  also  short,  sharp,  compressed,  curved,  and  frequently 
Weasels,  etc.      partially  retractile  ;  while  the  upper  molar  is  of  moderate 
size,  and  wide  transversely.     The  first  genus  is  Galictis,  of 
which  there  are  two  well-defined  South  American  species,  locally  known  as 
the  grison  and  the  tayra.     Both  these  have  34  teeth,  among  which  the  molars 
are  small  but  stout,  while  the  upper  carnassial  has 
its  inner  tubercle  near  the  middle  of  its  length, 
and  the  lower  carnassial  has  a  minute  posterior 
heel,  and  either  a  very  small  or  no  inner  cusp. 
The    head    is    broad    and    flattened,    the    body 
elongate,  the  limbs  short,  with  plantigrade  feet, 
in  which  the  claws  are  non-retractile  and  the  soles 
naked,  while  the  tail  is  long  or  moderate.     Both 
sPecies  are  found  as  far  south  as  the  Argentine 
WEASEL.  pampas,  and  are  noted  for  their  savage  disposition. 

In  the  typical  genus  Mustela  may  be  included  not 
only  the  martens,  but  likewise  the  smaller  polecats  and  weasels.  In  the  two 
latter  the  dentition  is  numerically  the  same  as  in  Galictis,  but  in  the  former 
the  number  of  teeth  is  increased  to  38,  owing  to  the  presence  of  the  first  pair  of 
premolars  in  each  jaw,  on  which  account  these  animals  are  frequently  referred 
to  a  genus  by  themselves,  under  the  name  of  Putorius.  From  Galidis  they 
are  ail  readily  distinguished  by  the  inner  tubercle  of  the  upper  carnassial 
tooth  being  situated  close  to  its  front  edge,  instead  of  in  the  middle.  All 
these  animals  have  the  characteristic  long  and  slender  weasel-body,  short, 
digitigrade  limbs,  rounded  feet,  short  toes,  with  sharp,  compressed,  and  parti- 
ally retractile  claws,  and  the  long  or  moderate  tail  more  or  less  bushy.  The 
larger  forms,  or  martens,  are  restricted  to  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  one 
species  occurring  as  far  south  as  Sumatra.  They  are  all  mainly  carnivorous 
and  arboreal,  and  generally  produce  from  four  to  six  young  at  a  birth.  The 
best-known  species  are  the  pine-marten  (Mustela  martes),  ranging  from  Britain 
across  Northern  Europe  and  Asia  ;  the  beech-marten  ( M.  foina),  extending 
from  Central  and  Southern  Europe  to  the  Himalaya  and  Turkestan  ;  the 
sable  (M.  zibellina)  of  Siberia  and  Kamschatka;  the  closely-allied  North 
American  marten  (M.  americana)  ;  the  very  distinct  Indian  or  yellow- 
throated  marten  (M.  flavigula),  ranging  from  India  to  Sumatra,  China,  and 
Amurland  ;  and  the  large  Pennant's  marten  (M.  pennanti)  of  North  America. 


FLESH-EATING  MAMMALS. 


Si 


Of  the  forms  with  only  three  pairs  of  premolars  and  no  inner  cusp  to  the  lower 
carnassial  tooth,  the  largest  are  the  nertz  (M.  lutreola)  of  Eastern  Europe, 
and  the  nearly  related  North  American  mink  (M.  visori).  Next  come  the  five 
species  of  polecat,  as  typified  by  the  common  European  polecat  (M.  putorius); 
while  the  smaller  forms  include  the  true  weasels  and  stoats.  Of  these,  the 
stoat  or  ermine  (M.  erminea)  and  the  weasel  (M.  mdgaris)  are  common  to 
Europe,  North  and  Central  Asia,  and  North  America,  while  the  assogue  (M. 
Mbernica),  which  is  intermediate  in  size  and  coloration  between  the  other  two, 
is  restricted  to  Ireland,  being  the  only  Mammal  peculiar  to  the  British  Islands. 
The  South  African  Poecilogale  albinucha,  which  has  a  coloration  similar  to 
that  of  the  Cape  polecat  (Ictonyx),  has  been  referred  to  a  distinct  genus,  on 
account  of  there  being  only  two  pairs  of  premolar  teeth  in  each,  and  by  the 
lower  molars  being  generally  reduced  to  a  single  pair.  The  name  Lyncodon 
has  been  proposed  for  a  Patagonian  weasel,  in  which  the  dentition  is  numeri- 
cally the  same  as  in  the  preceding. 

The  last  genus  of  the  mustelines  is  represented  solely  by  the  wolverene  or 
glutton  (Gulo  luscus)  of  the  northern  districts  of  both  hemispheres.  In  this 
comparatively  large  animal,  which  is  an  inhabitant  of  forests,  there  are  38 
teeth,  all  of  which  are  very  stout  and  strong*;  the  upper  molar  being  much 
smaller  than  the  carnassial,  the  lower  carnassial  large,  with  no  inner  cusp,  and 
a  small  posterior  tooth,  and  the  third  upper  incisor  so  large  as  to  resemble  a 
second  tusk.  The  form  is  more  like  that  of  a  bear  than  a  weasel,  the  body 
and  limbs  being  stout,  the  latter  long,  with  large,  partially  plantigrade  feet, 
the  small  ears  almost  buried  in  the  loose,  coarse  fur,  the  eyes,  the  tail  short, 
thick,  and  bushy,  and  the  soles  of  the  feet  covered  with  bristly  hairs. 
The  dark  fur  has  a  light  saddle-shaped  mark  on  the  back.  The  wolverene  is 
a  good  climber,  and  lives  on  large  birds  and  mammals,  killing  animals  even  as 
large  as  the  reindeer.  It  has  a  curious  habit  of  carrying  off  and  collecting 
articles  for  which  it  can  have  no  possible  use. 

The  fur-seals,  or  eared-seals,  are  the  first  of  three  families  of  the  aquatic 
Carnivora,  all  the  members  of  which  are  modified  for  an  aquatic  life,  and 
collectively  constitute  the  sub-order  Pinnipedia.    In  all  these 
animals  the  upper-arm  and  fore-arm,  and  the  corresponding     Eared-Seals. — 
segments  of  the  hind-limb,  are  abnormallytehortened,  and  to  Family Otariidce. 
a  great  extent  enclosed  in  the  skin  of  the  body,  whereas  the 
feet,  and  more  especially  the  hinder  pair,  are  elongated  and  expanded  into 
large    flippers,    with    the    toes 
widely  separated  and  completely 
united  by  webs.     Five  toes  are 
present,  of  which  the  first  and 
fifth    in     the    hind -limb    are 
stouter  and  usually  longer  than 
the  three    middle  ones.      The 
incisor  teeth  are  always  reduced 
below  the    typical    number    of 
three  pairs  in  one  or  both  jaws ; 
and    the    cheek    teeth,    which 
usually  consist  of  four  pairs  of 
premolars  and  a  single  pair  of 
molars,    are    nearly  alike,   and 
lack  the  specially  modified  car- 
nassiala  characteristic  of  the  land  Carnivora.      The  body  is  of  a  tapering, 


Fig.  51.— SEA-LION. 


32  MAMMALIA— ORDER  IV.—CARNIVORA. 


pyriform  shape,  admirably  adapted  for  progression  through,  the  water,  pass- 
ing1 almost  imperceptibly  into  the  tail,  which  is  always  short.  On  land 
seals  are  awkward  animals,  progressing  with  a  series  .of  ungainly  iumps,  and 
most  of  them  spend  the  greater  part  of  their  time  in  the  water,  although  all 
come  ashore  for  the  purpose  of  breeding.  The  great  majority  are  marine, 
although  a  few  inhabit  inland  seas  and  lakes.  Most  feed  on  fish,  crustaceans, 
and  other  marine  animals. 

'J  he  eared-seals,  all  of  which  may  be  included  in  the  single  genus  Otatia, 
are  distinguished  as  a  family  by  the  circumstance  that  when  on  land  the  hind- 
flippers  are  turned  forwards  beneath  the  body,  and  likewise  by  the  presence 
of  small  external  ears  ;  the  under  surfaces  of  both  flippers  being  naked. 
They  have  either  36  or  34  teeth,  according  to  the  presence  or  absence  of  the 
second  pair  of  upper  molars  ;  and  there  are  three  pairs  of  upper,  and  two  of 
lower  incisors.  The  cheek  teeth  are  sharp  and  compressed,  consisting  of  one 
large  central  cusp,  flanked  by  two  much  smaller  ones.  The  head  is  separated 
from  the  body  by  a  distinct  neck,  and  the  claws,  especially  those  of  the  first 
and  fifth  toes,  are  small  or  rudimental.  Many  species  have  a  very  dense 
under-fur,  constituting  the  "sealskin  "  of  commerce,  and  these -are  known  as 
fur-seals  ;  while  others,  in  which  there  is  no  under-fur,  are  termed  hair-seals. 
Although  absent  from  the  shores  of  the  North  Atlantic,  the  eared-seals  have 
a  wide  geographical  distribution.  Among  the  better-known  forms  may  be 
mentioned  the  southern  sea-lion  (0,  jubata)  of  the  Falkland  Islands  and 
Patagonia,  which  differs  remarkably  from  all  the  rest  in  the  structure  of  its 
skull  ;  the  large  northern  sea-lion  (0.  stelleri)  of  the  North  Pacific,  which 
may  attain  as  much  as  10  feet  iu  length  ;  Gillespie's  sea-lion  (0.  gillespii) 
from  California  and  Japan  ;  the  sea-bear  (0.  ursina)  from  the  Pribyloff 
Islands  and  other  parts  of  the  North  Pacific  ;  0.  pusilla  of  South  Africa  ;  and 
O.fosteri  from  Australia  and  New  Zealand.  All  the  eared-seals  are  peculiar 
for  their  habit  of  spending  a  long  period  on  land  during  the  breeding-season, 
where  they  form  the  well-known  "rookeries."  Here  the  males  arrive  first, 
and  proceed  to  take  up  fixed  stations,  where  they  collect  as  many  females  as 
they  are  able  to  capture  ;  and  it  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that  during  their 
whole  sojourn  on  shore,  which  may  extend  to  a  period  of  three  months,  they 
undergo  a  complete  fast. 

The  following  account  of  seals  and  sealing  in  Japanese  waters  is  from  the 
consular  report  on  the  trade  of  Hakodate,  as  given  in  the  Times  of  May, 
1895.  The  writer  states  that  in  the  island  of  Yezo  the  "conditions,  as 
regards  space  and  time,  are  very  similar  on  both  sides  of  the  ocean.  The 
Russian  rookeries  of  the  Commander  Islands  are  the  exact  counterpart 
(though  smaller)  of  the  American  rookeries  of  the  Pribyloff  Islands  ;  the  two 
face  each  other,  in  about  the  same  latitude,  from  the  opposite  sides  of 
Behring  Sea.  From  these  centres  the  seals,  after  their  four  or  five  months1 
summer  sojourn,  start  southwards  for  their  immense  swims  in  the  Pacific, 
extending  on  the  American  side  as  far  down  as  San  Francisco,  and  on  the 
Asiatic  side  as  far  down  as  Sendai  Bay,  and  even  the  entrance  of  Yedo  Bay. 
But  there  is  one  noteworthy  difference  between  the  two  cases.  While,  on 
the  American  side,  owing  to  the  long  sweep  and  turns  of  the  coast-line,  the 
range  of  the  swim  is  quite  3,200  miles,  on  the  Asiatic  side  it  is  a  nearly  straight 
run  of  less  than  half  that  distance.  Hence  the  seal-herd,  though  larger,  is 
more  dispersed  on  the  American  side  ;  and  it  is  probable  that  hunters 
choosing  the  Asiatic  side  gain  more  through  the  concentration  of  the  herd 
than  they  lose  through  its  inferiority  in  numbers.  Indeed,  the  effective 


FLESH-EATING  MAMMALS.  83 

hunting  range — at  all  events,  for  the  first  stage  of  the  hunting  season — is  not 
much  more  than  800  miles  long,  extending  from  Sendai  Bay  to  Nemuro,  the 
most  easterly  point  of  Yezo  Island.  On  reaching  Nemuro  the  seals  suddenly 
disappear  about  the  end  of  June,  and  no  sealing  craft  as  yet  has  followed 
them  up,  keeping  them  in  sight,  between  this  point  and  the  rookeries  on 
Behring  and  Copper  Islands,  or  the  still  smaller  rookery  of  Robben  Island  in 
the  Okhotsk  Sea.  The  explanation  of  this  sudden  acceleration  of  the  seal's 
pace  may  be,  as  the  hunters  think,  merely  the  quickening  of  the  natural 
instincts,  on  the  eve  of  the  breeding-time.  But  it  may  also  be  due  to  a 
falling  off  in  the  food  supply  along  the  line  of  the  Kurile  archipelago.  The 
fact,  however,  is  undoubted  that,  beyond  Nemuro,  the  schooners  lose  sight 
of  the  seals  about  the  end  of  June,  and  this  check  of  their  pursuit  serves  as 
a  mark  to  divide  the  hunting  season  into  two  distinct  stages. 

"  The  schooners,  as  a  rule,  leave  Victoria  or  San  Francisco  at  the  end  of 
December  or  early  in  January,  and,  after  a  two  months'  voyage  across  the 
Pacific,  strike  the  Japanese  coast  about  the  latitude  of  Yokohama,  where 
some  of  them  put  in  to  victual  and  refit.  They  begin  hunting  about  the 
middle  or  end  of  March,  first  meeting  large  clusters  of  seals  in  about  latitude 
38  deg.  N.  off  Sendai  Bay,  from  about  30  to  250  miles  off  the  shore.  The 
seals  are  then  proceeding  northwards  at  a  leisurely  pace,  travelling  during 
the  night  and  feeding  and  sleeping  in  the  daytime,  especially  in  bright, 
sunshiny  weather.  *  Sleepers,'  as  the  hunters  call  them,  are  the  easiest  to 
shoot ;  '  travellers '  are  more  difficult.  A  schooner  with  six  or  seven  boats 
can  take,  on  the  average,  close  on  1,000  skins  in  the  four  months, 
March  to  June.  That  closes  the  first  stage  of  the  season,  and  they  then 
either  tranship  their  catches  at  sea  into  a  collecting  ship  from  Victoria  and 
San  Francisco,  or  else  put  into  Hakodate  and  prepare  their  skins  for  shipment 
to  London  or  America.  This  done,  after  a  short  stay  and  revictualling  in 
port,  they  start  northwards  for  the  second  stage  of  the  hunting  on  the  western 
side  of  Behring  Sea  and  in  the  Okhotsk  Sea.  This  part  of  the  hunting 
season,  lasting  from  the  end  of  July  till  the  end  of  October,  yields  a  very 
much  smaller  catch  than  the  first  stage,  arid,  with  a  protective  zone  established 
round  the  rookeries,  the  sealers  will  probably  find  it  hardly  worth  while  to 
continue  it.  At  the  rate  at  which  the  pelagic  sealing  schooners  are  increasing, 
and  in  the  absence  of  more  effective  measures  for  the  protection  of  the  herd 
on  the  rookeries,  no  less  than  at  sea,  the  industry  cannot  last  long.  The 
Canadian  sealing  fleet  engaged  in  hunting  on  the  western  side  of  the  Pacific 
has  increased  even  more  rapidly  than  on  the  American  side.  In  1891  only 
one  schooner,  in  1892  11  or  12,  and  in  1893  at  least  30  hunted  in  Asiatic 
waters.  In  the  first  place,  the  advantage,  as  compared  with  the  American 
side,  of  the  shorter  range  and  greater  concentration  of  the  herd,  is  now  well 
known  to  the  sealers.  Secondly,  the  close  season,  and  the  limits  prescribed 
by  the  award  of  the  Behring  Sea  arbitrators,  are  sure  to  drive  many  to  the 
western  side.  And,  lastly,  the  fact  that  there  is  a  considerable  saving  in 
freight  and  charges  when  the  skins  are  packed  in  Japan  and  shipped  via  the 
Suez  Canal  to  London,  as  compared  with  the  charges  and  freight  from  the 
American  side,  will  tell  in  the  same  direction." 

Of  the  Alaskan  seal-herd,  Mr.  H.  W.  Elliott  writes,  that  "  the  fighting 
between  the  old  males  for  the  cows  is  mostly — or,  rather,  entirely — done 
with  the  mouth.  The  opponents  seize  one  another  with  their  teeth,  and 
then,  clenching  their  jaws,  nothing  but  the  sheer  strength  of  the  one,  and 
the  other  tugging  to  escape,  can  shake  them  loose,  and  that  effort  invariably 


MAMMALIA— ORDER  IV.  -CARNIVORA. 


leaves  an  ugly  wound,  the  sharp  canines  tearing  out  deep  gutters  in  the  skin 
and  furrows  in  the  blubber,  or  shredding  the  nippers  into  ribbon-strips.  The 
bulls  generally  approach  each  other  with  comically  averted  heads,  just  as 
though  they  were  ashamed  of  the  rumpus  which  they  are  determined  to 
precipitate.  "When  they  get  near  enough  to  reach  one  another,  they  enter 
upon  the  repetition  of  many  feints  or  passes  before  either  the  one  or  the 
other  takes  the  initiative  by  gripping.  The  heads  are  darted  out  and  back 
as  quick  as  a  flash  ;  their  hoarse  roaring  and  shrill  piping  whistle  never  ceases, 
while  their  fat  bodies  writhe  and  swell  with  exertion  and  rage ;  furious  lights 
gleam  in  their  eyes  ;  their  hair  flies  oft'  into  the  air,  and  their  blood  streams 
down.  All  this  combined  makes  a  picture  so  fierce  and  so  strange  that,  from 
its  unexpected  position  and  its  novelty,  this  is  one  of  the  most  extraordinary 
brutal  contests  man  can  witness." 

The  walrus  or  morse  (Trichechus  rosmarus)  of  the  polar  seas,  although 
differing  remarkably  in  its  dentition  from  both,  presents  in  many  respects  a 
connecting  link  between  the  preceding  and  following  families. 
The  Walrus.—     It  agrees,  for  instance,  with  the  Otariidce  in  having  the  hind- 
Family  flippers  turned  forwards  beneath  the  body  when  on  land, 
Trichechidce.      but  resembles  the  Phocidce  in  having  lost  all  external  traces 
of  ears.     As  regards  the  dentition,  the  upper  canines  are 
developed  into  enormous  tusks,  projecting  far  below  the  lower  jaw,  but  the 
whole  of  the  other  teeth  are  small,  simple,  and  single-rooted,  the  molars 

having  rounded,  flattened 
crowns.  The  walrus  is  one  of 
the  heaviest  and  most  bulky 
of  all  seals,  old  males  not  un- 
frequently  measuring  from  10 
to  11  feet  in  length,  while 
much  larger  examples  are  on 
record.  In  form  the  head  is 
round,  with  rather  small  eyes, 
and  the  short,  broad  muzzle 
furnished  with  a  tuft  of  stiff 
bristles  on  each  side.  The  hair 
of  the  rest  of  the  body  is  short 
and  closely  pressed  to  the  skin, 
its  general  colour  being  yellow- 


Fig.  52.— WALIIUS  (Trichechus  rosmarus.) 


ish.  The  tail  is  rudimental ;  in  the  front-flippers  the  toes  are  nearly 
equal  in  length,  and  furnished  with  small,  flat  nails,  but  in  the  hind- 
pair  the  nails  of  the  three  middle  digits  are  large,  and  those  of  the  two  mar- 
ginal ones  minute.  There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether  the 
walruses  of  the  Atlantic  and  North  Pacific  Oceans  belong  to  the  same  or  to 
distinct  species,  but,  in  any  case,  the  difference  between  them  is  extremely 
slight.  Walruses  are  social  animals,  collecting  on  the  ice-fields  in  herds  of 
considerable  size,  and  being  often  found  on  detached  ice-floes.  The  females 
produce  one,  or  occasionally  two  calves  in  the  spring  or  early  summer,  for 
which  they  display  the  most  marked  affection.  Their  food  consists  almost 
entirely  of  two  species  of  bivalve  molluscs,  which  are  raked  out  of  the  mud 
with  the  tusks,  and  easily  crushed  by  the  flat  molar  teeth.  Whether  the 
tusks  are  also  employed  to  drag  the  animals  out  of  the  water  by  being 
hitched  on  to  the  ice,  is  a  disputed  point.  The  cry  of  the  walrus  is  a  loud 
roar,  which,  when  many  are  together,  can  be  heard  for  a  long  distance. 


FLESH-EATING  MAMMALS. 


The  true  or  earless  seals  constitute  the  last  family  of  the  fin-footed  Car- 
nivora,  and  are  those  best  adapted  for  a  thoroughly  aquatic  life,  the  hind- 
flippers  being  permanently  directed  backwards  alongside  of  the  tail,  and  ex- 
ternal ears  totally  wanting.  A  further  difference  from  the 

eared-seals  is  to  be  found  in  the  circumstance  that  the  under      True  Seals. 

surface  of  the  feet  is  hairy ;  and  in  no  case  is  there  any  under-  Family  Phocufa. 
fur,  the  ordinary  fur  being  short  and  closely  pressed  to  the 
skin.  All  the  species  have  five  pairs  of  cheek  teeth  in  each  jaw,  but  the 
number  of  incisors  is  variable.  Oil  land,  most  of  the  true  seals  advance  by  a 
jumping  movement,  produced  by  the  muscles  of  the  body,  assisted  only  by 
the  front-flippers. 

The  common  grey  seal  (Halichoerus  grypus),  of  the  coasts  of  the  whole 
North  Atlantic,  is  the  type  of  the  sub-family  Phwidce,  characterised  by  having 
three  pairs  of  upper,  and  two  of  lower  incisor  teeth,  well- developed  claws  on 
all  the  toes,  and  the  hind-toes  of 
nearly  equal  length,  with  the  webs 
not  reaching  beyond  their  extremi- 
ties. In  the  grey  seal  the  cheek- 
teeth, except  the  last  one  or  two 
in  the  upper,  and  the  last  in  the 
lower  jaw,  are  single-rooted,  and 
consist  generally  of  a  single  com- 
pressed cusp,  although  additional 
cusps  may  be  present  in  the  two 
hinder  pairs  in  the  lower  jaw. 
The  typical  seals  (Phoca),  all  of 
which  are  confined  to  the  Northern 
Hemisphere,  differ  from  the  last  in 
that  all  the  cheek  teeth  are  of  smaller  size,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  first 
pair  in  each  jaw,  are  inserted  by  double  roots,  and  have  accessory  cusps  to 
their  crowns.  As  examples  of  this  genus  may  be  cited  the  bearded-seal 
(P.  barbata\  Greenland  seal  (P.  grcenlandica),  common  seal  (P.  vitulina),  the 
Caspian  seal  (P.  caspica)  from  the  Caspian  and  Sea  of  Aral,  and  P.  sibirica 
of  Lake  Baikal.  Like  other  members  of  their  tribe,  these  seals  resort  to  the 
coast  to  bring  forth  their  young,  which  may  be  either  one  or  two  in  number  ; 
and  not  the  least  remarkable  fact  in  their  life-history  is  the  circumstance 
that  the  offspring  have  to  be  taught  by  their  parents  to  enter  the  water. 
They  usually  congregate  in  large  herds,  and  are  especially  fond  of  lying  bask- 
ing in  the  sun  like  so  many  pigs.  Seals  are  regularly  hunted  for  the  sake  of 
their  hides  and  blubber,  the  latter  yielding  a  valuable  oil. 

A  second  sub-family  of  the  Phocidce.  is  typified  by  the  monk-seal  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  adjacent  portions  of  the  Atlantic,  which,  with  the  nearly 
extinct  West  Indian  seal,  constitutes  the  genus  Monachus.  In  this  sub-family 
there  are  but  two  pairs  of  incisor  teeth  in  each  jaw,  the  cheek  teeth,  with 
the  exception  of  the  first  pair,  are  inserted  by  two  roots,  and  the  first  and 
fifth  toes  of  the  hind-flippers  much  exceed  the  three  middle  ones  in  length, 
and  have  their  claws  rudimental  or  wanting.  The  monk-seal  is  characterised 
by  the  possession  of  32  teeth,  and  by  the  crowns  of  the  cheek  teeth 
being  hollowed  on  the  inner  side — where  there  is  a  strongly  marked  basal 
ledge— arid  their  front  and  back  accessory  cusps  very  small.  The  first  cheek 
tooth  in  both  jaws,  as  well  as  the  last  in  the  upper,  are  considerably  smaller 
than  the  rest ;  and  all  the  claws  are  rudimental.  The  four  other  generic 


Fig.  53.— COMMON  SEAL  (Phoca  vitulina). 


86  MAMMALIA-ORDER  IV.—CARNIVORA. 


representatives  of  the  sub-family  Monachince  are  restricted  to  the  southern 
seas  ;  each  genus  including  only  a  single  species.  First  among  these  comes 
the  beautifully  spotted  leopard-seal  (Ogmorhinus  leptonyx),  in  which  all  the 
cheek  teeth, have  three  large  cusps;  the  central  one  being  the  largest, 
with  its  apex  curved  backwards,  while  the  tips  of  the  others  incline  towards 
the  middle  one.  Writing  of  the  seals  of  this  and  other  species  seen  during  a 
voyage  undertaken  in  1892-93,  Mr.  W.  S.  Bruce  observes  that  from  December 
to  February  they  "are  to  be  found  on  the  pack-ice,  where,  during  the  day, 
they  bask  in  the  sun,  digesting  the  meal  of  the  previous  night.  Their  food 
consists  of  fish  or  shrimp-like  crustaceans,  and  sometimes  of  penguins. 
Stones,  which  were  probably  first  swallowed  by  the  penguins,  may  also  be 
found  in  their  stomachs.  They  become  so  lazy  with  sleep  that  a  man  may 
dig  them  in  the  ribs  with  the  muzzle  of  his  gun,  and  wondering  what  it  is 
disturbing  their  slumbers,  they  raise  their  head,  which  quickly  falls  pierced 
with  a  bullet.  There  may  only  be  one  seal  on  a  piece  of  ice,  which  is  usually 
the  case  with  the  leopard-seals,  but  the  smaller  kinds  lie  in  half-dozens  and 
tens,  and  as  many  as  forty-seven  were  seen  on  one  piece  during  the  recent 
cruise.  On  one  occasion  several  seals  were  found  upon  a  tilted  berg  ;  so  high 
was  the  lowest  edge  above  the  surface  of  the  water  that  the  boat's  crew  with 
difficulty  clambered  up  and  secured  their  prey.  Yet  the  seals  must  have 
made  a  leap  from  the  water  on  to  this  their  last  resting-place.  December 
seems  to  be  their  mating-season  :  about  that  time  they  are  in  very  poor  con- 
dition, and  very  much  scarred.  The  females  appear  to  be  as  freely  scarred 
as  the  males.  It  was  also  noted  that  the  seals  were  most  numerous  where 
the  water  was  bluest  and  clearest — this  in  all  probability  meaning  that  they 
were  more  numerous  on  the  outside  of  the  pack,  since  the  muddy  olive-brown 
colour  of  the  water,  due  to  diatoms,  seen  so  frequently  in  the  south  polar 
seas,  seems  to  indicate  proximity  to  the  main  pack.  The  males  appear  to  be 
as  numerous  as  the  females,  and,  in  the  case  of  the  leopard-seal  and  Weddell's 
seal  at  least,  the  males  are  perhaps  rather  smaller  than  the  females.  They 
move  swiftly  through  the  water,  and  can  throw  themselves  eight  or  nine  feet 
above  the  surface,  covering  distances  of  fully  20  feet.  Their  moaning  in 
the  gloaming  of  a  calm  grey  day  comes  as  a  weird  sound  through  the  haze, 
and  makes  the  icy  solitude  more  lonely,  adding  awe  to  a  scene  already  full  of 
fascination.  They  seem  to  wonder  at  man,  and  not  recognising  him  as  an 
enemy  they  allow  him  to  approach,  only  to  be  laid  low  with  club  or  bullet. 
It  "is  a  matter  of  great  regret  that  they  should  be  so  indiscriminately 
massacred  ;  there  is  no  regard  for  sex  or  age,  and  even  females  heavy  with 
young  do  not  escape.  If  fleets  of  sealers  continue  to  visit  the  south,  there 
should  be  some  law  of  protection,  otherwise  there  is  no  doubt  that,  like  the 
southern  fur-seals  at  the  beginning  of  the  century,  these  Antarctic  seals  will 
be  exterminated." 

The  second  genus  is  represented  by  the  still  more  beautiful  Antarctic  white 
seal  (Lobodon  carcinophaya},  distinguished  from  the  last  by  the  much  com- 
pressed and  elongated  cheek  teeth  having  one  chief  recurved  cusp,  with  one 
anterior,  and  from  one  to  three  much  smaller  but  distinct  posterior  cusps. 
Of  this  lovely  seal  Mr.  Bruce  writes  that  "  its  coat  is  of  a  beautiful  creamy 
white,  resembling  that  of  the  polar  bear,  but  short-haired,  the  colour  be- 
coming somewhat  more  intense  along  the  back.  Looking  at  the  animal  face 
to  face,  its  coat  appears  silvery,  and  the  dorsal  stripe  almost  vanishes  ;  but 
when  looked  at  from  behind  it  assumes  a  deeper  cream  colour,  and  the  broad 
stripe  along  the  back  becomes  quite  prominent.  The  full-grown  animal  may 


FLESH-EA  TING  MAMMALS.  87 

attain  a  length  of  about  seven  feet.  The  sea-leopard  is  a  very  striking  animal, 
and,  with  the  exception  of  the  elephant-seal,  is  the  largest  of  true  seals.  In  the 
recent  Antarctic  expedition  (1892-3)  some  were  met  with  that  measured  over 
13  feet  in  length.  Their  coat  is  a  dark  brown-grey  and  mottled,  be- 
coming paler  grey  below,  and  in  some  cases  almost  black  on  the  back.  A 
rather  striking  and  not  altogether  inappropriate  name  was  given  to  these 
seals  by  the  sailors  in  the  recent  cruise  ;  they  called  them  '  serpents,'  and  they 
do  really  often  look  very  serpent-like  with  their  long  necks  and  green  eyes." 
Less  common  is  Weddell's  seal  (Leptonychotes  weddelli),  in  which  the  cheek- 
teeth are  small,  with  simple,  somewhat  compressed,  conical  crowns,  carrying 
a  broad  basal  ledge,  but  no  distinct  fore-and-aft  cusps.  These  seals  are  nearly 
as  large  as  the  leopard-seal,  but  of  less  graceful  make,  having  a  thicker  coat 
of  blubber,  and  the  fur  more  woolly,  and  dark  brownish-grey  in  colour.  The 
last  member  of  the  sub-f  imily  is  the  rare  Ross's  seal  (Ommatophoca  rossi), 
characterised  by  the  small  size  of  all  the  teeth ,  the  small  posterior,  and  still 
smaller  anterior  cusps  of  those  of  the  cheek  series,  and  the  very  large  size  of 
the  sockets  of  the  eyes,  as  well  as  by  the  small  size  of  the  claws  on  the  front-, 
flippers,  and  their  absence  in  the  hinder  pair.  It  is  described  as  a  beautiful 
animal,  with  large,  affectionate-looking  eyes,  and  resembling  the  white  seal 
in  form  and  size,  but  with  a  mottled  grey  pellage,  darker  above  than  below. 

The  third  and  last  sub- family  is  represented  solely  by  the  hooded  or 
bladder-seal  (Cystophora  crisiata}  of  the  Arctic  Seas,  and  the  gigantic  elephant- 
seal  (Macrorhiuus  leoninus)  of  the  Southern  Ocean  and  the  coast  of  California. 
In  this  group  the  incisor  teeth  form  two  pairs  in  the  upper,  and  one  pair  in 
the  lower  jaw,  the  total  number  of  teeth  thus  being  30,  in  place  of  the  32 
characterising  the  preceding  sub-family  ;  and  as  a  rule  the  cheek-teeth  are 
implanted  by  single  roots.  In  the  males  the  nose  is  surmounted  by  an 
appendage  capable  of  being  inflated  at  will ;  and  the  first  and  fifth  toes  of  the 
hind-flippers  are  much  longer  than  the  others  ;  all  these  toes  having  the  claws 
rudimental  or  absent,  and  webs  projecting  beyond  their  tips.  The  hooded-seal 
takes  its  name  from  the  large  loose  sac  of  skin  over  the  nostrils  of  the  full- 
grown  males,  which,  when  inflated  with  air,  looks  somewhat  like  a  hood. 
Rudimental  nails  are  present  on  the  hind-feet  ;  and  the  last  molar  in  each 
jaw  is  generally  implanted  by  two  roots.  In  the  elephant-seal,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  old  males  have  a  kind  of  trunk-like  prolongation  of  the  nose,  which, 
although  ordinarily  limp,  can  be  distended  under  the  stimulus  of  excitement. 
All  the  teeth  are  relatively  small,  those  of  the  cheek  series  being  all  simple 
and  single-rooted,  and  nails  are  totally  wanting  on  the  hind-flippers.  The 
elephant-seal  is  the  largest  of  all  seals,  the  males  attaining  the  enormous 
length  of  20  feet,  and  the  females  about  one-third  less.  Mr.  Bruce 
writes  that  "the  males  are  said  to  come  ashore  on  the  South  Shetlands  about 
the  end  of  August  and  beginning  of  September,  and  in  the  first  part  of 
October  are  followed  by  the  females.  The  males  are  very  fat  when  they  first 
arrive,  but  get  lean  towards  the  end  of  December,  when  they  leave  the 
islands.  Another  herd  was  said  to  visit  the  islands  about  the  middle  of 
January — when  they  renew  their  hair — and  still  another  in  March  ;  by  the 
end  of  April  all  returning  to  the  sea.  They  are  very  difficult  to  kill,  but,  like 
the  other  species,  allow  themselves  to  be  approached  even  with  a  club.  This 
seal  used  to  be  highly  valued  for  its  blubber  ;  in  1821  and  1822  alone  as  much 
as  940  tons  of  sea-elephant  oil  was  taken  from  the  South  Shetlands  ;  and  it 
may  here  be  mentioned  that  during  these  same  two  years  at  least  320,000 
fur-seals  were  also  taken  from  these  islands." 


83  MAMMALIA— ORDER   V.—RODENTIA. 


ORDER  V.— RODENTIA. 
MAMMALS  THAT  GNAW. 

NEXT  to  the  Bats,  the  order  of  Mammals  most  easily  defined  is  the  one 
including  the  Rodents  or  Gnawing  Mammals,  all  of  which  have  a  very  similar 
and  peculiar  type  of  dentition  specially  adapted  for  rasping  and  gnawing 
hard  vegetable  substances.  The  order  comprises  a  large  number  of  families 
and  genera,  many  of  which  are  exceedingly  numerous  in  species,  so  that  the 
total  number  of  its  members  is  greater  than  that  of  any  ordinal  group  in 
the  whole  class.  As  common  and  well-known  examples  of  the  Rodent  order 
may  be  cited  squirrels,  dormice,  marmots,  beavers,  rats,  voles,  porcupines, 
and  hares  and  rabbits,  all  of  which  are  characterised  by  possessing  a  pair  of 
chisel-shaped  teeth  in  the  front  of  each  jaw,  which  are  worn  by  use  into  a 
sharp,  cutting,  transverse  edge,  and  grow  continuously  throughout  the  life  of 
their  owners.  It  is  with  these  chisel-like  front  or  incisor  teeth  that  the 
Rodents  perform  that  gnawing  action  (so  markedly  developed  in  the  beavers 
and  porcupines)  from  which  they  derive  their  name  ;  and  it  is  owing  to  the 
circumstance  that  the  front  of  each  tooth  is  faced  with  a  plate  of  hard 
enamel,  while  the  remainder  consists  of  soft  ivory,  that  these  beautiful  in- 
struments maintain  their  cutting-edges.  These  two  pairs  of  front  teeth  aro 
absolutely  characteristic  of  all  Rodents;  and  in  by  far  the  greater  majority 
of  the  order  there  are  no  other  teeth  in  this  region  of  the  jaw.  As  if,  how- 
ever, for  the  purpose  of  hinting  how  these  animals  were  originally  related  to 
Mammals  provided  with  a  fuller  set  of  teeth,  the  hares  and  rabbits,  together 
with  their  near  allies  the  picas  or  tailless  hares,  have  a  minute  pair  of  some- 
what similar  teeth  placed  immediately  behind  the  large  pair  in  the  upper 
jaw.  Being  perfectly  useless  to  their  owners,  this  second  pair  of  upper  front 
teeth  evidently  comes  under  the  category  of  rudimental  or  vestigiary  struc- 
tures. Behind  the  front  teeth  of  all  Rodents  comes  a  long  gap  in  each  jaw, 
after  which  is  the  series  of  grinding  or  cheek  teeth,  which  are  never  more 
than  six  in  number,  and  are  frequently  reduced  to  four,  or  even  three.  Con- 
sequently, no  member  of  the  order  ever  has  canine  teeth.  Were  it  not  that 
there  are  two  groups  of  animals  with  a  dentition  of  a  similar  type,  these 
peculiarities  in  the  teeth  would  absolutely  distinguish  Rodents  from  all  other 
members  of  the  Mammalian  class.  Of  the  groups  in  question,  the  one  con- 
tains the  wombats  of  Australia,  which  are  broadly  distinguished  by  the 
presence  of  a  pouch  for  the  young,  while  the  second  group  is  represented 
solely  by  the  curious  aye -aye  of  Madagascar,  which  agrees  in  its  internal 
anatomy  with  the  lemurs,  and  is  accordingly  assigned  to  that  group.  With 
these  exceptions  the  dentition  is  absolutely  characteristic  of  the  Rodent 
order  ;  and  as  the  student  is  not  likely  to  confound  with  them  either  of  the 
creatures  named,  he  may  rely  on  the  nature  of  the  teeth  in  identifying  the 
members  of  the  order.  A  curious  feature  in  the  anatomy  of  Rodents  is  that 
the  mouth  is  divided  into  two  chambers  communicating  by  a  narrow  orifice  ; 
the  first  containing  the  incisors,  and  the  second  the  cheek  teeth,  and  the 
hair  being  continued  inwards  behind  the  former.  The  object  of  this  arrange- 
ment ia  evidently  to  prevent  the  intrusion  of  foreign  objects  into  the 


MAMMALS  THAT  GNAW. 


mouth.  As  a  rule  collar-bones  are  well  developed,  although  they  may 
be  wanting.  There  are  generally  five  toes  to  the  fore-feet,  but  in  the 
hind-feet  the  number  may  be  reduced  to  four,  or  even  three  ;  the  claws 
being  usually  sharp  and  curved.  A  single  species  of  Spermophilus  has  a 
ringed  tail. 

The  order  has  a  cosmopolitan  distribution,  being  fairly  well  represented 
even  in  Australia,  New  Guinea,  and  Madagascar  ;  but  it  is  in  South  America 
that  it  attains  its  maximum  development,  the  number  of  family  types  peculiar 
to  that  region  being  very  large.  In  size,  Rodents  vary  from  that  of  a  rather 
small  pig  to  that  of  the  smallest  shrew,  the  harvest-mouse  being  one  of  the 
most  minute  of  Mammals.  The  carpincho  (Hydrochcerus  capivara)  of  South 
America  is  the  largest  of  the  Rodents.  As  regards  habits,  all  feed  almost  ex- 
clusively upon  vegetable  substances 
(except  perhaps  one  rat  from  the 
Philippines,  and  a  second  from  South 
America),  but  in  other  respects  they 
present  great  diversity.  The  flying- 
squirrels,  for  instance,  are  flying, 
arboreal,  and  nocturnal,  whereas 
the  ground-squirrels  are  terrestrial. 
Others  again,  such  as  the  marmots, 
form  large  colonies,  the  members  of 
which  live  in  burrows,  and  are  to  a 
great  extent  diurnal ;  while  others, 
like  the  beaver  and  coypu,  have  Fig  54._TlIE  CARPINCHO 

taken  to  an  aquatic  life.     In  struc-  (Hydrochosrus  capivara). 

ture,  Rodents  are  so  much  alike  that 

somewhat  obscure  osteological  characters  have  to  be  relied  upon  in  order  to 
divide  them  into  groups. 

Agreeing  with  the  great  bulk  of  the  order  in  the  possession  of  only  a  single 
pair  of  upper  incisor  teeth,  the  members  of  this  and  the  three  following 
families  constitute  a  group  (Sciuromorplia)   chiefly  charac- 
terised by  certain  peculiarities  in  the  structure  of  the  skull.    African  Flying- 
In  this  portion  of  the  skull  the  cheek  or  zygomatic  arch      Squirrels.— 
(that  is  to  say  the  long  slender  bar  of  bone  running  along  Family 

the  lower  border  of  the  socket  of  the  eye)  is  chiefly  formed    Anomalurida;. 
by  the  bone  known  as  the  jugal,  which  is  not  supported  by 
a  backwardly-directed  process  from  the  upper  jawbone,  or  maxilla ;  postor- 
bital  processes  arising  from  the  frontals  to  define  the  hinder  margin  of  the 
sockets  of  the  eyes  may  or  may  not  be  developed  ;  and  in  the  lower  jaw 
the  hinder,  or  angular  portion  arises  from  the  socket  of  the  lower  incisor 
tooth. 

Although  flying-squirrels  are  abundant  in  the  Oriental  countries,  in  Africa 
south  of  the  Sahara  their  place  is  taken  by  a  separate  family,  comprising  two 
distinct  genera.  These  African  flying-squirrels  differ  from  their  Asiatic 
cousins  in  that  the  parachute,  by  means  of  which  they  take  their  long  flying 
leaps,  is  supported  in  front  by  a  rod  of  cartilage  projecting  from  the  elbow, 
instead  of  from  the  wrist ;  and  an  additional  peculiarity  is  the  presence  of  a 
row  of  overlapping  horny  scales  on  the  under  surface  of  the  tail,  which  are 
believed  to  be  of  use  in  climbing.  The  typical  representatives  of  the  family 
are  the  short-tailed  flying-squirrels  (Anomalurus),  most  of  the  species  in- 
habiting West  Africa,  although  one  is  found  in  Equatoria,  and  a  second  near 


90  MAMMALIA— ORDER   V.—RODENTIA. 


Zanzibar.  The  smallest  is  the  equatorial  flying-squirrel  (^4.  pusilliis),  in 
which  the  length  of  the  head  and  body  is  11  inches,  arid  that  of  the  tail 
just  over  five  inches.  The  second  genus  (Idiurus)  is  represented  only  by  a 
single  species  from  the  Cameruns  district,  which  is  not  larger  than  a  small 
house-mouse,  the  length  of  the  head  and  body  being  only  just  over  two  and 
a  half  inches,  and  that  of  the  tail  four  inches.  Agreeing  with  the  ordinary 
African  flying-squirrels  in  the  general  form  and  mode  of  support  of  the  para- 
chute, as  well  as  in  the  presence  of  rows  of  scales 
on  the  under  surface  of  the  tail,  this  species 
is  at  once  distinguished  by  the  short,  knob-like 
nose,  and  the  thinly-haired  tail  ;  the  latter  ter- 
minating in  a  pencil  of  hairs,  and  being  nearly 
double  the  length  of  the  head  and  body,  instead 
of  shorter.  In  place  of  being  uniformly  and 
thickly  covered  with  fur,  the  tail  is  short-haired 
on  its  upper  surface,  with  three  longitudinal  rows 
of  elongated  sparse  hairs,  while  beneath  it  is 
naked,  with  three  rows  of  scales  near  the  base. 
An  important  difference  is  also  to  be  found  in 
the  structure  of  the  fore-foot,  in  which  the  thumb 
is  reduced  to  a  mere  knob-like  rudiment,  while 
in  the  hind-foot  the  first  toe  is  much  smaller 

,  -  i«  i    •     -i  e»  •  i      i 

than  the  other  four,  which  are  of  approximately 
equal  length.  There  are  likewise  structural 
differences  in  the  skull,  into  the  consideration  of  which  it  will  be  un- 
necessary to  enter  on  this  occasion.  In  colour,  the  fur  of  the  back  and 
upper  surface  of  the  parachute  is  pale  whitish-brown,  the  hairs  being 
blackish-grey  at  the  base  ;  while  on  the  under  surface  the  general  hue 
is  a  mixture  of  yellowish  and  dark  grey,  with  a  tinge  of  silver-grey  on 
the  parachute. 

Writing  of  the  habits  of  Pel's  flying-squirrel  (Anomalurus  pell}  of  West 
Africa,  Mr.  W.  H.  Adams  observes  that  "  these  squirrels  come  out  of  their 
holes  in  the  trees  some  hours  after  sunset,  returning  long  before  daybreak. 
They  are  only  to  be  seen  on  bright  moonlight  nights,  and,  in  fact,  the  natives 
s:ty  they  do  not  come  out  at  all  in  stormy  weather  or  on  very  dark  nights. 
They  live  on  berries  and  fruits,  being  specially  fond  of  the  palm  oil-nut, 
which  they  take  to  their  nests  to  peel  and  eat.  They  pass  from  tree  to  tree 
with  great  rapidity,  usually  choosing  to  jump  from  a  higher  branch  to  a  lower 
one,  and  then  climbing  up  the  tree  to  make  a  fresh  start.  The  temperature 
on  the  hills  varies  considerably.  During  the  time  I  was  there — the  rainy 
season,  from  the  middle  of  April  to  the  middle  of  June — it  was  never  very 
hot,  one  night  the  thermometer  going  down  to  44  deg.  on  the  ground.  Of 
course,  in  the  dry  season  it  is  much  hotter,  but  the  natives  say  these  animals 
are  much  more  plentiful  in  the  rains,  and  that  the  rainier  the  season  the 
more  they  see.  They  litter  twice  a  year,  once  about  September,  the  young 
remaining  in  the  nest  for  about  nine  weeks,  during  which  they  are  fed  by 
the  old  ones  on  such  food  as  shoots  and  kernels  ;  they  do  not  attempt  to 
jump  till  the  end  of  that  period,  extending  the  length  of  their  jumps  with 
their  growth.  I  do  not  know  the  other  time  of  breeding,  or  whether  they 
have  a  regular  season.  The  hunters  told  me  that  two  or  three  were  usually 
born  at  one  birth,  and  never  more  than  four." 

This  extensive  family  includes  not  only  ordinary  squirrels,  but  likewise 


MAMMALS  THAT  GNAW.  91 


the  typical,  or  northern  fly  ing -squirrels,  together  with  marmots,  chipmunks, 
etc.     The  family  is  distinguished  from  the  last  by  the  absence  of  scales  on  the 
bushy  tail,  and  the  presence  of  postorbital  processes  defin- 
ing the  hinder  border  of  the  socket  of  the  eye  ;  while  if  a  Squirrel  Tribe.— 
parachute  is  developed,  it  is  supported  by  a  cartilaginous  Family 

rod  arising  from  the  wrist.     The  palate  is  broad,  and  there         Sciuridcu. 
are  usually  two  pairs  of  upper  and  one  of  lower  premolar 
teeth,  although  the  first  pair  in  the  upper  jaw,  which  are  always  small,  may 
be  shed  at  an  early  age,  or  even  wanting.     The  cheek  teeth  are  rooted,  and 
in  the  young  always  bear  tubercles  on  their  crowns,  although  in  the  adult 
these  may  be  converted  into  deep  plates  separated  by  clefts  extending  par- 
tially across  the  crown.     With  the  exception  of  Madagascar  and  Australasia, 
the  family  has  a  cosmopolitan  range. 

The  first  genus  is  represented  only  by  the  large  groove-toothed  squirrel 
(Rhithrosciurus)  of  Borneo,  easily  recognised  by  the  numerous  vertical  grooves 
on  the  upper  incisor  teeth.  Next  come  the  Ethiopian  spiny  squirrels  (Xerus\ 
typically  characterised  by  the  coarse  spiny  fur,  the  small  size  or  absence  of 
external  ears,  and  the  comparatively  straight  and  long  claws  ;  while  they  are 
further  distinguished  by  certain  features  of  the  skull  and  teeth.  This  group 
ranges  all  over  Africa  from  Abyssinia  southwards.  The  numerous  species  of  true 
squirrels  (Sciurus)  differ  from  the  last  by  the  shortness  of  the  skull,  in  which 
the  postorbital  processes  are  more  elongated.  The  tail  is  very  long  and  bushy  ; 
the  ears  are  generally  large,  and  in  some  instances  tufted  ;  there  are  only 
four  functional  toes  to  the  fore-feet ;  the  claws  are  long,  curved,  and  sharp  ; 
and  the  females  have  either  four  or  six  teats.  The  cheek  teeth  have  low 
tuberculated  crowns.  The  genus  has  a  very  wide  distribution,  but  attains  its 
maximum  development  in  the  Malayan  countries.  Whereas,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  muzzle  and  chest,  the  common  squirrel  ($.  wdgaris)  is  nearly 
uniform  brownish-red,  the  little  Indian  palm-squirrel  (8.  palmarum)  is  marked 
with  longitudinal  dark  and  light  stripes  on  the  back,  and  many  species  have 
two  or  three  conspicuous  bright-coloured  and  white  bands  oil  the  flanks, 
while  one  American  form  is  peculiar  among  Mammals  in  assuming  a  special 
brilliant  breedir.g-dress.  A.11  the  squirrels  are  arboreal,  but  their  habits  are 
too  well  known  to  need  special  mention.  From  the  true  squirrels  the 
ground-squirrels,  or  chipmunks  (Tamias),  of  the  northern  portions  of  both 
hemispheres,  differ  by  having  pouches  inside  the  cheeks  for  the  storage 
of  food  ;  and  are  also  characterised  by  the  presence  of  distinct  white  or 
greyish-white  longitudinal  stripes  bordered  by  black  bands  on  the  sides,  or 
sides  and  back.  Chipmunks,  which  are  among  the  most  common  of  North 
American  Rodents,  are  terrestrial  in  their  habits,  and  chiefly  remarkable 
for  the  accumulations  of  food  which  they  collect  for  winter  use  ;  such 
supplies  being  carried  to  the  place  of  storage  in  the  capacious  check 
pouches. 

The  susliks,  or  gophers  (Spermophihis  *),  which  have  a  geographical  distri- 
bution nearly  similar  to  that  of  the  chipmunks,  although  most  of  them  are 
found  in  desert  regions  where  the  latter  never  go,  are  readily  characterised 
by  their  somewhat  slender  and  squirrel-like  form,  the  presence  of  cheek 
pouches,  and  therudimental  first  toe  of  the  fore-foot,  which  may,  however,  be 
provided  with  a  nail.  In  the  skull  the  first  upper  premolar  is  larger  than  in 
the  true  squirrels,  and  the  two  series  of  cheek  teeth  are  nearly  parallel. 
The  ears  may  be  either  minute,  or  relatively  large  and  tufted  ;  and  the  tail 
1  The  earlier  name  Anisonyx  is  used  by  American  authors. 


92  MAMMALIA— ORDER  V.—RODENTIA. 


may  be  either  of  medium  length,  or  reduced  to  a  stump.  The  coloration, 
which  is  never  like  that  of  the  chipmunks,  may  be  either  uniform  or  striped. 
In  habits,  the  susliks  are  social  and  burrowing  animals,  selecting  dry  sandy 
soil  for  their  underground  habitations  ;  and  in  the  colder  portion  of  their 
range  hibernating  during  the  inclement  months  of  the  year.  The  common 
American  species  is  the  striped  gopher  ($.  tridecemlineatus).  Susliks  agree 
with  the  two  following  genera  in  that  the  incisor  teeth  lack  the  compressed 
form  characterising  those  of  the  squirrels  and  their  immediate  allies,  and  also 
in  the  simple  structure  of  their  molars.  The  prairie-marmots,  or  prairie- 
dogs  (Cynomys)  of  North  America  form  in  some  respects  a  connecting  link 
between  the  susliks  and  the  true  marmots,  being  intermediate  in  size  between 
the  two,  and  having  stouter  bodies  than  the  former.  Their  ears  are  small,  and 
the  tail  is  generally  short,  while  their  cheek  pouches  are  less  capacious  than 
those  of  the  susliks,  and  the  first  toe  of  the  fore-feet  is  well  developed,  and 
carries  a  large  claw.  The  massive  skull  has  the  large  postorbital  processes 
directed  nearly  outwards,  and  the  stout  molar  teeth,  which  form  two  series 
converging  behind,  differ  from  those  of  both  the  susliks  and  marmots  in 
having  three,  in  place  of  two  grooves,  on  their  crowns.  In  habits  the  prairie- 
marmots  very  closely  resemble  the  true  marmots,  but  the  mounds  of 
earth  they  throw  up  from  their  burrows  have  a  very  distinct  crater-like 
form. 

From  the  prairie-marmots  the  true  marmots  (Arctomys)  may  be  distin- 
guished by  their  stouter  form,  the  absence  of  cheek  pouches,  the  rudimental 

first  toe  of  the  fore-foot,  which  carries  only  a 
small  flat  nail,  and  the  above-mentioned 
differences  in  the  form  and  direction  of  the 
upper  molar  teeth.  Marmots  are  common  to 
the  northern  half  of  both  the  Old  and  New 
World,  ranging  as  far  south  as  the  Pyrenees, 
Alps,  and  Himalaya.  They  are  among  the 
larger  members  of  the  order,  the  common 
Alpine  marmot  measuring  more  than  20 
inches  in  length,  exclusive  of  the  tail.  In 
appearance  they  are  stoutly  built,  with  short 
legs,  powerful  claws,  a  broad  and  short  head, 
small  and  rounded  ears,  and  a  bushy  tail,  usually 
less  than  half  the  length  of  the  body.  Their 
fur  is  moderately  long,  and  somewhat  stiff ; 
while  their  colour  exhibits  various  tints  of 
Fig.  56.-COMMoN  MARMOT  g°lden  ?r  reddish-brown,  shading,  more  or 

(Arctomys  mannotta).  less  markedly  into  black  along  the  back  and 

tail,    the    tip    of    the    latter    being    always 

blackish.  As  regards  their  habits,  marmots  live  in  extensive  societies,  their 
large  and  deep  burrows  forming  warrens,  and  communicating  with  one 
another  underground.  All  the  regions  they  inhabit  experience  a  very  severe 
winter  climate,  during  which  the  marmots  hibernate  securely  in  the  depths 
of  their  burrows,  only  waking  from  their  long  sleep  at  the  melting  of  the 
snows.  Those  that  dwell  in  the  mountains  of  Europe  and  Asia  generally 
select  open  valleys  or  uplands,  where  the  soil  is  more  or  less  sandy,  for  the 
construction  of  their  burrows,  the  neighbourhood  of  water  being  essential. 
In  Russia  and  Siberia  they  inhabit  the  open  and  barren  steppes.  Extreme 
wariness,  especially  where  they  dwell  on  frequented  routes,  is  characteristic 


MAMMALS  THAT  GNAW.  93 

of  all  marmots.  During  the  daytime  they  may  be  seen  playing  around  their 
burrows,  at  the  mouths  of  which  they  sit  upright  when  the  least  alarmed. 
In  this  situation,  the  moment  they  catch  sight  of  a  suspicious  object,  they 
throw  themselves  down  their  burrows,  which  are  often  situated  at  the  root 
of  a  rhubarb  plant,  with  the  well-known  shrill  scream,  at  the  sound  of  which 
any  other  animal  that  may  be  in  the  vicinity  immediately  takes  alarm.  It  is 
almost  superfluous  to  observe  that,  in  order  to  secure  them  when  thus  sitting, 
it  is  necessary  to  shoot  marmots  dead  ;  for,  even  with  the  slightest  kick  left 
in  them,  they  will  often  manage  to  tumble  into  their  holes  before  they  can 
be  seized.  When  disturbed  for  the  first  time,  they  will  usually  reappear 
after  a  short  interval ;  but  after  a  second  fright  they  generally  sulk,  and 
seldom  show  again.  Wishing  to  secure  a  number  of  skins  for  rugs,  the 
writer  and  his  party,  after  much  toil,  once  succeeded  in  turning  a  small 
rivulet  into  a  marmot  warren  on  one  of  the  plateaus  of  Little  Tibet,  but,  to 
their  dismay,  were  unable  to  "bolt  "  a  single  marmot — the  whole  colony  pre- 
ferring to  perish  miserably  by  drowning  in  their  burrows  rather  than  face 
their  foes  in  the  open. 

In  Europe  there  occur  two  species  of  marmot — namely,  the  Alpfna  marmot 
(A.  marmotta)  and  the  somewhat  smaller  bobac  (A.  bobac}.  The  former  is  an 
exclusively  European  form,  only  found  in  the  three  disconnected  mountain 
chains  of  the  Pyrenees,  Alps,  and  Carpathians,  at  elevations  varying  be- 
tween 5,000  and  1,000  feet,  where  it  meets  with  a  climate  suitable  to  its  exist- 
ence. The  second  species,  in  which  the  head  and  body  measure  about 
15  inches  in  length,  has  its  western  limit  on  the  German  frontier,  and  thence 
ranges  eastward  through  Galicia  and  Poland,  right  across  the  steppes  of 
Southern  Russia,  and  thence  to  Amur,  Kamschatka,  and  Siberia — the  climate 
of  these  regions  lacing  sufficiently  rigorous  to  admit  of  the  existence  of  these 
animals  at  ordinary  elevations.  It  is  noteworthy  that  marmots  do  not  extend 
to  the  north-westward  either  into  Lapland  or  the  Scandinavian  peninsula, 
where  the  country  does  not  present  the  character  of  the  Russian  steppes, 
which  in  summer  are  scorched  by  a  burning  heat,  and  in  winter  form  a  track- 
less expanse  of  snow.  The  southern  limits  of  the  bobac  do  not  appear  to  be 
yet  definitely  known.  When,  however,  we  reach  the  mountains  of  Yarkand 
and  other  parts  of  Turkestan,  and  thence  proceed  southwards  to  the  northern 
districts  of  Ladak  in  Western  Tibet,  we  meet  with  a  very  similar,  although 
somewhat  larger,  short-tailed  species  known  as  the  Himalayan  marmot 
(A.  himalayanus},  the  range  of  which  appears  to  extend  eastward  into  Tibet 
proper,  where  this  species  has  been  described  under  other  names.  The 
Himalayan  marmot  is  another  species  which,  at  all  events  in  the  southern 
portion  of  its  range,  can  only  find  a  suitable  climate  at  great  elevations,  the 
height  at  which  it  is  usually  found  in  Ladak  and  Turkestan  varying  between 
12,000  feet  and  something  over  17,000  feet.  Another  species  is  also  met 
with  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Yarkand  and  the  Pamir,  at  elevations  of  about 
13,000  feet,  known  as  the  golden  marmot  (-4.  aureiis),  and  is  distinguished 
from  the  last  by  its  more  golden  colour,  and  shorter  and  thicker  tail. 
Examples  of  this  species  were  also  obtained  in  Turkestan  during  Przewalski's 
expeditions.  To  the  south-west  the  writer,  when  crossing  the  elevated 
plateau  of  Deosai,  or  "Devil's  Plains,"  situated  between  the  town  of  Skardo 
on  the  Indus  in  Western  Tibet  and  the  mountains  north  of  Kashmir,  the 
elevation  of  which  is  between  12,500  feet  and  13,000  feet,  found  marmots 
exceedingly  abundant,  although  he  was  unable  to  determine  to  which  of  the 
two  preceding  species  they  belonged,  or  whether  they  were  more  nearly 


94  MAMMALIA— ORDER  V.—RODENTIA. 

allied  to  the  Cabul  species  to  be  immediately  mentioned.  The  Deosai 
plateau,  it  may  be  mentioned,  is  one  of  the  most  desolate  and  dreary  regions 
that  can  well  be  imagined,  consisting  of  rolling  hills  and  dunes  of  sand  and 
gravel,  with  a  sparse  coating  of  vegetation,  where  almost  the  only  living 
things  to  be  seen  are  marmots  and  mosquitoes.  The  climate  is  most 
rigorous ;  the  sun's  rays  beating  down  with  terrific  power  through  the  dry 
and  rarified  atmosphere  during  the  day  in  the  summer  months,  but  the  tem- 
perature rapidly  falling,  and  often  sinking  below  the  freezing  point  after 
sunset.  In  winter  this  region  is  absolutely  impassable  ;  so  that  its  climate 
may  be  regarded  as  an  intensification  of  that  of  the  steppes. 

The  Cabul  marmot.  ( A.  dichrous),  which  is  also  met  with  in  Turkestan,  is  a 
smaller  species  than  the  golden  marmot,  from  which  it  is  further  distinguished 
by  its  duller  coloration,  and  the  absence  of  any  black  on  the  back.  The 
regions  whence  it  is  obtained  have  a  climate  of  the  general  character  men- 
tioned above.  The  last  species  to  be  mentioned  is  known  as  the  red  or  long- 
tailed  marmot  (A.  caudatus).  This  appears  to  be  the  largest  of  all  those 
found  in  the  Old  World,  attaining  a  length  of  nearly  two  feet,  exclusive  of 
the  tail,  which  measures  about  one  foot.  It  is  readily  recognised,  not  only 
by  its  size  and  long,  bushy  tail,  but  also  by  the  full  rufous  tinge  of  the  hair, 
and  the  large  extent  of  black  found  on  the  back  of  many  individuals,  the 
skins  being  handsomer  than  those  of  any  of  the  other  kinds. 

The  distribution  of  this  Himalayan  marmot  is  extremely  interesting  as 
showing  that  these  animals  can  only  exist  in  an  arid  climate  more  or  less 
nearly  approaching  that  of  the  steppes  or  of  Tibet.  To  understand  this,  it 
must  be  mentioned  that  the  immense  mountain-barrier  lying  to  the  north- 
ward of  the  valley  of  Kashmir,  the  lowest  gap  in  which  has  an  elevation  of 
11,500  feet,  cuts  off  almost  completely  the  clouds  coming  up  from  the  plains 
of  India  from  the  more  or  less  arid  regions  to  the  northward.  Now,  whereas 
marmots  are  totally  unknown  on  the  great  range  of  mountains  south  of  the 
Kashmir  valley,  where  the  rainfall  is  excessive,  directly  the  traveller  reaches 
the  summits  of  the  passes  of  the  northern  range,  and  thence  far  down  on  the 
northern  side,  the  shrill  cry  of  the  red  marmot  strikes  his  ear.  This  is  very 
noticeable  in  travelling  on  the  Central  Asian  high  road  up  the  Sind  Valley, 
when  he  crosses  the  Zogi  Pass  into  the  Tibetan  area.  This  marmot  may  like- 
wise be  met  with  on  crossing  the  passes  leading  to  our  distant  frontier 
station  of  Gilgit ;  and  it  also  appears  to  range  into  many  parts  of  Ladak, 
although  its  exact  limits  are  not  yet  accurately  defined.  It  is  thus  evident 
that  marmots  now  exist  only  at  such  elevations  or  in  such  regions  as  possess 
an  extreme  continental  climate — that  is  to  say,  one  where  the  summers  are 
hot  and  the  winters  excessively  cold.  It  has  been  shown  that  in  Europe  the 
Alpine  marmot  inhabits  three  distinct  and  isolated  ranges,  separated  from 
one  another  by  low-lying  areas  possessing  a  climate  entirely  different  from 
the  type  above  referred  to  ;  and  it  is  thus  clear  that  it  could  not  have  crossed 
these  unsuitable  low  areas  while  the  climate  of  Europe  was  the  same  as  at 
the  present  day.  That  there  must  have  been  at  some  time  or  other  a  direct 
communication  between  these  isolated  marmot  areas  is,  therefore,  self- 
evident. 

The  next  section  of  the  Sciuridce  is  formed  by  the  true,  or  northern  flying 
squirrels,  of  which  there  are  three  well-marked  generic  groups.  In  all  these 
animals  the  parachute  is  supported  by  a  rod  of  cartilage  projecting  like  a 
yard-arm  from  the  outer  side  of  the  wrist,  and  there  is  another  expansion  of 
skin  connecting  the  fore-limbs  with  the  neck,  while  there  may  be  a  third 


MAMMALS  THAT  GNAW.  95 


between  the  hind-legs  and  the  root  of  the  tail.  The  whole  of  these  flying- 
squirrels  are  characterised  by  the  complex  structure  of  their  molar  teeth  ; 
and  as  their  skulls  differ  considerably  from  those  of  other  members  of  the 
family,  they  must  be  regarded  as  constituting  a  sub-family  group  by  them- 
selves. 

Flying-squirrels  of  this  group  have  existed  since  a  comparatively  early 
epoch  in  the  Tertiary  period,  and  it  is  consequently  impossible  to  affiliate 
them  with  any  of  the  genera  of  ordinary  squirrels  ;  so  that  it  is  quite  likely  that 
they  have  originated  from  a  totally  extinct  genus  or  genera.  Hence,  it  is 
impossible  to  say  whether  the  three  genera  into  which  they  are  divided  have 
all  taken  origin  from  one  non-volant  form,  or  whether  the  power  of  flight 
has  been  separately  evolved  in  each  of  the  three  generic  groups.  Of  the 
three  genera,  the  one  known  as  Sciuropterus  includes  the  lesser  flying-squir- 
rels, all  of  which  have  the  crowns  of  their  molar  teeth  comparatively  low, 
and  the  parachute  of  moderate  width,  and  not  including  any  portion  of  the 
tail.  Having  one  representative  in  North  America,  and  a  second  in  North- 
Eastern  Europe  and  Siberia,  the  lesser  flying-squirrels  are  mainly  characteristic 
of  India  and  the  Malayan  countries.  While  some  of  the  larger  kinds  measure 
as  much  as  12  inches  from  the  nose  to  the  root  of  'the  tail,  in  the  pigmy 
flying-squirrel  of  Cochin-China  and  Arakan  the  length  of  the  head  and  body 
scarcely  exceeds  five  inches.  These  squirrels  collect  in  numbers  in  hollow 
trees,  where  they  remain  in  slumber  during  the  daytime,  to  issue  forth  at 
night  for  the  purpose  of  feeding.  Climbing  to  a  coign  of  vantage  on  some 
tree,  they  take  their  flying  leaps  to  the  bough  or  trunk  of  another  at  n 
lower  level,  not  unfrequently  covering  a  distance  of  some  30  or  40  yards. 
The  length  of  the  leap  is,  however,  still  greater  among  the  members  of  the 
next  genus,  reaching  from  60  to  nearly  80  yards.  The  larger  flying- 
squirrels  (Pteromys)  form  an  exclusively  Asiatic  group,  represented  by  some 
ten  species,  and  extending  from  the  Malayan  countries  as  far  north  as  Eastern 
Tibet.  In  addition  to  their  superior  dimensions,  these  flying-squirrels  are 
distinguished  from  the  preceding  group  by  the  greater  width  of  the  parachute 
along  the  sides  of  the  body,  and  the  enclosure  of  the  base  of  the  tail  in  the 
portion  connecting  the  two  hind -legs.  The  tail  itself  is,  moreover,  completely 
cylindrical,  instead  of  slightly  compressed ;  and  the  molar  teeth  have 
rather  taller  and  more  complex  crowns  than  in  the  lesser  flying-squirrels. 
In  some  of  the  larger  species  the  head  and  body  may  measure  as  much 
as  18  inches  in  length,  while  the  tail  may  reach  to  24  or  25  inches. 
The  last  member  of  the  sub-family  is  the  woolly  flying-squirrel  (Eupetannts) 
— a  large  species  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Gilgit,  distinguished  by  the 
very  tall  molar  teeth,  which  have  flat,  instead  of  ridged,  masticating 
surfaces. 

Finally,  the  five  species  of  pigmy  squirrels  (Nannosciurus),  of  which 
one  is  West  African,  a  second  from  the  Philippines,  while  the  other 
three  are  Bornean,  constitute  another  sub-family,  c  aracterised  by  cer- 
tain peculiarities  in  the  skull  and  the  complex  structure  of  the  molar 
teeth. 

An  unimportant  family  is  constituted  by  two  North  American  Rodents 
known  as  sewellela  (Haplodon),  which  differ  from  the  U  1  — 

Sciuridce   by   the  absence  of  postorbital  processes   in   the  Pam'lv  S 

skull  and  the  rootless  molars.     According  to  Dr.  Merriam,     Haplodontid(K 
they  are  aquatic  in  their  habits. 

The  last  family  of  the  squirrel-like  group  of  the  order  is  represented  only 


MAMMALIA— ORDER   V.—RODENTIA. 


The  Beavers.— 
Family 

Castoridce. 


Fig.  57.— BEAVER  (Castor  fiber). 


by  the  beavers  (Castor),  easily  distinguished  by  the  broad,  flattened,  and 
scaly  tail.  The  skull  is  massively  made  and  devoid  of  postorbital  processes, 
with  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw  rounded  ;  the  cheek  teeth 
do  not  develop  roots,  and  have  their  crowns  marked  with 
re-entering  folds  of  enamel  ;  the  premolars  are  limited  to  a 
single  pair  in  each  jaw  ;  and  the  hind-feet  are  webbed. 
Beavers,  which  are  the  largest  Rodents  in  the  Northern 
Hemisphere,  and  are  thoroughly  aquatic  in  their  habits,  are  confined  to  cer- 
tain parts  of  that  hemisphere,  being  found  only  in  Europe,  Northern  Asia, 
and  North  America.  The  actual  extent  of  their  range  in  the  Old  World 
is  not  so  clearly  defined  as  could  be  wished.  There  is,  however,  ample 

evidence  that  this  range  originally 
extended  from  the  British  Islands 
in  the  west,  to  France,  and  perhaps 
Italy,  Spain,  and  Greece,  in  the 
south,  thence  eastward  to  Asia 
Minor,  and  possibly  Persia,  and  to 
the  north-eastward  as  far  as  the 
Yenesei  and  Lena  in  Siberia,  and 
thence  to  Amur,  Scandinavia,  and 
Hussia  ;  but  there  does  not  appear 
to  be  any  good  evidence  as  to  the 
eastern  limits  of  beavers  in  the 
direction  of  Northern  China,  al- 
though it  may  not  be  improbable 
that  in  this  region  these  animals 
only  inhabited  the  rivers  flowing  northwards  into  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the 
Arctic  Ocean.  On  the  Continent,  beavers  were  finally  exterminated  in  Holland 
in  1825.  In  France  a  number  of  names,  such  as  Bievre,  Beuvron,  and  Beu- 
vray,  or  Beuvry,  as  well  as  the  ancient  Bibrax  and  Bibracte,  point  to  the 
originally  wide  distribution  of  beavers.  Fossil  remains  of  these  animals  occur 
in  many  places,  such  as  Abbeville,  in  the  valley  of  the  Somme,  the  neigh- 
bourhoods of  Paris  and  Clermont,  and  the  cavern  of  Lunel-Viel,  in  Herault. 
The  Hhone  and  its  tributaries,  especially  the  Gardon  and  the  Cese,  appear  to 
have  been  the  great  stronghold  of  these  creatures  within  the  historic  period. 
Even,  however,  in  the  last  century  they  had  become  exceedingly  rare,  owing 
to  the  incessant  persecution  to  which  they  had  been  subjected.  Still,  they 
have  been  met  with  at  intervals  even  up  to  the  present  day.  Thus  Gervais 
records  the  capture  of  a  specimen  in  1846,  close  to  the  port  of  Avignon,  and 
mentions  having  seen  two  others  near  Aries.  The  floods  of  1840  doubtless 
led  to  the  destruction  of  a  considerable  number,  so  that  after  this  date  they 
were  much  more  rare  than  formerly.  The  circumstance  that  the  monks  of  a 
monastery  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhone  at  Villeneuve-les-Avignon  in- 
cluded beavers  among  their  plats  maigres,  indicates  that  in  earlier  days  they 
were  probably  abundant.  M.  St.  Hilaire,  in  the  Bulletin  de  la  Societe 
d*  Acclimatation  for  1888,  records  the  capture  of  three  specimens  during  that 
year  in  the  Rhone,  and  a  recent  writer  concludes  that  from  25  to  30  beavers 
are  still  annually  killed  in  that  river  and  its  tributaries.  There  does  not 
appear  to  be  evidence  that  these  animals  linger  in  any  other  of  the  French 
rivers. 

It  is  mentioned  in  some  of  the  old  writers  that  beavers  occur  rarely  in 
Italy,  Spain,  and  Greece,  but  ib  is  difficult  to  find  on  what  evidence  these 


MAMMALS  THA  T  GNA  W  97 


statements  rest  ;  but  since  remains  of  the  existing  species  are  found  in  the 
superficial  beds  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Rome,  there  is  a  considerable  likelihood 
that  its  alleged  occurrence  in  Italy  within  the  historic  period  may  be  based  on 
fact.  The  lake-cities  or  "  phalbauten  "  of  Switzerland  afford  evidence  of  the 
abundance  of  beavers  in  that  country  during  the  pre-historic  period,  and  in 
the  last  century  a  few  were  still  to  be  found  in  the  Aar,  Limmat,  Reuss,  and 
other  tributaries  of  the  Rhine.  That  some  lingered  on  into  the  present 
century  is  proved  by  a  specimen  from  the  Rhine  exhibited  in  the  Jardin  des 
Plantes  in  1829  ;  and  there  is  evidence  of  their  presence  in  the  early  part  of 
this  century  both  in  the  Rhine  and  the  Rhone  basins. 

In  Germany  fossil  remains  of  beavers  are  found  in  several  of  the  great 
caves,  more  especially  in  that  of  Gailenreuth  in  Franconia.  As  late  as  the 
closing  decades  of  the  last  and  the  early  ones  of  the  present  century,  colonies 
of  these  animals  were  abundant  on  many  of  the  German  rivers,  remnants  of 
which  still  exist  here  and  there  up  to  the  present  time.  In  North- Western 
Germany  the  Moselle  and  the  Maas  were  formerly  noted  habitats  of  these 
animals,  although  we  have  no  record  of  the  date  of  their  disappearance,  even 
if  this  has  yet  taken  place.  The  Lippe,  which,  like  the  Moselle,  is  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Rhine,  was  likewise  a  well-known  haunt.  Thus  at  Ketlinghausen, 
and  still  higher  up  the  river  afc  Padderbun,  beavers  were  abundant,  and 
formed  regular  colonies,  like  their  Canadian  cousins,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century,  and  it  is  probable  that  some  few  still  exist.  Proceeding 
northward  to  the  basin  of  the  Elbe,  the  account  by  Meyernick,  published  in 
1829,  of  a  colony  on  one  of  the  tributaries  of  this  river  near  Magdeburg,  is 
too  well  known  to  need  repetition.  Lower  down  the  river  at  Wittenberg, 
and  also  at  Kahnert,  they  were  also  comparatively  abundant  in  1801 ;  and  at 
the  former  locality  there  is  evidence  of  their  occurrence  in  1848,  and  again 
as  late  as  1878,  when  no  less  than  eight  individuals  were  observed  in  an  old 
river  channel.  Again  in  Bohemia,  the  valley  of  the  Moldau,  with  its  numer- 
ous affluents,  which  forms  the  upper  reaches  of  the  extensive  basin  drained 
by  the  Elbe,  abounded  in  beavers  up  to  the  year  1848,  since  which  date,  in 
spite  of  strict  precaution,  they  have  probably  been  greatly  reduced  in  num- 
bers. The  basin  of  the  Danube,  in  South-Eastern  Germany,  is,  however, 
probably  the  greatest  stronghold  of  German  beavers  at  the  present  time.  In 
1837  the  small  river  Amper,  a  tributary  of  the  Isar,  situated  some  distance 
to  the  north  of  Munich,  was  occupied  by  several  colonies,  which  were  pre- 
served as  a  valuable  commercial  property.  There  is  also  good  evidence  of 
the  existence  of  the  last-named  colonies,  as  well  as  of  others  on  the  Isar, 
Iller,  and  Salzach — tributaries  of  the  Danube — up  to  1846,  since  which  date 
I  have  been  unable  to  come  across  any  records  of  them. 

There  is  a  dearth  of  information  with  regard  to  the  presence  of  beavers 
lower  down  the  Danube  valley  in  Austria-Hungary  and  Turkey ;  but  it  is 
certain  that  they  did,  or  do  still,  exist  in  the  former  regions  ;  and  they  have 
also  been  recorded  from  the  Lower  Danube  on  well-authenticated  evidence. 
That  beavers  may  have  existed,  or  still  exist,  in  other  parts  of  European 
Turkey,  is  suggested  by  the  fact  of  their  appearance  in  Asia  Minor.  They 
have  been  recorded  in  the  upper  Euphrates  valley  by  Heifer  in  a  book 
published  in  1879  ;  while  Eichwald  long  since  mentioned  their  occurrence  in 
the  rivers  of  the  Caucasus;  and  Smarda  included  them  in  his  list  of  the 
Mammals  of  Mesopotamia.  Messrs.  Danford  and  Alston  observe  that  trust- 
worthy authorities  at  Kaisariyeh  (a  town  in  Rumelia,  on  the  Kizil  river, 
flowing  into  the  Black  Sea)  stated  "  that  in  the  marshes  between  that  place 
8 


98  MAMMALIA— ORDER   V.—RODENTIA. 


and  Sudjesu  there  existed  an  animal  like  an  otter,  but  which  had  a  broad, 
hairless  tail."  And  there  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  these  authors  are 
right  in  identifying  this  creature  with  the  beaver.  The  possible  eastward 
extension  of  the  beaver  into  Persia  is  suggested  by  Mr.  Blanford. 

From  the  Caucasus  the  ranger  of  the  beaver  may  be  traced  through  Russia, 
Poland,  and  Livonia,  to  Lapland,  and  thence  to  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula. 
Immediately  to  the  north  of  the  Caucasus,  Oken  recorded  their  abundance 
in  the  valley  of  the  Tereck  in  1842.  In  Central  Russia  there  is  no  definite 
evidence  of  their  occurrence,  but  in  the  Baltic  provinces  of  Livonia  the 
record  is  again  ample.  Many  places  in  this  district  take,  indeed,  their 
name  from  beavers,  and  about  the  middle  of  the  last  century  these  animals 
appear  to  have  had  populous  colonies  on  most  of  the  streams  of  the  country. 
In  1724,  so  common  were  they,  that  their  dams  were  a  serious  inconvenience 
to  the  district,  owing  to  the  floods  caused  by  them.  It  appears,  however, 
from  the  researches  of  Loewis,  that  beavers  are  now  completely  exterminated 
from  Livonia,  the  last  specimen  having  been  shot  in  1841.  In  i  889  the  exist- 
ence of  a  few  beavers  in  the  river  Svislotch,  Government  of  Minkv  and  also 
in  the  Dnieper,  was  recorded.  In  North  Russia  the  rivers  Dwina  and 
Petchora,  flowing  respectively  into  the  White  Sea  and  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
were  the  resorts  of  beavers  as  late  as  1842,  but  it  is  probable  that  they 
are  now  completely  extinct.  Passing  eastward  into  Silesia,  there  is  evidence 
of  the  former  wide  distribution  of  these  animals,  it  being  stated  that  they 
extended  as  far  as  Amur.  In  the  basin  of  the  Obi,  in  Western  Siberia,  they 
appear  to  be  extinct  in  the  valley  of  the  Irtsh,  where  they  "were  formerly 
abundant ;  but  at  least  up  to  1876  they  continued  to  be  found  in  the  small 
affluent  of  the  Obi  known  as  the  Pelyin.  Beavers  have  long  since  completely 
-disappeared  from  the  Yenesei,  in  Eastern  Siberia,  but  information  is  still 
required  with  regard  to  the  more  easterly  valley  of  the  Lena.  In  Poland 
and  Lithuania  beavers  may  still  linger  on  ;  but,  as  already  observed,  there  is 
a  want  of  evidence  as  to  the  limits  of  their  original  range  in  the  region  lying 
eastward  of  a  line  connecting  the  Baltic  with  the  Black  Sea.  Reverting  to 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  White  Sea,  and  pursuing  a  course  towards  the 
north-east,  it  appears  that  Lapland  lost  its  beavers  early  in  the  present 
century.  The  skull  of  the  last  specimen  known  to  have  been  killed  in 
these  regions  was  obtained  about  1830. 

In  Scandinavia,  although  beavers  were  widely  distributed  in  the  last  and 
early  part  of  the  present  century,  it  appears  that  they  have  now  totally  dis- 
appeared from  Sweden  but  still  exist  in  at  least  three  remote  spots  in 
Norway.  The  number  of  specimens  living  in  the  latter  country  in  1880  was 
estimated  at  not  more  than  60 ;  but  Collett  placed  their  number  at  about 
100,  and,  as  they  were  strictly  preserved,  he  did  nut  consider  that  they  were 
decreasing.  Completing  this  survey  of  the  range  of  the  European  beaver 
with  Denmark,  evidence  of  its  former  existence -is  found  in  the  shape 
of  skulls  and  bones  from  the  mosses  and  turbaries,  while  it  is  also  known 
to  have  lived  there  within  the  historic  period.  As  to  the  precise  date  of  its 
extermination,  there  appears  no  definite  record. 

With  regard  to  the  range  of  the  American  beaver,  few  words  will  suffice. 
It  may  be  observed,  in  the  first  place,  that,  although  some  writers  are  indis- 
posed to  regard  this  beaver  as  specifically  distinct  from  the  European  one  ; 
yet,  from  the  constant  difference  in  the  form  of  the  bones  of  the  nasal  region 
of  the  skull,  it  seems  to  be  a  valid  species,  the  proper  name  of  which  is  Castor 
canadensis.  The  earliest  epoch  of  its  occurrence  is  in  the  Pleistocene 


MAMMALS  THAT  GNAW.  99 


deposits  of  South  Carolina,  New  Jersey,  Tennessee,  and  other  localities,  as 
well  as  in  the  cavern-deposits  of  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania.  Within  the 
historic  period  its  range  extended  from  Alaska  and  the  Hudson  Bay  terri- 
tories in  the  north,  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard  as  far  south  as  Georgia  and 
Northern  Florida,  and  thence  along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  as  far  as  the  Rio 
Grande  in  Texas,  and  for  some  distance  into  Mexico  itself,  while  on  the 
Pacific  Coast  it  is  known  to  have  extended  as  far  south  as  California  and 
Arizona.  In  the  interior  of  the  continent  beavers  were  naturally  confined  to 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  great  lakes  and  river  valleys.  Writing  in  1877  of 
the  American  beaver,  Dr.  Allen  observes  that  "  its  present  range,  however, 
is  much  less  extended,  very  few  being  found  east  of  the  Mississippi  River 
south  of  the  great  lakes,  and  it  is  everywhere  less  numerous  than  formerly. 
Some  still  remain  in  Northern  Maine  and  in  the  Adirondack  region  of  New 
York,  and  probably  some  still  survive  thence  southward  in  the  sparsely 
settled  districts  to  Alabama  and  Mississippi.  A  recent  article  states  that 
they  are  still  abundant  in  portions  of  Virginia.  Their  existence  in  great 
abundance  throughout  the  Atlantic  States,  and  thence  westward  to  the 
Pacific,  is  thoroughly  attested.  They  having  been  less  persistently  hunted 
during  recent  years  than  formerly,  they  are  reported  to  be  slowly  on  the 
increase  in  most  localities  where  they  still  remain." 

The  dormice  are  the  first  representatives  of  the  second  section  of  the 
Rodents,  or  Myomorpha,  which  presents  the  following  characteristics.     In 
the  skull  the  zygomatic  arch  is  slender,  and  usually  has  the 
jugal  bone  extending  but  little  forwards,  being  supported  by    The  Dormouse 
a  long  backwardly  directed  process  of  the  upper  jaw-bone,    Tribe. —Family 
or  maxilla.     There  are  no  postorbital  processes  defining  the        Myoxidw. 
hinder  border  of  the  socket  of  the  eye  ;  and,  except  in  one 
sub-family  of  the  8palacidce,  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw  takes  origin  from  the 
inferior  surface  of  the  sheath  of  the  lower  incisor.     All  the  members  of  the 
section  differ  from  the  Sciuromorpha  in  that  the  tibia  and  fibula,  or  bones 
of  the  lower  leg,  are  welded  together. 

Resembling  the  true  squirrels  in  shape  and  habits,  the  dormice  form  an  Old 
World  family  of  small  arboreal  Rodents  characterised  by  their  long  hairy  tail, 
the  large  size  of  the  ears  and  eyes,  and  the  shortness  of  the  fore-limbs. 
There  is  but  one  pair  of  premolars  in  each  jaw,  and  the  molars  are  rooted 
with  transverse  re-entering  foldings  of  enamel  on  their  crowns.  The  dormice 
may  be  divided  into  two  main  groups,  according  to  the  structure  of  the 
stomach.  In  Myoxus,  as  typified  by  M.  glis  of  continental  Europe,  the 
stomach  is  simple,  but  the  different  species,  which  have  been  arranged  under 
several  generic  heads,  differ  considerably  in  other  respects.  In  the  typical 
species  the  bushy  tail  has  the  hairs  arranged  in  a  row  on  each  side,  while  the 
molars  are  large,  with  flat  crowns  and  complex  enamel-foldings.  In  a  second 
group  (Eliomys),  typified  by  the  European  M.  nitella,  and  extending  over 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  the  tail  has  the  hairs  arranged  in  two  rows,  but  is 
tufted  at  the  end,  while  the  molars  are  small,  with  concave  crowns,  and  the 
folds  of  enamel  indistinct.  The  third  group  of  the  genus  (Graphiurus)  is 
solely  African,  and  is  distinguished  by  the  tail  being  short,  cylindrical,  and 
tufted,  while  the  enamel-foldings  on  the  small  molars  are  almost  wanting.  A 
West  African  form  (Claviglis)  differs  by  the  shorter  and  more  distinctly  tufted 
tail.  On  the  other  hand,  the  common  dormouse  of  England  and  the  rest  of 
Europe  (Muscardinus  avellanarius')  differs  from  all  the  foregoing  in  the 
thickened  glandular  walls  of  the  anterior  portion  of  the  stomach  ;  the 


zoo  •  MAMMALIA— ORDER   V.—RODENTIA. 


molars  having  flat  crowns,  with  complicated  foldings  of  enamel,  and  the 
somewhat  bushy  tail  being  cylindrical.  The  more  northern  repre- 
sentatives of  the  family  take  their  name  from  the  long  winter  torpor  they 
undergo. 

From  the  Myoxidce,  the  very  extensive  and  cosmopolitan  family  of  the 
Muridce,  which  includes  rats,  mice,  and  voles,  may  be  distinguished  by  the 

total  absence  of  premolar  teeth  in  both  jaws.     The  group  is, 

The  Mouse  Tribe,  however,  better  characterised  by  the  structure  of  the  skull, 

— Family  Muri-    in  which  the  frontal  bones  are  markedly  constricted,  while 

dee.  in  the  zygomatic  arch  the  short  and  slender  jugal  bone  is  in 

most  cases  reduced  to  a  small  splint  connecting  a  back- 
wardly-directed  process  from  the  upper  jaw-bone,  or  maxilla,  with  a  forward 
projection  from  the  Bquamosal  bone  at  the  hinder  end  of  the  skull.  Still 
more  characteristic  is  the  expansion  of  the  lower  part  of  the  first-named  pro- 
cess into  a  large,  flattened  descending  plate  ;  and  in  most  cases  the  large 
aperture  in  the  skull  for  the  passage  of  nerves  situated  beneath  the  anterior 
root  of  the  zygomatic  arch  is  elevated,  and  much  wider  above  than  below. 
The  first  toe  of  the  fore-foot  is  rudimental,  and  in  most  cases  naked  and 
scaly.  This  family,  which  includes  more  than  a  third  of  the  members  of  the 
entire  order,  is  the  only  one  among  the  Rodents  represented  either  in 
Madagascar  or  in  Australia.  Although  a  few  species  are  aquatic,  and  some 
arboreal,  the  great  majority  of  the  Muridce  are  terrestrial,  a  considerable 
number  of  them  living  in  burrows.  Some  fifty  genera  have  been  described. 

The  first  sub-family  is  confined  to  Australia,  New  Guinea,  and  the  island 
of  Luzon,  in  the  Philippines,  where  it  is  represented  by  three  genera.     In 

this  group  the  molars,  which  are  frequently  reduced  to  two 

The  Australasian  pairs   in   each   jaw,  develop  roots,  and  have  their  crowns 

Group. —        divided  into  alternating  oblique  lobes,  partially  splitting  up 

Sub-Family       into  tubercles.     In  the  typical  genus  Hydromya,  of  Australia 

HydromyincE*     and  New  Guinea,  the  molars  are  J:wo  in  number,  and  the 

external  form  is  modified  for  the  needs  of  an  aquatic  exist- 
ence, the  feet  being  webbed,  the  tip  of  the  muzzle  thickly  clothed  with  hairs, 
by  means  of  which  the  nostrils  can  be  clothed  ;  while  the  skull  differs  from 
that  of  other  members  of  the  family  in  that  the  aperture  beneath  the  socket 
of  the  eye  is  nearly  circular,  instead  of  pear-shaped,  and  the  descending 
vertical  plate  at  the  front  of  the  zygomatic  arch  is  absent.  In  habits  the  two 
species  of  this  genus  resemble  water-voles.  The  genus  Chrotomys,  of  which 
there  is  one  species  from  Luzon,  differs  from  the  other  two  in  having  three 
pairs  of  molars  ;  its  skull  being  intermediate  between  that  of  the  first  and 
third  genus,  and  its  external  form  mouse-like,  the  toes  being  devoid  of  webs, 
In  JTeromi/s,  which  occurs  typically  in  Australia,  but  is  taken  to  include  a  rat 
from  Luzon,  the  molars  resemble  those  of  Hydromys  in  structure  and  number, 
l;ut  the  skull  and  external  form  are  nearly  similar  to  those  of  an  ordinary 
mouse.  _  In  size  this  species  is  not  larger  than  the  common  mouse,  whereas 
the  other  members  of  the  group  are  much  bigger. 

The  second  sub-family  is  represented  only  by  the  beautiful  little  Malabar 

spiny  mouse  (Platacanthomys  lasiurus)  of  Southern  India, 
Malabar  Spiny  which  is  an  arboreal  form  easily  distinguished  by  the  long 
Mouse  (Plata-  bushy  tail,  which  exceeds  the  head  and  body  in  length,  and 
canthomyince).  also  by  the  presence  of  flattened  spines  mingled  with  the 

hairs.     The  rooted  molars  have  their  crowns  divided  into 

complete  transverse  laminse. 


MAMMALS  THAT  GNAW.  101 


The  beautiful  little  large-eyed  marines,  known  as  gerbils,  typify  a  third 
sub-family,  characterised  by  the  narrowness  of  the  incisors,  the  sub-division 
i>t  the  crowns  of  the  molars  into  transverse  laminee,  the 
generally  large  size  of  the  auditory  bulla  of  the  skull,  and        The  Gerbil 
the  elongation  of  the  hind-limbs.     From  the  other  genera,  Group 

the  gerbils  (Gerbillus),  which  range  over  Southern  Europe,  (Gerbillince). 
Asia,  and  Africa,  are  distinguished  by  the  deeply  grooved 
upper  incisors,  and  the  circumstance  that  the  first  molar  has  one,  the  second 
two,  and  the  third  three  transverse  laminae  ;  the  long  tail  being  tufted  at  the 
tip  Gerbils  are  inhabitants  of  desert  districts,  where  they  burrow  in  tho 
sandy  soil.  Some  writers  separate  certain  species  as  Merioncs.  The  short 
and  club-like  form  of  the  fleshy  tail,  as  well  as  the  very  large  size  of  tho 
auditory  bulla  of  the  skull,  serve  to  distinguish  the  African  genus  Pachy- 
uromys,  in  which  the  narrow  incisors  are  faintly  grooved.  Three  other  small 
genera  from  Africa,  namely,  Mystromys,  Otomys,  and  Dasymys,  differ  from 
the  gerbils  and  from  one  another  in  the  structure  of  the  molars  ;  they  are  all 
typically  South  African,  but  the  second  has  also  been  recorded  from  East 
Africa  and  the  Congo.  A  fifth  genus  (Malacomys),  represented  by  a  single 
species  from  the  Gabun,  connects  the  gerbils  with  the  rats,  having  the  teeth 
and  limbs  of  the  former,  but  the  long  scaly  tail  of  the  latter. 

Two  genera  of  very  large   long-haired  rats  from  the  Philippine  islands 
represent  a  sub-family  in  which  the  incisors  are  very  broad,  the  molars  divided 
into  transverse  laminre,  and  the  claws  large.     In  Phlceomys, 
of  which  there  is  but  a  single  well-defined  species,  the  ears    The  Philippine 
are  small  and  hairy,  the  tail  moderate  and  sparsely  haired,      Rats  (Phlceo- 
and  the  auditory  bulla  very  small ;  the  first  molar  having         myince). 
three,    and   the  others    two  laminae.      The   second  genus 
(Crateromys)  includes  one  very  large  greyish  species  from  Luzon,  which  may  bo 
compared  in  size  to  a  small  marmot,  and  has  a  totally  different  type  of  molars. 

This  group,  which  is  confined  to  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara,  is  typified  by 
the  two  species  of  Dendromys,  and  is  characterised  by  the  convexity  of  the 
incisors,  the  rooted  and  tuberculated  molars,  hairy  ears,  and 
long  claws.     The  members  of  the  typical  genus  have  tho    The  Tree-Mice 
habits  of  dormice  &  slender  build,  grooved  incisors,  and  a    (Dtndromyince.) 
long,  scaly,  thinly-haired  tail.     Steatomys  also  has  grooved 
incisors,  but  of  stouter  form,  and  a  rather  short,  thickly-haired  tail  ;  while 
Lophuromys  differs  by  its  smooth  incisors,  and  the  fine  flattened   bristles 
which  replace  the  hair.    ^The  fourth  genus  is  Limacomys. 

The  large,  generalised,  and  almost  cosmopolitan  group  of  the  cricetine 
Muridcs  is  characterised  by  the  rooted  upper  molars  carrying  two  longitudinal 
rows  of  tubercles.     It  is  typified  by  the  hamsters  (Cricetus) 
of  the  Old  World,  which  are  confined  to  Europe  and  Asia,    Cricetine  Group 
arid  are  characterised  by  having  six  tubercles  on  the  first       (Cricetince}. ' 
upper  molar,  large  cheek  pouches,  and  a   very  short  tail. 
The  true  hamster  (C.  frumentarius)  is  a  burrowing  species,  well  known  on  the 
Continent  from  the  large  amount  of  food  it  accumulates  in  its  subterranean 
dwelling.     The  white-footed  mice  (Sitomys)  of  the  New  World  form  a  very 
large,  closely  allied  group,  in  which  cheek  pouches  may  be  present  or  absent. 
They  are  divided  into  a  number  of  sub-genera,  according  to  habits,  bodily 
form,  dentition,  etc.,  which  have  been  named  Rhipidomys,  Oryzomys,  Calomys, 
Vesperimus,    Onychomys,  Scapteromys,  Phyllotis,  Acodon,  and  Oxymycterus. 
S.  hydrobates  is  peculiar  oil  account  of  its  fringed  feet  and  aquatic  habits  j 


102  MAMMALIA— ORDER   V.—RODENTIA. 


while  another  species  has  spines  mingled  with  the  fur.  The  Brazilian  genus 
Holochilus,  which  includes  the  largest  American  rats,  differs  by  the  relatively 
larger  last  upper  molar  and  the  stouter  skull.  Another  allied  type  are  the  fish- 
eating  rats  (Ichtkyomys)  of  South  America,  characterised  by  the  webbed  and 
fringed  hind-feet,  and  their  aquatic  and  probably  fish-eating  habits,  while 
Nectomys  is  another  allied  Peruvian  form.  The  rice-rat  (Siymodon  hispidus), 
ranging  from  the  United  States  to  Ecuador, -differs  markedly  iromSitomys  in 
the  pattern  of  the  tubercles  on  the  molar  teeth.  Writing  of  these  rats, 
Mr.  G.  Lincecum,  in  the  American  Naturalist  for  1872,  states  that  they 
dwell  together  on  the  prairies  of  Texas  in  families  in  much  the  same  manner 
as  the  prairie-marmot.  '*  They  prefer  light  sandy  soil  on  the  prairie,  where 
the  shivered  limy  sandstone  crops  out ;  but  where  the  prairie  is  enclosed  and 
cultivated  they  take  possession  of  the  fencing,  and  burrowing  under  the 
bottom  rail,  excavate  sufficient  cells,  and  construct  their  copious  grassy  beds 
there.  Out  on  the  prairie,  in  the  wild  state,  they  make  one  principal  burrow, 
in  front  of  which  they  pile  up  the  earth  that  comes  from  all  their  subter- 
ranean galleries.  They  rarely  extend  their  main  burrow  more  than  eight  or 
nine  inches  in  depth,  while  their  underground  passages  are  seldom  more 
than  four  or  five  inches  below  the  surface.  They  also  construct  several 
secret  outlets,  opening  10  or  12  inches  from  the  main  hole,  which  opening 
they  very  ingeniously  conceal  by  strewing  a  few  grass  blades  over  it ;  and  so, 
when  the  rat-hunter  attacks  the  citadel,  the  inmates  escape  through  some  of 
the  concealed  passages.  Eight  or  nine  inches  deep,  and  turned  a  little  to  one 
side  in  the  main  hole,  is  a  cavity,  seven  or  eight  inches  in  diameter,  filled 
with  fine,  soft  grass  blades,  which  must  be  quite  warm  and  pleasant,  serving 
the  family  for  winter-quarters.  During  the  hot  months  they  construct  nice 
grass  beds  in  a  basin-like  cavity,  which  they  dig  out  under  the  sides  of  tufts 
of  grass,  or  heaps  of  bush."  From  all  the  above  the  South  American  genus 
Rhithrodon,  with  five  rat-like  species,  and  the  North  American  Rhithrodont- 
omysj  containing  three  species  of  the  size  of  large  mice,  differ  in  their 
grooved  upper  incisors.  Another  well-marked  type  of  the  group  is  pre- 
sented by  the  North  American  wood-rats  (Neotoma),  in  which  the  molars 
simulate  the  prismatic  pattern  characteristic  of  the  voles.  Certain  species  in 
which  the  tail  is  very  bushy  have  been  separated  generically  as  Teonoma ; 
while  N.  alleni  has  been  referred  to  a  distinct  genus  under  the  name  of 
Hodomys.  The  next  five  genera  of  cricetines  are  confined  to  the  island  of 
Madagascar,  where  they  are  the  sole  representatives  of  the  Rodent  order.  Of 
these,  Hypogeomys  is  a  large  fawn-coloured  rat,  with  large  ears  and  feet  and 
a  long  tail ;  Nesomys  includes  two  long-haired  rufous  species ;  Brachytarsomys 
contains  a  single  rat  with  velvety  fawn-coloured  fur,  short  feet,  and  a  long  tail  ; 
the  single  species  of  Hallomys  differs  from  Nesomys  by  the  much  longer  hind 
feet ;  while  the  two  dormouse-like  representatives  of  Miurus  are  easily  recog- 
nised by  the  short  and  nearly  naked  ears,  and  by  the  long  tail  being  bushy, 
except  on  its  basal  third,  where  it  is  scaly.  The  last  representative  of  the  sub- 
family is  the  crested  rat  (Lophiomys  imhausi)  of  North-Eastern  Africa,  so 
named  on  account  of  the  crest  of  long  hair  running  along  the  back.  This  very 
large  rat,  which  is  arboreal  in  its  habits,  differs  from  all  other  members  of  the 
family  in  the  first  toe  of  the  fore-foot  being  opposable,  the  rudimental  collar- 
bones, and  by  the  bony  roof  covering  the  muscles  of  the  hinder  part  of  the 
skull.  All  the  hair  is  long,  the  long  tail  bushy,  and  the  colour  black  and 
white.  The  animal  has  quite  unnecessarily  been  made  the  type  of  a  distinct 
family. 


MAMMALS  THAT  GNAW.  103 

Closely  allied  to  the  cricetines,  of  which  they  may  be  regarded  as  a 
specialised  branch,  the  large  group  of  voles  are  distinguished  by  their  gener- 
ally rootless,  or  imperfectly  rooted  molars  being  composed 
of  two  longitudinal  rows  of  alternating  triangular  prisms.  The  Vole  Group 
Externally  they  differ  in  most  cases  from  the  typical  rats  (M'icrotinct'). 
and  mice  by  their  heavier  and  less  elegant  form,  less  active 
movements,  smaller  eyes,  blunter  muzzle,  smaller  ears,  and  shorter  limbs  and 
tail.  They  are  restricted  to  Europe,  Asia  north  of  the  Himalaya,  and  North 
America.  An  annectant  form  between  the  cricetines  and  typical  voles  is  the 
North  American  genus  Phenacomys,  in  which  the  molars  develop  roots.  The 
typical  genus  Microtus,  which  includes  nearly  half  a  hundred  species  ranging 
over  Europe,  Northern  Asia,  and  North  America,  is  sufficiently  characterised 
by  its  rootless  molars  and  the  naked  soles  of  the  feet ;  the  British  forms  being 
the  water-vole  (M.  amphibius),  the  field-vole  (M.  agrestis),  and  the  red,  or 
bank-vole  (M,  glareolus).  Each  of  these  is  the  representative  of  a  distinct 
sub-generic  group,  severally  characterised  by  the  number  of  prisms  in  the 
molar  teeth,  and  to  which  the  names  Pal-udicoia,  Agricola,  and  Evotomys  have 
respectively  been  applied,  The  extraordinary  hordes  in  which  some  species 
of  land  voles  make  their  appearance  ab  certain  seasons,  and  the  damage  they 
then  inflict  on  agricultural  produce,  arc  matters  of  common  knowledge.  The 
round  tailed  musk-rat  of  Florida,  which  has  been  regarded  as  constituting  a 
genus  (Neofiber)  by  itself,  is  considered  by  Dr.  Merriam  to  be  not  more  than 
a  sub-genus  of  Microtus.  Nearly  allied  13  the  true  musk-rat,  or  musquash 
(Fiber  zibethicus),  of  North  America,  which  is  the  largest  member  of  the 
group,  and  measures  nearly  a  foot  in  length  to  the  root  of  the  tail.  Heavily 
built,  it  is  characterised  by  its  broad  head — which  joins  the  body  without  any 
well-defined  neck, — short  limbs,  small  eyes,  ears  nearly  concealed  in  the  thick, 
beaver-like  fur,  and  the  ruclimental  first  toe  of  the  fore- foot :  the  Jong  tail 
being  laterally  compressed,  scaly,  and  sparsely  haired,  The  general  colour  is 
dark  brown,  tending  to  black  on  the  back,  arid  grey  on  the  under- parts. 
Both  sexes  have  a  gland  secreting  the  musky  substance  from  which  the  animal 
derives  its  name.  Although  its  toes  are  nob  webbed,  the  musk-rat  is  an 
aquatic  creature,  feeding  on  a  mixed  vegetable  and  animal  diet,  Its  fur  is  of 
considerable  value  ;  and  the  skull  is  very  similar  to  that  of  Microtus.  Another 
distinct  generic  type  is  presented  by  the  groove-toothed  vole  (Synapiomys)  of 
the  United  States,  in  which  the  upper  incisors  are  grooved,  while  the  external 
form  resembles  that  of  the  true  voles,  and  the  molars  are  like  those  of  the 
lemmings;  The  latter  Rodents  (Myodes\  of  which  there  is  one  Old  World 
and  one  North  American  species,  differ  from  the  voles  by  their  heavier 
build,  the  blunt  convex  head,  very  short  tail  and  ears,  the  hairy  soles  of 
the  small  feet,  the  bevelled  upper  incisors,  and  the  pattern  of  the  molar 
teeth. 

The  common  lemming  (M.  lemmus),  which  measures  about  five  inches  in 
length,  and  has  yellowish-brown  fur  with  darker  spots,  is  remarkable  for  the 
periodical  migrations  undertaken  by  its  countless  swarms  ;  these  hordes  pass- 
ing over  every  obstacle  in  their  course  till  they  finally  reach  the  sea,  in 
which  they  perish.  Nearly  allied  to  the  last  genus,  the  circumpolar 
banded  lemming  (Cuniculus  torquatus)  may  be  easily  distinguished  by  the 
absence  of  external  ears,  the  shortness  of  the  feet,  which  are  thickly 
haired  beneath,  the  rudimental  first  toe  of  the  fore-foot,  and  the  great 
length  of  the  claws  of  the  third  and  fourth  toes  of  the  same.  The  molars 
approximate  to  those  of  the  voles,  but  the  first  in  the  upper  jaw  difiers 


104  MAMMALIA— ORDER   V.—RODENTIA. 


from  that  of  all  the  other  members  of  the  sub-family  in  having  seven 
prisms. 

Although  frequently  regarded  as  representing  a  sub-family  by  themselves, 
the  mole-voles,  of  which  there  are  two  genera,  may  be  considered  merely  as 
voles  specially  adapted  for  a  subterranean  existence  ;  the  limbs  and  tail  being 
very  short,  and  the  body  somewhat  mole-like,  while  the  eyes  are  small.  In 
the  genus  Mlobius,  with  one  species  from  Russia,  and  a  second  from  Afghan- 
istan, the  claws  are  short,  whereas  in  Siphneus,  of  which  there  are  several 
representatives  from  Central  and  Northern  Asia,  those  of  the  fore-feet  are 
enormously  powerful. 

In  the  typical  rats  and  mice  and  their  allies,  forming  the  murine  group  of 
the  family,  the  molars  are  rooted  and  tuberculated,  with  three  rows  of 
tubercles  on  at  least  the  anterior  ridge  of  the  first  one  in  the 
Typical  Group  upper  jaw.  Indeed,  with  one  exception,  there  are  three  longi- 
(Murince).  tudinal  rows  of  tubercles  on  all  the  upper  molars  ;  while,  save 
in  one  genus,  there  are  two  such  rows  in  the  corresponding 
lower  teeth.  The  whole  group  is  restricted  to  the  Old  World,  being  re- 
presented in  Australia  and  New  Guinea,  but  unknown  in  Madagascar.  The 
great  majority  of  forms  are  very  similar  in  external  appearance,  their  build 
being  light,  their  eyes  large  and  bright,  their  tails  long  and  scaly,  their 
movements  active,  their  coloration  sombre,  and  their  habits  generally 
burrowing  and  nocturnal. 

The  least  specialised  member  of  the  family  is  a  small  mouse  from  the 
Congo  Valley,  known  as  Deomys,  which  differs  from  all  the  others  in  that  only 
the  first  ridge  of  the  anterior  upper  molar  has  three  rows  of  tubercles,  the 
other  two  ridges  of  this  tooth  and  all  those  of  the  other  molars  having  but 
two  such  rows,  as  in  the  cricetines.  On  the  other  hand,  Berdmore's  rat 
(Hapalomys  berdmorei\  from  Burma,  appears  to  be  the  most  specialised  of 
all,  the  lower  as  well  as  the  upper  molars  having  three  longitudinal  rows  of 
tubercles.  Another  peculiar  genus  (Vandeleuria)  is  represented  by  a  species 
extending  from  India  to  Yunnan,  and  characterised  by  having  flat  nails  on 
the  first  and  fifth  digits  of  both  feet,  as  well  as  by  the  great  length  of  the  tail. 
North-Eastern  India  and  some  of  the  countries  to  the  east  of  the  Bay  of 
Bengal  are  the  home  of  the  pencil-tailed  tree-mouse  (Chiropodomys),  dis- 
tinguished by  having  flat  nails  on  the  first  digit  of  both  feet,  whereas  all 
other  members  of  the  family,  except  one  species  of  Mus,  have  a  flat  nail  only 
on  the  first  to'e  of  the  fore-foot.  The  next  for  notice  are  three  genera  re- 
stricted to  the  mountains  of  Luzon,  in  the  Philippine  group,  two  being 
represented  only  by  a  single  species.  By  far  the  most  remarkable  of  these 
is  the  shrew-rat  (Rhynchomys),  distinguished  by  the  shrew-like  prolongation  of 
the  muzzle,  the  short  and  feeble  incisors,  and  the  reduction  of  the  molars, 
which  are  very  small,  to  two  pairs  in  each  jaw.  Not  improbably  this  species, 
which  is  of  the  size  of  the  black  rat,  and  of  a  uniform  olive-grey  coloration, 
subsists  on  insects  or  larvse,  as  the  incisors  appear  too  weak  for  gnawing. 
The  second  genus,  Carpomys,  is  represented  by  two  somewhat  dormouse-like 
rats,  with  thick,  woolly  fur,  and  the  long  tail  well  haired  ;  while  the  single 
species  of  Batomys  differs  by  the  hind-feet  being  wider  and  shorter,  and  the 
fore-feet  more  elongated. 

The  true  rats  and  mice  constitute  a  genus  (Mus)  having  a  distribution  co- 
extensive with  that  of  the  sub-family,  and  including  nearly  150  species.  In 
these  Rodents  the  incisors  are  narrow  and  smooth,  the  molars  of  the  typical 
murine  structure,  the  foramina  at  the  anterior  end  of  the  bony  palate 


MAMMALS  THAT  GNAW.  105 

elongated,  both  the  eyes  and  ears  large,  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle  naked, 
the  fur  soft,  occasionally  mixed  with  spines,  a  flat  nail  on  the  first  toe  of  the 
fore-foot,  the  long  and  nearly  naked  tail  covered  with  overlapping  rings  of 
scales,  and  cheek  pouches  absent.  The  species  found  in  Britain  are  the 
common  rat  (M.  decumanus),  which  appears  to  have  been  originally  a  native 
of  Western  China,  but  has  now  been  introduced  into  all  parts  of  the  habitable 
globe  ;  the  smaller  and  sharper-nosed  black  rat  (M.  rattus),  which  is  likewise 
an  Eastern  form  ;  the  conxmon  house -mouse  (M.  tnusculus),  also  hailing  from 
the  East  ;  the  wood-mouse  (M.  sylvaticus),  together  with  a  larger  variety 
known  as  M.  flavicollis ;  and  the  tiny  harvest-mouse  (M.  minutus).  The 
latter,  it  is  well  known,  builds  small  globular  nests  between  several  corn- 
stalks, and  is  itself  able  to  ascend  a  single  one  of  such  stalks,  aided  in 
climbing  by  its  partially  prehensile  tail.  It  will  be  unnecessary  here  to  refer 
to  the  habits  of  mice  in  general,  but  some  reference  may  be  made  to  the  so- 
called  "singing"  and  "waltzing  mice."  Singing  mice  are  ordinary  house- 
mice,  which,  owing  to  some  disease  of  the  vocal  organs,  are  enabled  to  pro- 
duce musical  notes.  Waltzing  mice  are  a  Japanese  product,  of  which  the 
following  account  is  given  by  Mr.  E.  R.  Waite  : — "At  first,"  he  writes,  "  a 
visitor  probably  regards  the  mice  as  mere  colour  varieties  of  the  common 
white  race.  A  moment's  observation  reveals  the  peculiarities  of  the  breed, 
and  attention  is  riveted  by  their  strange  performances.  Early  in  life  they 
exhibit  the  tendency  which  has  earned  for  them  the  name  above  employed. 
When  a  nursling  leaves  the  nest  its  gait  consists  of  an  evident  attempt  to 
proceed  in  a  straight  line  ;  this  is  frustrated  by  a  tremulous  movement  of  the 
head,  which  is  nervously  shaken  from  side  to  side.  Shortly,  a  tendency  is 
exhibited  to  turn  ;  this  develops  into  a  rotatory  motion,  performed  with 
extraordinary  rapidity,  which  constitutes  the  peculiarity  of  the  waltzing 
mouse.  The  ordinary  routine  of  daily  life  is  constantly  interrupted  by  this 
mad  disposition  to  whirl,  frequently  indulged  in  for  several  minutes,  and, 
with  an  occasional  stoppage  of  a  few  seconds,  continued  for  hours.  The  floor 
of  one  cage  being  somewhat  rough,  the  mice  actually  reduced  their  feet  to 
stumps  before  it  was  noticed.  Like  ordinary  mice,  they  sleep  during  the 
day,  'but  apparently  waltz  the  whole  night  long.  If,  however,  they  are  dis- 
turbed during  daylight,  they  leave  their  bed  and  work  off  some  superfluous 
energy.  The  rotation  is  so  rapid  that  all  individuality  of  head  and  tail  is  lost 
to  the  eye,  only  a  confused  ball  of  black  and  white  being  recognised.  Very 
often  they  spin  in  couples,  revolving  head  to  tail  at  such  a  speed  that  an  un- 
broken ring  only  is  perceived.  .  .  .  An  individual  generally  spins  in  one 
direction  only,  and  the  majority  turn  to  the  left."  Although  probably  due 
in  the  first  instance  to  brain-disease,  the  peculiarity,  like  the  "  tumbling  "  of 
tumbler-pigeons,  is  now  hereditary  in  the  breed. 

The  longitudinally-striped  Barbary  mouse  (M.  larbarus\  together  with 
certain  other  more  or  less  variegated  African  species,  are  frequently  separated 
from  Mus  as  a  distinct  genus,  under  the  name  of  Arvicanthis.  Nearly  allied 
are  the  numerous  species  of  bandicoot-rats  (Nesocia\  ranging  in  Southern  Asia 
from  Palestine  to  Formosa,  and  from  Ceylon  to  Kashmir,  but  also  extending 
into  Turkestan  and  the  Lob-nor  district  of  Central  Asia.  They  differ  from 
the  typical  genus  by  the  wider  incisors  and  molars  ;  the  tubercles  on  the 
latter  being  partially  connected  by  transverse  ridges  so  as  to  produce  a  semi- 
laminated  type  of  structure.  The  two  species  of  groove-toothed  mice 
(Golunda),  one  of  which  is  Indian  and  the  other  African,  are  easily  dis- 
tinguished by  having  a  groove  down  each  of  the  front  incisors.  In  addition 


ie6  MAMMALIA— ORDER   V.—RODEXTIA. 


to  having  a  species  of  M us,  Australasia  is  the  home  of  four  peculiar  genera  of 
the  sub-family.  Of  these,  the  mosaic-tailed  mice  (Uromys),  ranging  from  the 
Aru  Islands  to  Queensland,  may  be  distinguished  from  Mus  by  the  scales  on 
the  tail  being  united  by  their  edges  so  as  to  form  a  mosaic-like  pavement, 
instead  of  overlapping.  The  prehensile-tailed  mouse  (Chiruromys),  of  which 
there  is  but  a  single  species  inhabiting  the  mountains  of  New  Guinea,  is 
characterised  by  the  naked  tip  of  the  tail  being  endowed  with  prehensile 
power  ;  the  scales  of  the  rest  of  the  tail  being  arranged  in  diagonal  rows. 
The  upper  molars  have  their  tubercles  very  numerous,  and  arranged  in  a 
complex  manner  ;  while  there  are  several  peculiarities  connected  with  the 
structure  of  the  skull.  The  numerous  Australian  species  of  jerboa-rats 
(Conilurus)  are  easily  recognised  by  their  elongated  hind-limbs,  and  long  ears 
and  tail.  They  are  inhabitants  of  desert  districts,  where  they  hop  after  the 
manner  of  jerboas.  The  fifth  genus  (Mastacomys)  is  known  only  by  a  single 
Tasmanian  species,  and  differs  from  Mus  by  the  great  width  of  the  molars, 
and  the  reduction  of  the  number  of  teats  to  four  ;  the  fur  being  noticeable 
for  its  length  and  softness.  Differing  remarkably  as  regards  the  latter  feature, 
the  spiny-mice  (Acomys],  of  which  there  are  about  seven  small-sized  species, 
take  their  name  from  the  fur  being  almost  entirely  replaced  by  flattened 
spines,  The  skull  and  dentition  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the  type  genus,  but 
the  ascending  process  of  each  branch  of  the  lower  jaw  is  much  smaller. 
These  mice  range  from  Syria  through  East  Africa  as  far  south  as  Mosambique, 
generally  frequenting  deserts,  where  some,  at  least,  feed  on  bulbs.  The  long- 
nosed  rat  (Echinothrix)  of  Celebes  takes  its  name  from  the  elongation  of  the 
face,  and  is  further  characterised  by  the  faint  grooving  of  the  incisors,  and 
the  thick  admixture  of  spines  among  the  fur.  The  small  blind-mouse  (Typh- 
lomys)  of  China  is  sufficiently  characterised  by  the  minute  size  of  the  eyest 
which  are  almost  concealed  by  the  long  lashes.  Except  that  it  has  smaller 
ears,  it  is  otherwise  very  similar  in  appearance  to  a  house-mouse.  The 
African  pouched  rats  (Cricetnmys  and  Saccostomus)  differ  from  all  the  other 
members  of  the  sub-family  in  being  provided  with  cheek  pouches,  the  single 
West  African  species  of  the  former  having  grooved  upper  incisors,  while  in 
the  two  representatives  of  the  latter  these  teeth  are  plain.  The  last  member 
of  the  family  is  a  mouse  from  Sumatra  and  Java,  described  as  Pithechirus,  and 
presenting  a  considerable  external  resemblance  to  Chiropodomys. 

The  mole-rats  constitute  a  small  family  confined  to  the  Old  World  and 
characterised  by  their  generally  mole-like   build,  cylindrical  bodies,  short 

limbs,  furnished  with  large  claws,  small  or  rudimental  eyes 

The  Mole-Kats.    and  ears,  usually  short  or  rudimentary  tail,  large  incisors, 

— Family         and  rooted  molars  with  re-entering  enamel-folds  on  their 

Spalacidce.        orowns.      Premolars,    varying  in  number,  are  present  in 

some  forms  but  wanting  in  others  ;  the  palate  is  narrow  ; 
and  the  anterior  part  of  the  zygomatic  arch  of  the  skull  lacks  the  descending 
vertical  plate  so  characteristic  of  the  Muridcp,.  The  great  mole-rat  (Spalax 
typhlus)  of  South-Eastern  Europe,  South- Western  Asia,  and  North-Eastern 
Africa,  which  is  the  sole  member  of  its  genus,  is  the  type  of  a  sub-family 
characterised  by  the  angular  portion  of  the  lower  jaw  arising  from  the  lower 
part  of  the  sheath  of  the  incisor  in  the  manner  characteristic  of  the 
Myomorpha  generally  ;  and  also  by  the  absence  of  premo^rs.  It  is  a  sub- 
terranean animal,  driving  tunnels  in  the  earth  in  search  of  the  bulbs  which 
form  its  food,  and  has  the  eyes  completely  covered  by  skin,  and  rudimental 
ears  and  tail.  In  the  nearly  allied  bamboo-rats  (Rhizomys),  of  which  there 


MAMMALS  THAT  GNAW.  107 


are  several  species  from  the  Oriental  countries,  Tibet,  and  Abyssinia,  the 
minute  eyes  are  open  ;  there  are  small  naked  external  ears,  and  the  short 
tail  is  partially  covered  with  hair.  The  other 
four  genera,  all  of  which  are  confined  to 
Africa  south  of  the  Sahara,  differ  from  other 
Myomorpha,  and  thereby  resemble  the  under- 
mentioned Hystricomorpha,  in  that  the  angle 
of  the  lower  jaw  arises  from  the  side  of  the 
sheath  of  the  incisor.  Of  these,  the  great 
sand-mole  (Bathyergus  maritimus)  of  the 
Cape,  which  attains  a  length  of  10  inches,  has 
grooved  upper  incisors,  a  single  pair  of  pre- 
molar  teeth  in  each  jaw,  no  external  ears, 
and  extremely  powerful  claws.  In  the  allied  Georychus  and  Myoscalops  the 
incisors  are  smooth;  the  members  of  the  former  genus  usually  have  a  single 
pair  of  premolars,  and  the  single  species  of  the  latter  three  pairs  of  these 
teeth  in  both  jaws,  while  the  second  toe  of  the  hind-foot  is  the  longest.  In 
both,  the  first  pair  of  premolars  may  be  absent.  The  curious  little  naked 
sand-rats  (Heterocephalus),  of  which  the  two  species  are  confined  to  Somali- 
land,  are  degraded  forms,  with  no  premolars,  either  two  or  three-  pairs  of 
molars,  an  almost  completely  bare  skin,  small  eyes,  no  external  ears,  a  tail 
of  moderate  proportions,  and  a  pair  of  large  pads  on  the  powerful  fore- 
feet. These  tiny  little  animals  make  shallow  tunnels  in  the  hot  sand  of 
the  desert,  throwing  up  at  intervals  small  heaps  resembling  miniature  vol- 
canic craters. 

This  comparatively   small   family   is  exclusively  confined  to   North   and 
Central  America,  where  it  ranges  from  the  plains  of  the  Saskatchewan,  in 
Canada,   southwards  to  Costa  Rica,  although  attaining  its 
maximum  development  in  the  Western  United  States  and      The  Pocket- 
Mexico,   and    being   unknown   in   the   region   east  of   the        Gophers. — 
Mississippi,  save  the  Gulf  States.     The  essential  characteris-  Family 

tic  of  these  Rodents  is  the  possession  of  large  pouches  open-        Geomyidce. 
ing  externally  on  the  cheeks  at  the  sides  of  the  mouth.     In 
addition  to  three  pairs  of  molars,  they  have  a  single  pair  of  premolar  teeth  in 
each  jaw;  all  the  cheek  teeth  in  the  more  typical  forms  being  rootless,  and  con- 
sisting of  simple  prisms,  without  any  unfolding  of  the  enamel.     The  pre- 
molars consist  of  a  double  prism,  but  all  the  molars,  with  the  exception  of 
the  last  pair  in  the  upper  jaw  of  some  species,  comprise  but  a  single  prism, 
whose  summit  presents  an  oval  disc  of  ivory  bordered  by  a  ring  of  enamel. 

"All  the  members  of  the  family,"  writes  Dr.  Merriam,  "  spend  their  entire 
lives  underground,  and  their  whole  organisation  is  modified  in  accordance 
with  the  needs  of  a  subterranean  existence.  The  species,  though  numerous, 
are  very  much  alike  externally  They  are  short-legged,  thick-set  animals, 
without  any  appreciable  neck,  without  noticeable  external  ears,  and  with 
very  small  eyes.  The  feet  are  largely  developed  for  digging.  The  fore-paws 
in  particular  are  very  strong,  and  armed  with  long  curved  claws,  and  the 
sides  of  the  toes  are  lined  with  rows  of  bristles  that  evidently  serve  in  pre- 
venting the  dirt  from  passing  between  the  fingers,  thus  completing  a  more 
effective  arrangement  for  keeping  the  tunnels  clean,  and  for  pushing  the 
earth  out  of  the  openings  of  the  burrows.  The  tail,  which  is  of  moderate 
length,  is  thick,  fleshy,  and  usually  devoid  of  hair,  and  is  endowed  with 
tactile  sensibility. 


io8   '  MAMMALIA— ORDER  V.—RODENTIA. 


u  The  pocket-gophers  in  working  their  way  through  the  earth  in  the 
construction  of  their  tunnels,  use  the  powerful  upper  incisors  as  a  pick  to 
loosen  the  ground.  At  the  same  time  the  fore-feet  are  kept  in  active  opera- 
tion, both  in  digging  and  in  pressing  the  earth  back  under  the  body,  and  the 
hind-feet  are  also  used  in  moving  it  still  further  backwards.  When  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  has  accumulated  behind  the  animal,  he  immediately  turns  in 
the  burrow,  and  by  bringing  the  wrists  together  under  the  chin  with  the 
palms  of  the  hands  held  vertically,  forces  himself  along  by  the  hind-feet, 
pushing  the  earth  out  in  front.  When  an  opening  in  the  tunnel  is  reached, 
the  earth  is  discharged  through  it,  forming  a  little  hillock  that  resembles  in 
a  general  way  the  hills  thrown  up  by  moles.  In  many  species  there  is  a 
naked  callosity  over  the  front  half  of  the  nose,  which  must  be  of  great 
assistance  in  the  construction  of  the  tunnels.  When  this  callosity 
is  largely  developed,  the  nasal  bones  underneath  are  highly  arched  or 
inflated." 

The  same  writer  then  goes  on  to  objei  ve  that  he  was  much  surprised  to 
see  a  captive  example  of  one  of  the  species  run  as  rapidly  backwards  as  for- 
wards. "  This  method  of  progression  was  particularly  noticeable  when  the 
animal  was  in  his  own  quarters,  where  he  could  follow  a  runway  or  an  accus- 
tomed route.  When  carrying  food  to  one  of  his  store-houses  he  rarely  turned 
round,  but  usually  ran  backwards  to  the  place  of  deposit,  returning  for  more, 
and  repeating  the  operation  again  and  again,  the  to-and-fro  movement 
suggesting  a  shuttle  on  its  track." 

The  cheek  pouches,  which  are  clothed  internally  with  fur,  according  to  the 
same  author,  * '  are  used  exclusively  in  carrying  food,  and  not  in  carting  dirt, 
as  often  erroneously  supposed.  They  reach  back  as  far  as  the  shoulder,  and 
are  so  attached  that  they  cannot  be  completely  averted  without  rupture  of 
their  connections."  Writing  of  a  tame  specimen,  Dr.  Merriam  observes  that 
*'  the  manner  of  eating  was  peculiar  and  interesting,  and  showed  an  ability 
to  use  the  huge  fore-feet  and  claws  in  a  way  previously  unsuspected.  After 
satisfying  the  immediate  demands  of  hunger,  it  was  his  practice  to  fill  one  or 
both  cheek  pouches.  His  motions  were  so  swift  that  it  was  exceedingly  diffi- 
cult to  follow  them  with  sufficient  exactness  to  see  just  how  the  operation 
was  performed.  If  a  potato  was  given  him,  or  a  piece  too  large  to  go  into 
the  pouch,  he  invariably  grasped  it  between  the  fore-paws,  and  proceeded  to 
pry  off  a  small  piece  with  the  large  lower  incisors.  He  would  then  raise 
himself  slightly  on  his  hind-legs  and  hold  the  fragment  between  his  fore- 
paws  while  eating,  for  he  usually  ate  a  certain  quantity  before  putting  any 
into  the  pouches.  If  small  pieces  were  given  him  he  took  them  promptly, 
and  passed  them  quickly  into  the  pouches.  Some  pieces  were  thus  disposed 
of  at  once  ;  others  were  just  trimmed  by  biting  off  projecting  angles.  As  a 
rule,  one  pouch  was  filled  at  a  time,  though  not  always,  and  the  hand  of  the 
same  side  was  used  to  push  the  food  m.  The  usual  course  is  as  follows  : — A 
piece  of  potato,  root,  or  other  food  is  seized  between  the  incisor  teeth,  and 
immediately  transferred  to  the  fore-paws,  which  are  held  in  a  horizontal 
position,  the  tips  of  the  claws  curving  toward  one  another.  If  the  food 
requires  reduction  in  size,  the  trimming  is  done  while  held  in  this  position. 
The  piece  is  then  passed  rapidly  across  the  side  of  the  face  with  a  sort  of 
wiping  motion  which  forces  it  into  the  open  mouth  of  the  pouch.  Some- 
times a  single  rapid  stroke  with  one  hand  is  sufficient ;  at  other  times  both 
hands  are  used,  particularly  if  the  piece  is  large.  In  such  cases  the  long 
claws  of  one  hand  are  used  to  draw  down  the  lower  side  of  the  opening, 


MAMMALS  THAT  GNAW.  109 


while  the  food  is  poked  in  with  the  other.  It  is  obviously  impossible  for 
the  animal  to  pass  food  from  the  mouth  to  the  pouches  without  the  aid  of  its 
fore-claws.  The  most  remarkable  thing  connected  with  the  use  of  the 
pouches  is  the  way  they  are  emptied.  The  fore-feet  are  brought  back  simul- 
taneously along  the  sides  of  the  head  until  they  reach  a  point  opposite  the 
hinder  end  of  the  pouches  ;  they  are  then  pressed  firmly  against  the  head 
and  carried  rapidly  forward.  In  this  way  the  contents  of  the  pouches  are 
promptly  deposited  in  front  of  the  animal.  Sometimes  several  strokes  are 
necessary,  I  am  not  prepared  to  say  that  the  animal  cannot  empty  the 
pouches  by  means  of  the  delicate  investing  muscles  ;  but  I  have  never  seen 
them  emptied  in  any  other  way  than  that  here  described." 

According  to  American  writers,  the  typical  members  of  the  family  may  be 
divided  into  no  less  than  nine  genera ;  but  by  English  zoologists  they  have 
hitherto  been  included  in  only  two.  Of 
these,  Geomys,  as  typified  by  the  common 
pocket-gopher  (G.  bursarius),  is  charac- 
terised by  having  either  one  or  two 
grooves  on  the  upper  incisors.  In  the 
typical  species  there  are  two  of  these 
grooves,  and  the  same  is  the  case  with 
another  form  which  has  been  separated 
as  Zygogeomys  ;  the  latter  being  peculiar 
in  that  the  jugal,  or  cheekbone,  does  not 
enter  into  the  formation  of  the  upper  F[g  59._pOCKET_GopHER 

border  of  the  zygomatic  arch.     In  all  the  (Geomys  bursar  ius). 

other  forms,   which  have  received  the 

names  of  Pappogeomys,  Orthogeomys,  Cratogeomys,  Platygeomys,  Heterogeomys, 
and  Macrogeomys,  there  is  but  a  single  groove  on  each  incisor  ;  the  groups 
being  distinguished  by  the  conformation  of  the  skull,  and  the  extent 
to  which  the  cheek  teeth  are  covered  with  enamel.  From  the  above 
the  species  of  Thomom.ys  are  distinguished  by  the  upper  incisors  being 
either  perfectly  smooth,  or  marked  only  by  a  single  fine  streak  on  the 
inner  side. 

The  kangaroo-rats  (Dipodomys),  together  with  the  two  following  genera, 
are  referred  by  American  writers  to  a  different  family,  and  are  distinguished 
by  their  narrow  incisors,  moderate  or  large  ears  and  eyes,  and  the  elongated 
hind-limbs  and  tail.  In  the  kangaroo-rats  the  molar  teeth  are  rootless  ;  the 
typical  forms  having  four  toes,  whereas  others,  which  it  has  been  proposed 
to  separate  as  Perodipiis,  possess  five.  These  small  Rodents  inhabit  open 
sandy  districts,  and  have  habits  very  similar  to  those  of  jerboas.  From  the 
foregoing,  the  genera  PerognatJws  and  Heteromys  differ  by  their  rooted 
molars ;  the  latter  being  distinguished  by  the  admixture  of  flattened  spines 
in  the  fur,  and  having  species  ranging  into  South  America.  All  the  forms  are 
small  and  mouse-like  ;  the  common  D.  phillipsi  being  from  South  Mexico. 

The  jerboas  and  their  allies  form  a  small,  widely-distributed  family,  by  no 
means  easy  of  definition.     Usually  there  is  a  pair  of  upper  premolars,  the 
incisors  are  narrow,  the  molars  are  divided  by  transverse 
folds  of  enamel  into  laminae,  the  vacuity  in  the  skull  below      Jerboa  Tribe, 
the  anterior  root  of  the  zygomatic  arch  is  large  and  rounded,         —Family 
and  the  hinder  part  of  the  auditory  bulla  is  very  large.    The       Dipodidce. 
rat-like  Rodents  of  the  genus  Sminthus,  which  range  over 
Eastern  and  Northern  Europe,  Central  Asia,  Kashmir,  and  Kansu,  differ 


MAMMALIA— ORDER   V.—RODENT1A. 


Fig.  60.— A  JERBOA 
(Dipus). 


from  the  other  members  of  the  family  in  the  equality  of  the  length  of  the 
fore  and  hind-limbs  ;  the  upper  jaw  having  a  single  pair  of  premolars,  while 
there  are  none  in  the  lower.  The  North  American  jumping-mice  (Zapus) 
are  distinguished  by  the  elongation  of  the  hind-limbs,  and  the  presence  of  a 
pair  of  premolars  in  both  jaws  ;  the  hind-feet  being  furnished  with  five  toes, 
and  the  metatarsal  bones  separate  from  one  another.  The  common  species 
ranges  from  Hudson  Bay  to  Colorado.  Agreeing  with  the  last  in  their  elongated 
hind-limbs,  the  next  four  genera  differ  in  having  only 
three  functional  hind-toes,  and  by  the  union  of  the 
metatarsal  bones  of  the  hind-foot.  Of  these  four 
genera  Dlpus  has  only  three  hind- toes,  while  Eucho- 
retes,  Alactaga,  and  Platycercomys  have  five,  of  which 
the  first  and  fifth  do  not  touch  the  ground.  The  first 
three  of  these  have  a  long,  cylindrical  and  tufted  tail ; 
Dipus  being  distinguished  from  the  other  two  by 
its  grooved  incisors,  and  the  frequent  absence  of 
premolars.  Euchoretes  is  represented  only  by  the 
Yarkand  jerboa,  characterised  by  its  elongated  muzzle 
and  large  ears  ;  while  Platycercomy^  of  which  there 
are  several  species,  ranging  from  Siberia  to  Nubia, 
differs  by  its  flattened  and  lancet-shaped  tail,  and  the 
invariable  absence  of  premolars,  the  incisors  being 
smooth.  The  true  jerboas  (Dipus),  of  which  there  are 
several  species,  extend  from  Algeria  through  Egypt  and  North  Arabia  to 
Eastern  Persia  and  Central  Asia.  Alactaga  is 
best  known  by  the  Kirghiz  jerboa  (A.  decumana) 
of  the  Kirghiz  steppes.  All  the  jerboas  are 
essentially  desert-haunting  animals,  living  in 
the  open,  and  progressing  by  long  leaps.  The 
last  and  largest  member  of  the  family  is  the 
so-called  Cape  jumping-hare  (Pedetes  caffer\ 
ranging  from  the  Cape  to  Angola  and  Mozam- 
bique, and  differing  from  all  the  other  genera 
in  having  rootless  molars.  The  hind-limbs 
are  elongated,  the  metatarsal  bones  separate, 
and  the  hind-feet  furnished  with  four  toes  ; 
while  the  ears  are  long  and  narrow,  and  the 
very  long  tail  is  clothed  with  elongated  hair. 

With  the  exception  of  the  hares  and  picas, 
which  form  a  group  by  themselves,  the  whole  of 
the  remaining  members  of  the  order  are  in- 
cluded in  a  section  known  as  the  Hystrico- 
morpha,  which  embraces  six  families.  As  a  whole,  this  section  is  charac- 
terised by  the  stoutness  of  the  zygomatic  arch  of  the  skull,  in  which  the 
jugil  bone  forms  the  whole  of  the  central  portion  without 
any  support  from  a  process  of  the  maxilla,  while  the  angle 
of  the  lower  jaw  arises  from  the  outer  side  of  the  bony 
sheath  of  the  socket  of  the  incisor.  The  collar-bones  may 
be  either  complete  or  imperfect ;  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  hind-leg  the  fibula  is  distinct  from  the  tibia  ;  and  there  is  almost 
always  a  single  pair  of  premolar  teeth  in  each  jaw.  The  members  of 
this  section  are  particularly  characteristic  of  Central  and  South  America 


^_ 

Fig.  61, — CAPE  JUMPING- 
HARE  (Pedetes  coffer). 


Octodont  Tribe. 

— Family  Octo- 

dontidce. 


MAMMALS  THA  T  GNA  W.  1 1 1 


(including  the  West  Indies),  the  whole  of  the  six  families  being  represented 
there,  while  four  are  confined  to  these  countries,  and  one  is  met  with  else- 
where only  in  Africa. 

By  far  the  largest  of  these  families  is  that  of  the  Octodontida,  which  has 
some  representatives  in  Africa,  although  the  majority  of  the  forms  are  con- 
fined to  South  and  Central  America  and  the  West  Indies.  All  have  complete 
collar-bones  ;  the  vacuities  in  the  front  of  the  bony  palate  of  the  skull  are 
greatly  elongated  ;  the  crowns  of  the  molar  teeth  are  marked  by  infoldings 
of  enamel  on  both  sides  ;  there  are  generally  five  toes  to  each  foot ;  and 
the  teats,  are  placed  high  up  on  the  sides  of  the  body.  In  form,  these 
Rodents  are  usually  more  or  less  rat-like,  arid  most  are  terrestrial  in  their 
habits. 

The  first  group  of  the  family  is  African,  and  is  represented  by  two  genera, 
both  easily  distinguished  by  having  the  two  inner  toes  of  the  hind-foot  fur- 
nished with  a  horny  comb  and  bristles  for  the  purpose  of  cleansing  the  fur. 
Each  genus  has  but  a  single  species.  The  gundi,  Ctenodadylus,  is  an  inhabi- 
tant of  North  Africa,  near  Tripoli,  and  is  peculiar  among  the  family  in  having 
no  premolars,  the  tail  being  reduced  to  a  stump  ;  whereas  in  Pectinator,  of 
Somaliland,  premolars  are  present,  and  the  tail  is  moderately  long  and  bushy. 
Both  are  about  the  size  of  a  water-vole. 

1  he  second  group  comprises  six  genera,  five  of  which  are  South  American, 
and  the  other  African.  They  have  partially  rooted  or  rootless  molars,  with 
simple  enamel-folds  and  soft  fur.  The  typical  form  is  the  degu  (Octodon)  of 
Chili  and  Peru,  which  is  a  rat-like  animal,  with  a  rather  long  brush-tipped 
tail,  medium-sized  ears,  and  the  upper  and  lower  molars  alike.  Other  species 
of  the  same  genus  inhabit  Bolivia,  which  is  also  the  home  of  the  two  species 
of  Habrocoma,  characterised  by  the  lower  molars  being  more  complex  than 
the  upper,  the  large  ears,  and  the  extreme  softness  of  the  fur.  Nearly 
related  are  the  burrowing  tuco-tucos  (Ctenomys)  of  South  America,  deriving 
their  popular  name  from  the  bell-like  cry  uttered  underground.  They  have 
broad  incisors,  kidney-shaped  crowns  to  the  rootless  molars,  small  eyes, 
moderate  ears,  long  claws,  and  bristles  on  the  hind-feet.  The  one  species  of 
the  genus  Aconczmys,  from  the  Southern  Andes,  differs  from  the  last  by  its 
larger  ears  and  shorter  claws,  and  is  further  characterised  by  the  enamel- 
folds  of  the  upper  molars  meeting  in  the  middle. 

From  Ctenomys,  the  two  Chilian  species  of  Spalacopus  differ  by  their  rudi- 
mental  ears  ;  they  are  noticeable  on  account  of  their  laying  up  a  winter  store 
of  food.  The  very  similar  African  genus  Petromys*  may  be  distinguished 
from  the  last  by  its  harsher  fur,  the  shortness  of  the  first  toe  of  the  fore- 
foot, and  more  thickly-haired  tail. 

The  coypu,  or  nutria  (Myopotamus),  of  South  America,  which  is  the  only 
member  of  its  genus,  is  the  typical  representative  of  the  last  sub-family, 
which  has  one  African  and  ten  American  genera.  In  this  group  the  molars, 
which  may  be  rootless  or  partially  rooted,  have  deep  and  curved  folds  of 
enamel,  more  or  less  harsh  fur,  which  may  be  mingled  with  spines,  and 
the  tail  generally  long.  As  a  genus,  the  coypu,  which  attains  a  length 
of  about  two  feet,  has  very  large  red  incisors,  two  inner  and  two  outer 
enamel-folds  in  the  upper  molars,  and  three  inner  and  one  outer  in  the  lower 
ones,  moderate-sized  ears,  a  rather  long,  scaly,  and  sparsely  haired  tail,  and 
webbed  hind-feet.  Mr.  Aplin  writes  that  in  Uruguay  "  it  inhabits  the  larger 
permanent  lagunas.  I  have  heard  it  stated  that  if  a  laguna  is  inhabited  by 
1  Some  writers  place  this  genus  in  the  first  sub-family. 


112 


MAMMALIA— ORDER   V.—RODENTIA. 


nutrias  it  is  a  sign  that  it  never  dries  up  in  a  drought.  But  during  the 
drought  which  prevailed  during  the  time  I  was  in  the  country,  some  places 

inhabited  by  nutrias  did  dry  up,  but  it 
was  probably  many  years  since  they  had 
done  so  previously.  In  the  steep  banks 
of  the  lagunas  the  nutrias  make  drives, 
the  mouths  of  the  tunnels  being  half  in 
and  half  out  of  the  water  when  it  is  at  its 
normal  height.  The  nutria  is  not  a  very 
shy  animal.  Some  of  them  inhabited  a 
little  water-course  by  the  side  of  which 
the  sheep-dipping  place  was  situated  ; 
they  were  probably  attracted  by  tho 

Fig.  e2.-Covru(Myopotamv,coypu').         head  of  water  kept  up  by  a  small  dam. 

The  nutria  swims  with  hardly  a  ripple, 

and  disappears  noiselessly  in  the  dive  at  the  water-line.  The  body  is  dull 
brown,  muzzle  greyish,  and  there  is  a  little  warm  brown  on  the  side  of  the 
head.  It  swims  with  the  nose,  tho  top  of  the  head,  and  a  narrow  line  of 
the  back  out  of  water,  all  on  a  dead  level,  or  almost  so  ;  the  nostrils  being 
very  high  up  in  the  line  of  the  skull,  they  are  kept  out  of  the  water  without 
the  nose  being  poked  up  towards  the  sky.  A  half -grown  one  brought  to  me 
alive  ate  green  maize  readily." 

In  the  West  Indies  the  family  is  represented  by  the  large  arboreal  Rodents 
known  as  hutias,  most  of  which  are  included  in  the  genus  Capromys,  although, 
on  account  of  the  more  complex  structure  of  its  molars,  one  species  from 
Hayti  and  Jamaica  is  separated  as  Plagiodon. 
They  may  be  compared  to  gigantic  rats,  one  of 
them  measuring  22  inches  to  the  root  of  the 
tail.  Their  incisors  are  narrower  than  those 
of  the  coypu,  the  first  genus  having  one  inner 
and  two  outer  folds  of  enamel  in  the  upper 
molars.  From  both  the  above  the  two  species  of 
cane-rat  (Thrynomys)1  from  Southern  Africa 
are  at  once  distinguished  by  the  presence  of 
three  deep  grooves  in  each  of  the  upper 
incisors.  The  small  American  forms  consti- 
tuting the  genera  Echinomys  and  Loncheres  are  sufficiently  characterised 
by  generally  having  flat,  lance-shaped  spines  intermingled  with  the  fur  ; 
most  of  the  species  being  inhabitants  of  Brazil  and  Guiana,  although  one  of 
the  second  genus  is  found  in  Central  America.  The  South  American 
Mesomys  differs  from  Loncheres  in  having  a  short,  curved  claw  on  the  first  toe 
of  the  fore-foot,  as  well  as  in  the  absence  of  spines.  The  single  and  rare 
species  of  the  Brazilian  genus  Dactylomys  is  characterised  by  its  short  ears, 
long  scaly  tail,  the  rudimental  first  toe  of  the  fore-foot,  the  very  long  third 
and  fourth  toes  of  the  same,  which  are  furnished  with  short,  convex  nails, 
the  flat  incisors,  and  the  division  of  the  molars  into  two  complete  lobes, 
each  of  which  has  a  single  enamel-fold,  forming  a  fork-shaped  grinding 
surface  ;  as  well  as  by  the  two  series  of  upper  cheek  teeth  converging  so 
much  as  to  meet  in  front.  A  smaller  Brazilian  form  known  as  Canna- 
bateomys  differs  by  the  union  of  the  two  lobes  of  the  molars  by  means  of  a 
bridge  of  enamel,  and  the  slight  convergence  of  the  teeth.  Another  South 
1  To  replace  the  preoccupied  name  Aulacodus. 


Fig.  63.— HUTIA  (Capromys). 


MAMMALS  THA  T  GNA  W.  113 

American  genus  is  Carterodon,  which  includes  small  rat-like  animals  differing- 
from  all  the  other  members  of  the  family  inhabiting  the  same  country  in  its 
broad  and  grooved  upper  incisors  ;  the  upper  molars  having  one  inner  and 
two  outer  enamel-folds,  and  the  lower  ones  the  reverse  of  this  arrangement. 
Lastly,  the  South  American  Cercomys  differs  from  the  foregoing  by  its 
pointed  muzzle  and  smooth  incisors. 

The  number  of  long,  sharp  spines  with  which  the  skin  of  .**  the  fretful 
porcupine"  and  its  allies  are  protected  sufficiently  distinguish  the  Hystricidce 
from  all  other  Rodents.  These  animals  are  of  stout  build 
with  the  fore  and  hind-limbs  of  nearly  equal  length,  the  Porcupine  Tribe, 
front  portion  of  the  skull  very  short  and  broad,  and  the  —Family 
molars,  which  may  be  either  completely  or  partially  rooted,  Hystricidce. 
with  folds  of  enamel  on  both  sides.  The  family  may  be 
divided  into  two  groups,  one  of  which  is  confined  to  the  New  World,  and  the 
other  to  the  Old.  In  the  American  porcupines  the  molars  are  fully  rooted, 
the  collar-bones  complete,  the  upper-lip  undivided,  the  soles  of  the  hind- 
f  jet  covered  with  rough  tubercles,  the  first  digit  of  the  fore-foot  wanting, 
and  numerous  long  hairs  mixed  with  the  spines;  while  the  females  have  only 
four  teats.  The  numerous  species  of  tree-porcupine  (Synetheres)  are  con- 
fined to  the  forest  districts  of  tropical  America,  and  are  specially  characterised 
by  their  long,  prehensile  tails,  short,  many-coloured  spines,  light  build,  and 
the  presence  of  only  four  toes  to  the  hind-feet ;  these  toes  grasping  against 
a  fleshy  pad  on  the  inner  side  of  the  foot.  In  habits  these  porcupines  are 
thoroughly  arboreal,  and  also  less  nocturnal  than  their  Old  World  allies.  A 
Brazilian  species  (Chwtomys)  is  generically  distinguished  on  account  of  the 
different  conformation  of  its  skull  and  more  complex  pattern  of  its  molar 
teeth.  The  Canadian  porcupine  (Erethizon)  forms  a  kind  of  connecting  link 
between  the  New  and  Old  World  members  of  the  family,  the  build  being 
heavy,  and  the  tail  stumpy  and  non-prehensile.  The  spines  are  almost 
buried  in  the  long  hairs,  and  there  are  four  toes  in  front  and  five  behind. 

In  the  three  Old  World  genera  of  the  family,  the  molars  are  only  partially 
rooted,  the  collar-bones  incomplete,  and  the  soles  of  the  hind-feet  smooth, 
while  there  is  a  rudimental  first  toe  to  the  fore-foot,  and  the  female  has  six 
teats.  In  no  case  is  the  tail  prehensile.  The  true  porcupines  (Hystrix\ 
which  are  spread  over  the  wrarmer  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia,  as  well  as  Africa, 
are  best  characterised  by  their  large  size,  highly  inflated  and  convex  skull, 
and  the  short  tail,  terminating  in  a  number  of  hollow  quills,  which  produce  a 
rattling  noise  when  the  creatures  move.  These  porcupines  are  burrowing 
and  nocturnal  in  their  habits.  The  brush-tailed  porcupines  (Atherura),  of 
which  one  species  is  Malayan  and  the  other  two  West  African,  differ  by  their 
inferior  size  and  long  tails,  the  latter  surmounted  with  a  tuft  of  flattened 
spines.  A  third  genus  (Trichys)  is  represented  by  a  single  Bornean  species, 
differing  from  the  last  in  the  structure  of  the  skull  ;  the  spines  being  also 
shorter,  and  the  bristles  on  the  tail  narrower  and  parallel-sided. 

This  and  the  following  families  of  the  group  are  exclusively  confined  to 
South  and  Central  America  and  the  West  Indies.     In  the  present  family  the 
hind-limbs  are  elongated,  the  tail  is  bushy,  the  fur  extremely 
short,  the  collar-bones  complete,  the  bony  palate  of  the  skull  Cb.incb.illa  Tribe, 
narrowed  in  front  and  deeply  excavated  behind,  the  incisors         — Family- 
short,  and  the  molars   separated  into  isolated   transverse   Lagostomatidce. 
laminae  by  continuous   folds   of  enamel.      This  family   is 
typically  represented   by  the  beautiful  little  chinchillas  (Eriomys)  of  the 
9 


114  MAMMALIA— ORDER   V.—RODENTIA. 


Andes,  so  much  esteemed  on  account  of  the  marvellous  softness  of  the  pearly- 
grey  fur,  and  characterised  by  having  five  toes  in  front  and  four  behind,  as 
well  as  by  the  bushy  tail.  The  larger  Cuvier's  chinchilla  (Lagidium),  which 
is  likewise  an  inhabitant  of  the  Andes,  has  only  four  toes  both  in  front  and 
behind  ;  whereas  in  the  viscacha  (Lagostomus),  of  the  Argentine  pampas, 
there  are  but  three  toes  to  the  hind-feet;  the  fore-feet  having  the  same 
number  as  in  the  last  genus. 

As  regards  its  external  appearance,  the  viscacha  may  be  not  inaptly  com- 
pared in  point  of  form  and  size  to  a  marmot,  although  its  hind-limbs  are 
proportionately  longer,  and  the  head  is  inordinately  large.  The  tail,  which 
is  bushy  throughout,  is  about  one-third  the  length  of  the  head  and  body, 
which  varies  from  about  19  inches  to  23  inches  ;  and  the  short  ears  are  dis- 
tinctly notched  behind.  Almost  as  soft  as  that  of  the  chinchilla,  the  fur 
(which  is  unfortunately  useless  for  commercial  purposes)  is  of  a  greyish  hue 
above,  with  some  dusky  mottlings  and  black  markings  on  the  upper-parts, 
while  beneath  it  is  white,  or  white  tinged  with  yellow,  the  tail  being  blackish- 
brown.  The  head  has  some  very  characteristic  markings,  which  render  the 
animal  so  conspicuous  from  a  distance.  Thus  a  blackish  stripe  extends 
across  each  cheek  from  the  muzzle,  while  above  this  is  a  broad  white  stripe, 
ending  in  front  of  each  eye,  this  being  followed  by  a  third  band  of  a  dark 
colour  across  the  lower  part  of  the  forehead.  Essentially  burrowing  and 
nocturnal  in  their  habits,  and  seldom  issuing  from  their  hiding-places  before 
dusk,  viscachas  live  in  companies  numbering  from  about  20  to  30  head.  The 
viscacheria  forms  a  dome-shaped  elevated  mound  on  the  pampas,  perforated 
here  and  there  by  the  numerous  apertures  of  the  burrows.  The  burrows 
themselves  are  excavated  for  a  great  depth  in  the  soft  black  mould  of  the 
pampas  ;  and  as  they  frequently  diverge  near  their  extremities,  or  open  out 
into  a  large  common  chamber,  it  may  be  easily  imagined  that  the  task  of 
digging  out  a  warren  in  ordinary  circumstances  is  an  almost  impossible  one. 
Carefully  cleared  of  all  vegetation,  the  mound  of  the  viscacheria  is  kept 
scrupulously  clean  ;  but  the  viscachas  have  the  curious  habit  of  collecting  on 
this  spot  not  only  the  debris  of  their  food,  but  likewise  any  objects  they  may 
come  across  in  their  wanderings.  Consequently  the  summit  of  the  mound  is 
littered  over  with  bones  of  cattle  and  ostriches,  thistle-stalks,  maize-cobs, 
clods  of  earth,  and  masses  of  the  hard  calcareous  rock,  locally  known  as  tosca. 
Moreover,  if  a  passer-by  happen  to  lose  any  of  his  smaller  belongings,  such  as 
a  knife  or  a  watch,  he  will  be  pretty  sure  to  come  across  it  by  searching  all 
the  viscacherias  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  object  of  this  remarkable  habit 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  conjecture,  although  it  is  probably  analogous  to  that 
of  the  Australian  bower-birds.  For  some  distance  round  the  viscacheria  the 
grass  of  the  camp,  through  continual  nibbling,  is  much  finer  than  that  of  the 
pampas  in  its  original  condition  ;  and  before  the  introduction  of  sheep,  and 
the  consequent  refining  of  the  turf,  the  viscachas  were  undoubtedly  in  this 
respect  of  service  to  the  farmer.  When  about  to  issue  from  their  holes,  or 
when  driven  in  by  the  intrusion  of  a  visitor  after  they  have  come  forth,  vis- 
cachas make  a  most  unearthly  growling  and  snarling  deep  down  in  thnir 
holes — the  sound,  which  may  be  best  compared  to  the  booming  of  a  bear  in 
its  lair,  giving  the  impression  to  the  uninitiated  that  the  dwelling  is  tenanted 
by  animals  of  much  larger  size  and  fiercer  disposition  than  is  really  the  case. 
In  spite  of  the  refining  of  the  herbage  already  alluded  to,  viscachas  are  an 
unmitigated  pest  to  the  farmer,  not  only  on  account  of  the  large  area  covered 
by  their  burrows,  but  likewise  by  the  enormous  quantity  of  fodder  consumed 


MA  MMALS  THA  T  GNA  W.  115 


by  the  animals  themselves,  which  in  former  days  absolutely  swarmed  on  the 
pampas.  Consequently  for  years  the  estancieros  have  waged  incessant  war 
against  these  Rodents,  with  the  result  that  in  the  parts  of  Argentina  which 
have  been  longest  under  cultivation  one  may  ride  for  miles  without  coming 
across  a  warren. 

The  two  genera  of  this  South  and  Central  American  and  West  Indian  family 
include  a  small  number  of  relatively  large,  terrestrial  Rodents,  characterised 
by  the  fore  and  hind-limbs  being  of  nearly  equal  length,  and 
having  their  toes  furnished  with   hoof-like  claws,  by  the        Agutis  and 
short  or  rudimental  tail,  the  very  imperfect  collar-bones,  the    Pacas.— Family 
broad  palate,  long  incisors,  and  the  partially  rooted  molars,     Dasyproctidce. 
in  which  the  foldings  of  enamel  form  notches  on  the  two 
sides  of  the  crowns.     The  agutis  (Dasyprocta)  are  rather  delicately  built 
animals,  with  long  limbs  and  three  hind-toes,  ranging  from  the  confines  of 
Mexico  to  Paraguay,  and  represented  by 
a  single   outlying  species   in   the   West 
Indies.     On  the  other  hand,  the  pacas 
(Ccdogenys),  which  are  found  from  Ecua- 
dor to  Brazil  and  Paraguay,  are  larger 
and  more  heavily-built  animals,  with  five 
toes  to  the  hind-feet,  arid  further  char- 
acterised  by  the  longitudinal    rows    of 
light-coloured  spots  on  the  fur,  arid  the 
enormous  hollow,  bony  capsules  formed 
by  the  expanded  bones  of  the  cheeks. 
Branick's  paca  (Dinomys),  of  which  only  Fifft  64,-AGUTi  (Dasyprocta). 

a  single  specimen  from  Peru  has  hitherto 

been  obtained,  is  distinguished  from  the  Dasyproctidce  by  the  cleft  upper-lip, 
somewhat  long  and  bushy  tail,  the  presence  of  four  toes  to  each  foot,  and  the 
complete  collar-bones  ;  and  is  accordingly  regarded  as  the  representative  of  a 
separate  family. 

The  next  of  these  South  American  families  is  that  of  the  cavies,  and  includes 
large  or  small  heavily-built  Rodents,  with  four  front  and  three  hind-toes, 
rudimental  or  short  tails,  and  the  cheek  teeth  divided  by 
transverse  folds  of  enamel  into  a  number  of  thin  plates  The  Cavies. — 
lying  parallel  to  one  another.  The  typical  representatives  Family  Caviidce. 
of  the  family  are  the  true  cavies  (CVivia),  of  which  the 
guinea-pig  is  a  domesticated  descendant,  having  assumed  a  coloration  quite 
different  from  the  uniform  olive-brown  tint  characteristic  of  its  wild  ancestors. 
Quizes,  as  these  animals  are  called  in  the  Argentine,  may  be  found  not  only 
among  aquatic  plants  in  marshy  districts,  and  skulking  in  the  tufts  of  coarse 
grass  on  the  pampas,  but  also  in  the  neighbourhood  of  human  habitations, 
where  they  will  not  unfrequently  take  up  their  residence  under  the  floors  of 
outbuildings,  whence  they  issue  forth  to  feed  at  night.  All  the  true  cavies 
are  small  arid  short-legged  creatures,  with  no  tail,  and  short  ears ;  but  the 
Patagonian  cavy,  representing  the  genus  Dolichotis,  is  a  much  larger  and 
taller  animal,  measuring  nearly  a  yard  in  length,  and  standing  over  a  foot  at 
the  shoulder,  with  tall  ears  and  a  short  tail.  An  inhabitant  of  the  open  dis- 
tricts of  Patagonia  and  Argentina,  the  mara,  as  it  is  called  by  the  natives, 
much  resembles  a  hare  in  its  movements.  Unfortunately,  the  spread  of 
cultivation  has  well-nigh  exterminated  this  handsome  Rodent  from  most  parts 
of  the  Argentine.  Largest,  not  only  among  South  American  Rodents,  but 


ii6  MAMMALIA— ORDER  V.—RODENT1A. 


in  the  order,  is  the  aquatic  carpincho  or  capivara  (Hydrochcerus),  figured  on 
p.  89,  and  attaining  a  length  of  four  feet.  The  most  remarkable  peculiarity 
of  this  animal  is  the  large  size  and  complex  structure  of  the  last  molar  tooth, 
which  in  the  upper  jaw  may  have  as  many  as  twelve  plates,  and  is  comparable 
in  structure  to  the  corresponding  tooth  of  the  Indian  elephant.  The  carpincho 
is  an  inhabitant  of  the  more  tropical  districts,  not  extending  southwards  of 
Uruguay.  Writing  of  the  habits  of  the  carpincho,  Mr.  Aplin  observes  that 
"  a  favourite  locality  is  a  broad  laguna  in  the  river,  furnished  with  open 
water,  and  also  beds  of  'camelotes,' — a  sloping,  open,  grassy  bank  on  one  side, 
where  the  carpinchos  can  lie  in  the  daytime  in  the  cooler  weather,  sleeping 
and  basking  in  the  sunshine  ;  on  the  other  a  low,  shelving  bank,  clothed  with 
'sarandi'  scrub  growing  out  into  the  black,  reeking  mud  and  shallow  water 
beyond.  The  stems  of  the  sarandi  in  the  festering  mud  have  a  gloomy 
appearance,  sometimes  brightened  in  spring  by  the  large,  pink  flower  of  a 
convolvulus  climbing  up  the  stems.  In  one  or  two  places  of  this  description,  I 
could  almost  always  make  sure  of  seeing  some  carpinchos — sometimes  a  herd  of 
a  dozen  or  fifteen  together,  for  they  are  sociable.  You  might  meet  with  them 
at  any  part  of  the  rivers  where  there  was  plenty  of  water,  or  in  the  monte  on 
the  banks,  and  I  have  put  one  up  in  thick  dry  grass  fifty  yards  or  more  from 
a  river.  At  night  they  are  said  to  wander  for  some  distance  to  visit  maize- 
fields.  When  alarmed,  they  snort  violently,  and  rush  impetuously  into  the 
river  with  a  great  splash  and  noise.  It  is  said  that  a  frightened  carpincho 
making  for  the  river  will  not  turn  out  of  its  way  for  anything,  and  that  if  you 
are  between  them  and  the  river  they  will  knock  you  over.  The  paces  of  the 
carpincho  are  a  walk  and  a  hurried  gallop,  reminding  one  of  that  of  a  pig; 
but  most  likely  differing  little  in  character  from  that  of  a  guinea-pig,  which 
the  carpincho  resembles  in  shape  and  make.  Probably  their  habit  of  rushing 
impetuously  into  the  rivers  is  the  reason  why  some  horses  are  so  frightened 
at  these  animals  ;  the  horses  may  have  been  scared  when  they  went  down  to 
drink,  or  perhaps  even  charged  by  two  or  three  lumbering  brutes.  Some- 
times carpinchos  are  much  more  tame  than  at  others.  If  they  are  on  the 
opposite  side  of  a  small  river,  they  often  take  no  notice  at  all  ;  and  I  have 
watched  them  in  the  autumn  sitting  up  on  their  haunches  like  dogs,  sunning 
themselves,  or  lying  asleep  on  their  bellies,  with  their  fore-paws  stretched 
out  in  front  of  them,  and  their  heads  in  some  cases  laid  on  their  paws,  a  little 
on  one  side.  I  have  also  on  more  than  one  occasion  walked  up  within  half  a 
dozen  yards  of  them.  Sometimes  when  you  approach  a  little  herd  of  them, 
they  sound  their  alarm  and  merely  watch  you,  walking  slowly  down  to  the 
water  as  you  get  nearer.  At  other  times  they  rush  impetuously  into  the 
water  at  the  first  sign  of  danger.  They  are  said  to  be  much  wilder  on  the 
larger  rivers,  the  Rio  Negro  for  instance,  probably  because  they  are  less 
accustomed  to  seeing  any  people  except  those  who  hunt  them.  No  doubt  the 
protection  they  were  afforded  in  the  Santa  Elena  camp  contributed  largely  to 
their  tameness  there,  but  I  always  noticed-they  were  less  tame  on  the  Arroyo 
Grande  than  on  its  tributary  the  Saiice.  When  disturbed  and  rising  to  their 
feet,  carpinchos  get  upon  their  fore-legs  first.  The  hair  of  the  carpincho  is 
scanty,  not  much  more  plentiful  than  some  pigs'  bristles,  which  it  greatly 
resembles.  Their  colour  varies  from  dull  brown  to  bright  chestnut,  and  this 
irrespective  of  age,  or  size,  or  season  either,  for  I  have  noticed  all  colours 
from  spring  to  late  autumn  ;  smaller  animals  are,  however,  generally  of  the 
dull  brown  colour,  and  vice  versa.  Their  skins  tan  into  splendidly  thick,  soft 
leather,  which  is  used  for  belts,  slippers,  saddle-covers,  etc.  Like  other 


MAMMALS  THA  T  GNA  W.  117 


thick-skinned  animals,  they  like  to  wallow  in  mud.  They  work  out 
hollows  in  the  ground,  in  which  they  wallow  ;  these  are  known  as  carpincho- 
baths.  The  carpincho  does  not  go  to  ground,  but  lives  on  the  banks  of  the 
rivers  in  such  cover  as  it  can  find.  It  is  capable  of  remaining  under  water 
and  of  proceeding  for  some  distance  under  the  surface  ;  but  when  a  herd  has 
been  disturbed  at  a  laguna,  the  members  probably  lie  low  by  putting  just 
their  noses  above  water  under  the  shelter  of  a  bed  of  camelotes  or°other 
water-plants.  I  am  puzzled  to  say  how  many  young  they  have  at  a  birth. 
On  the  8th  May  I  saw  two  females,  each  with  a  young  one,  about  18  inches 
long,  at  her  side.  I  have  never  seen  more  than  one  young  one  with  a  female, 
but  this  I  have  often  seen  ;  the  young  one  keeps  close  to  its  mother's  side, 
and  they  plunge  into  the  water  together.  I  am  aware  that  the  supposition 
that  the  carpincho  has  only  one  young  one  at  a  birth  is  contrary  to  what  has 
been  written  about  this  animal ;  but  I  merely  give  my  own  observations  for 
what  they  are  worth." 

The  two  last  families  of  the  order,  constituting  the  group  Lagomorpha, 
differ  from  the  rest  in  having  a  small  second  pair  of  upper  incisors  behind 
the  large  ones  of  the  upper  jaw  ;  the  latter  being  also 

peculiar  in  that  the  coating  of  enamel,  instead  of  being  con-    Picas. Family 

fined   to  the  front  surface,    extends   round   to   the   back.       Lagomyidce. 
Young  animals  have  three  pairs  of  upper  incisors.      The 
small  Rodents  known  as  picas,  or  tailless  hares,  all  of  which  are  included  in 
the  single  genus  Lagomys,  are  characterised  by  the  equality  in  the  length  of 
the  limbs,   the  absence  of  a  tail,  the 
short  ears,  complete  collar-bones,  and 
rootless  molars,  divided  into  transverse 
laminae  by  complete  folds  of  enamel. 
The  living  species  have   two   pairs  of 
premolar  teeth  in.  each  jaw,   and  the 
skull  has  no  postorbital  processes.     Re- 
presented  by  about  a   dozen   species, 
the  picas  are  chiefly  inhabitants  of  the 
Himalaya  and  the  highlands  of  Central 
and  Northern  Asia,  although  one  out- 
lying   form     inhabits     South  -  Eastern  Fig.  65.— A  PICA  (Lagomys). 
Europe,  and  a  second  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains.    These  little  creatures  dwell  in  the  chinks  and  crevices  of  rocks,  from 
which  they  dart  out  with  remarkable  celerity,  uttering  at  the  same  timo 
their  peculiarly  shrill  cry. 

From  the  picas,  the  hares  and  rabbits  (Lepus)  are  at  once  distinguished  by 
their  elongated  hind-limbs,  long  ears,  short,  upwardly-bent  tail,  arid  imper- 
fect collar-bones  ;  while  the  skull  differs  in  possessing  large 
postorbital  processes,  and  there  are  three  pairs  of  premolar        Hares  and 
teeth  in  the  upper  jaw  and  two  in  the  lower.     Whereas        Rabbits. — 
there  are  five  toes  to  the  fore-limbs,  the  hind  pair  has  but  Family 

four,  and  the  soles  of  all  four  are  as  fully  haired  as  the  rest        Lcporidce. 
of  the  limbs  ;  the  inside  of  the  cheeks  being  also  hairy. 
There  are  rather  more  than  a  score  of  species  belonging  to  the  genus,  which 
has  an  almost  cosmopolitan  distribution,    although  more  numerous  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  than  elsewhere,  being  absent  from  Madagascar  and 
Australasia,  and  represented  only  by  a  single  species  in  South  America.     All 
are  very  much  alike  in  external  appearance.     Of  the  European  species,  the 


ii8  MAMMALIA— ORDER   VL  —  UNGULATA. 


common  hare  (L.  europcp.us),  distinguished  by  the  very  long  ears  and  hind- 
legs,  inhabits  the  whole  of  Europe  with  the  exception  of  Northern  Russia, 
Scandinavia,  and  Ireland.  In  the  latter  countries  its  place  is  taken  by  the 
mountain  hare  (L.  timidus),  which  ranges  eastwards  to  Japan,  and  is  found 
on  several  of  the  mountain  ranges  of  Southern  Europe,  namely  the  Pyrenees, 
Alps,  and  Caucasus.  Smaller  than  the  common  hare,  it  has  shorter  ears  and 
hind-legs  ;  and  in  the  colder  portions  of  its  habitat  changes  to  pure  white  in 
winter,  with  the  exception  of  the  black  tips  to  its  ears.  The  rabbit 
(L.  cuniculus)  is  a  smaller  and  shorter-limbed  form,  with  the  black  tips  to 
the  ears  much  reduced  in  size,  or  absent  ;  it  was  originally  a  native  of  the 
countries  bordering  the  western  half  of  the  Mediterranean,  but  has  been 
introduced  into  Northern  Europe  and  many  other  parts  of  the  world.  It 
differs  from  the  hares  in  its  burrowing  habits. 


ORDER  VI.— UNGULATA. 
THE  HOOFED  MAMMALS. 

THIS  extensive  order,  which  includes  hyraces,  elephants,  horses,  rhinoceroses, 
oxen,  antelopes,  pigs,  etc.,  is  one  by  no  means  easy  of  definition,  although 
its  existing  members  are  characterised  by  having  the  toes  enclosed  either  in 
hoofs,  or  furnished  with  broad,  flattened  nails.  The  number  of  toes  varies 
from  five  (in  the  elephants)  to  one  (in  the  horses);  in  the  fore-arm  the  radius 
and  ulna  may  be  united  ;  in  the  wrist  the  scaphoid  and  lunar  bones  (united 
in  the  Carnivora)  are  always  separate  ;  collar-bones  are  wanting  in  all  the 
existing  forms ;  and  the  condyle,  or  knob,  by  which  the  lower  jaw  articulates 
with  the  skull,  is  always  more  or  less  elongated  transversely,  and  never  from 
before  backwards  in  the  manner  characteristic  of  the  Rodents.  The  cheek  teeth 
have  broad  and  flattened  crowns — often  interpenetrated  by  deep  foldings  of 
the  enamel  from  the  summits  and  sides — adapted  for  grinding ;  and  when 
these  teeth  are  reduced  below  the  typical  number  of  seven,  the  reduction 
always  takes  place  from  the  anterior  portion  of  the  series,  or,  in  other  words, 
in  the  premolars,  so  that  there  are  constantly  three  pairs  of  molars  in  each 
jaw.  The  limbs  are  always  adapted  for  terrestrial  progression,  so  that  there 
is  no  power  of  supining  the  fore-foot ;  and  when  the  first  toe  is  present  it 
has  no  power  of  opposition  to  the  others. 

Although  a  few  are  omnivorous,  the  great  majority  of  the  Ungulates  sub- 
sist entirely  on  a  vegetable  diet;  and,  with  the  exception  of  these  sufficiently 
protected  by  their  great  bodily  size,  most  depend  upon  their  swift- 
ness of  foot  to  escape  their  enemies.  While  a  small  number  are  not  larger 
than  hares,  the  great  majority  of  the  members  of  the  order  are  animals  of 
large  size,  and  they  include  among  them  the  most  gigantic  of  all  existing 
terrestrial  creatures.  The  living  Ungulates  may  be  divided  into  four  well- 
marked  subordinal  groups,  while  there  are  others  which  are  now  extinct. 

The  Proboscidea  or  first  subordinal  group  of  the  Hoofed  Mammals,  is  now 
represented  solely  by  the  two  existing  species  of  elephants,  both  of  which 
are  included  in  the  genus  Eleplias.  In  addition  to  their  huge  bodily  size, 
elephants  differ  externally  from  all  other  animals  by  the  production  of  the 
nose  into  a  long,  flexible  proboscis,  or  trunk,  and  likewise  by  the  large  tusks 


THE  HOOFED  MAMMALS.  119 


normally  present  in  the  males,  and  often  in  both  sexes.  Their  huge  and 
massive  limbs  are  less  enveloped  superiorly  in  the  skin  of  the  body  than 
is  the  case  with  the  great  majority  of  Ungulates;  and  their  component  long- 
bones  are  remarkable  in  being  placed  almost  vertically  one 
above  the  other,  so  as  to  form  straight  columns  for  the  The  Elephants. 
support  of  the  body.  From  all  other  living  members  of  the  — Family 
order  elephants  differ  in  having  five  perfect  toes  to  each  foot ;  Elephantidce. 
while  they  are  further  distinguished  from  all,  except  the  little 
hyraces,  by  the  arrangement  of  the  bones  of  the  wrist-joint  in  the  fore-foot. 
In  this  joint  the  two  horizontal  series  of  quadrangular  bones  are  placed 
almost  directly  over  one  another,  and  likewise  above  the  supporting  meta- 
carpal  bones,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  whole  foot  could  be  completely 
cleft  in  twain  between  the  third  and  fourth  toes.  The  rounded  feet  are 
supported  on  large,  flat  cushions,  on  the  front  edge  of  which  the  position 
of  the  toes  is  indicated  by  large,  broad  nails.  As  regards  the  teeth,  the 
upper  tusks  correspond  to  one  of  the  three  pairs  of  incisors  characterising 
more  typical  Mammals ;  but  there  are  no  other  incisors,  nor  any  traces  of 
canines.  The  tusks  always  remain  open  at  the  base,  and  grow  continuously 
throughout  the  life  of  their  owners.  The  cheek  teeth,  of  which  there  are 
six  pairs  in  each  jaw,  are  peculiar  in  that  they  are  not  all  in  use  at  the  same 
time,  the  small  anterior  ones  coming  into  use  first,  and  being  in  turn  shed 
as  they  are  worn  out  and  replaced  by  the  larger  hinder  ones,  which  make 
their  appearance  in  the  jaws  in  an  arc  of  a  circle,  so  that  very  old  individuals 
are  left  with  only  a  single  huge  molar  on  each  side  of  each  jaw.  Equally 
peculiar  are  these  teeth  in  structure.  They  consist  of  a  great  number  of  tall, 
parallel,  thin,  transverse  plates  growing  from  a  common  base,  and  consisting 
of  a  core  of  comparatively  soft  ivory,  covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  flint-like 
enamel ;  the  interspaces,  or  valleys,  left  between  the  plates  being  filled  up 
with  a  still  softer  substance  known  as  cement.  When  such  a  tooth  is  worn 
by  grinding  against  its  fellow  in  the  opposite  jaw,  the  summits  of  the  enamel- 
covered  plates  are  cut  through  so  as  to  expose  elongated  ellipses  of  ivory  ; 
and  the  roughened,  flat  surface  thus  produced  is  made  of  vertical  transverse 
layers  of  three  substances,  arranged  in  the  order  of  cement,  enamel,  ivory, 
enamel,  cement.  Since  each  of  these  constituents  differs  in  hardness,  it  will 
be  sufficiently  apparent  that  the  millstone-like  apparatus  formed  by  the  teeth 
is  admirably  adapted  for  triturating  vegetable  substances  of  all  kinds  to  a 
pulp. 

Of  the  two  existing  species,  the  Indian  elephant  (E.  indicus)  is  best  dis- 
tinguished by  the  structure  of  the  molar  teeth,  in  which  the  constituent  plates 
are  very  numerous  and  very  thin,  with  their  investing  enamel,  which  is  also 
thin,  thrown  into  a  number  of  fine  crimpings.  Tusks  are  usually  present  in 
the  male  sex  only,  and  may  even  be  wanting  in  that.  The  ears  are  relatively 
small ;  and  the  finger-like  process  on  the  upper  margin  of  the  tip  of  the 
trunk  is  much  more  developed  than  the  one  on  the  lower  edge.  As  a  rule, 
there  aro  four  nails  on  the  hind-foot,  and  five  on  the  front.  The  Indian 
elephant  is  an  inhabitant  not  only  of  the  country  from  which  it  takes  its 
name,  but  likewise  of  Ceylon,  Burma,  the  Malay  Peninsula,  Cochin-China, 
Sumatra,  and  Borneo,  although  it  may  have  been  introduced  into  the  island 
last  named.  Associating  in  herds  of  variable  size,  it  is  fond  of  cool,  shady 
forests  in  the  neighbourhood  of  water,  avoiding  as  much  as  possible  the  full 
glare  of  the  sun,  and  feeding  chiefly  upon  leaves,  fruits,  and  small  branches. 
So  much  has  been  written  on  the  subject  of  the  habits  of  this  species  that  this 


120 


MAMMALIA—  ORDER  VL—UNGULATA. 


may  be  passed  over  here  ;  but  as  much  misapprehension  obtains  as  to  the 
height  attained  by  the  animal,  a  somewhat  full  notice  may  be  given. 

With  all  his  large  experience  of  Indian  elephants,  the  late  Mr.  Sanderson, 
in  his  "Thirteen  Years  among  the  Wild  Beasts  of  India,"  stated  that  the 
largest  male  he  had  at  that  time  ever  seen  measured  9  feet  10  inches  at  the 
shoulder  ;  while  two  others  with  which  he  was  acquainted  touched  9  feet  8 
inches.  He  adds,  "  There  is  little  doubt  that  there  is  not  an  elephant  10  feet 
at  the  shoulder  in  India."  Next  comes  Sir  Samuel  Baker,  who,  after  men- 
tioning in  "Wild  Beasts  and  their  Ways"  that  the  well-known  African 
elephant  "  Jumbo"  measured  11  feet  at  the  shoulder,  and  weighed  6£  tons, 

declared  that  no  Indian  ele- 
phant approaches  these  dimen- 
sions. It  is  further  set  down 
in  the  same  book  that  "  9  feet 
at  the  highest  portion  of  the 
back  is  a  good  height  for  an 
Indian  male,  and  8  feet  for  the 
female,  although  occasionally 
they  are  considerably  larger. 
There  are  hardly  any  elephants 
that  measure  10  feet  in  a  direct 
perpendicular."  Later  on  Mr. 
Sanderson  was  forced  to  admit 
that  his  statement  as  to  there 
being  no  elephants  of  10  feet 
in  height  in  India  required 
modification,  for  he  himself 
subsequently  measured  a  male 

standing  10  feet  7J  inches.  Those  dimensions  are,  however,  reported  by 
Colonel  D.  Hamilton  to  have  been  exceeded  in  a  male  killed  in  1863 
by  the  late  Sir  Victor  Brooke,  of  which  the  height  is  given  as  11  feet, 
or  the  same  as  that  of  "Jumbo."  Moriom  Kelaart,  whose  observations 
are  generally  most  trustworthy,  records  having  seen  an  elephant  in  Ceylon 
of  upwards  of  12  feet  in  height.  That  such  a  stature  may  occasionally 
be  reached  by  a  few  giants  of  the  tribe  seems  to  be  supported  by  an 
enormous  skeleton  of  a  tusker  mounted  in  the  Indian  Museum,  Calcutta, 
which,  as  now  articulated,  stands  11  feet  3  inches  at  the  shoulder,  thus 
indicating  a  height  of  about  12  feet  when  in  the  flesh.  This  skeleton  is 
believed  to  have  belonged  to  the  tusker  of  a  small  herd  that  haunted  the 
district  to  the  north  of  the  Raniganj  Coal  Field  from  Soory  and  the  southern 
spurs  of  the  Rajmehal  Hills  to  Jamtara.  In  our  opinion  this  skeleton  is  cor- 
rectly mounted,  so  that  its  height  would  appear  to  be  truly  12  feet,  although 
it  has  been  stated  that  the  thigh  bone  is  not  perceptibly  larger  than  one  be- 
longing to  an  elephant  known  to  have  been  less  than  10  feet  in  height.  The 
elephant  of  10  feet  7|  inches  measured  by  Mr.  Sanderson  is,  however,  still 
the  tallest  actually  known  with  absolute  certainty  ;  although  we  by  no  means 
venture  to  assert  that  Colonel  Hamilton's  estimate  of  the  height  of  the  one 
shot  by  Sir  Victor  Brooke  may  not  be  perfectly  accurate.  Be  this  as  it  may, 
it  is  certain  that  the  Indian  elephant  is,  on  the  average,  a  considerably  smaller 
animal  than  its  African  cousin  ;  and  individuals  attaining  a  height  of  even  10 
feet  are  so  rare  that  each  case  is  deserving  of  record.  That  elephants  vastly 
exceeding  10  feet  in  height  formerly  lived  in  India  is  proved  by  the  occurrence 


ig,  66.—  INDIAN  ELEPHANT. 


THE  HOOFED  MAMMALS.  12 1 


in  the  gravels  of  the  Narbada  Yalley  of  limb  bones  beside  which  those  of  the 
skeleton  last  mentioned  appear  almost  puny,  many  of  these  fossil  bones  being 
exhibited  in  the  geological  galleries  of  the. Calcutta  Museum.  These  elephants 
belonged,  however,  to  an  extinct  species. 

From  the  height  of  the  Indian  elephant  we  turn  naturally  to  the  largest 
dimensions  and  weight  of  its  tusks.  Mr.  Sanderson  states  that  the  largest 
tusks  he  ever  obtained  measured  5  feet  along  the  curve,  with  a  circumference 
of  16  inches  at  their  junction  with  the  gum ;  while  the  weight  of  the  pair  was 
74^  pounds.  The  single  perfect  tusk  of  the  elephant  shot  by  Sir  V.  Brooke, 
to  which  allusion  has  been  made,  measured  8  feet,  with  a  maximum  girth  of 
16*9  inches,  and  weighed  90  pounds.  Mr.  Blanford  mentions,  however,  that 
a  somewhat  shorter  tusk  weighed  upwards  of  100  pounds;  and  two  pairs 
from  the  Garo  Hills,  mentioned  in  The  Asian  newspaper  in  October,  1888,  are 
stated  to  have  been  respectively  of  155  and  157  pounds  weight.  The  tusks  of 
the  large  skeleton  in  the  Calcutta  Museum  have  unfortunately  been  removed, 
but  the  size  of  their  sockets  indicates  that  they  must  have  been  immense.  All 
these  dimensions  are,  however,  comparatively  small  when  set  against  those  of 
unusually  large  African  elephants  ;  Sir  Samuel  Baker  referring  to  single 
tusks  of  that  species,  which  weighed  respectively  149,  172,  and  188  pounds  ; 
while  Sir  E.  G.  Loder  has  a  tusk  of  184  pounds  in  weight.  Huge  as  are  the 
tusks  indicated  by  such  weights,  they  must,  however,  have  been  small  by  the 
side  of  those  of  an  extinct  Indian  elephant  from  the  Siwalik  hills,  of  which 
the  skull  is  preserved  in  the  British  Museum.  The  tusks  of  this  monster 
have  a  total  length  of  about  12  feet  9  inches,  with  a  girth  of  26  inches  near 
the  base  ;  and  the  weight  of  each  in  the  living  state  may  be  safely  estimated 
at  considerably  over  200  pounds.  While  on  the  subject  of  elephants'  tusks, 
we  may  take  the  opportunity  of  mentioning  that,  as  we  learn  from  Mr. 
Sanderson's  book,  there  appears  to  be  a  widespread  belief  that  elephants  have 
no  milk  or  deciduous  tusks.  ^Nevertheless,  such  tusks  are  developed  in  all 
young  elephants,  and  may  be  seen  in  place  in  skulls  of  suitable  age.  They 
may  be  at  once  distinguished  from  the  permanent  tusks  by  the  circumstance 
that  their  lower  extremities  are  completely  closed,  whereas  those  of  the  latter 
always  remain  open.  These  milk-tusks  are,  however,  so  small,  and  are  shed 
at  such  an  early  age,  that  their  fall  is  not  likely  to  be  noticed  by  the  mahouts, 
even  when  they  have  under  their  charge  animals  sufficiently  young  for  this 
change  to  take  place. 

In  India,  elephants,  as  a  rule,  do  not  breed  in  captivity,  but  in  Burma 
they  not  unfrequently  do  so  ;  and  a  writer  in  The  Asian  newspaper  of  April, 
1895,  states  that  in  the  Chindwin  division,  there  were  kept  a  male  and  "five 
female  elephants  ;  four  out  of  the  five  female  elephants  have  calved  since  last 
September,  and  these  calves  will  go  and  suck  any  elephant  they  like  without 
the  elephant  objecting.  I  have  seen  two  calves  go  and  suck  one  elephant 
at  the  same  time,  then  go  off  to  another  and  suck  her.  Elephants,  without  a 
calf,  will  allow  another's  calf  to  suck  them.  This  I  noticed  down  in  Pyin- 
maria,  where  one  of  the  elephants  calved  ;  the  calf  used  to  go  round  and  suck 
three  of  the  females.  Again,  with  the  elephants  up  here,  one  calved  in  Sep- 
tember, another  in  October,  a  third  in  February,  and  the  fourth  in  March. 
The  calf  that  was  born  in  September  used  to  regularly  suck  the  elephant  that 
calved  in  October,  and  this  before  her  calf  was  born  ;  in  fact,  it  used  to  follow 
the  one  that  had  not  calved  more  than  it  did  its  own  mother,  and  the  female 
seemed  to  be  as  fond  of  the  calf  as  if  it  had  been  her  own.  When  No.  2 
calved  in  October  it  did  not  make  any  difference,  both  the  calves  sucked  either 


122  MAMMALIA-ORDER   VL  —  UNCULATA. 


No.  1  or  No.  2  just  as  they  liked,  and  they  invariably  sucked  the  same 
elephant  at  the  same  time  ;  then  they  used  to  go  off  and  suck  the  other  two 
that  had  not  calved  then.  These  six  elephants  have  now  been  in  the  Forest 
Department  for  at  least  six  years  to  my  knowledge,  and  how  long  they  were 
in  it  before  I  don't  know.  It  shows  how  absurd  it  is  people  in  India  saying 
elephants  will  not  breed  in  captivity  ;  here,  in  Burma,  our  elephants  are 
always  fettered  and  turned  out  into  the  forest  to  graze,  and  elephants  in 
better  condition  it  would  be  hard  to  find  ;  our  elephants  get  no  flour,  paddy, 
or  any  other  kind  of  rations,  and  no  tree-fodder.  After  the  day's  work  is 
done,  they  are  hobbled  and  turned  out  to  feed  themselves  ;  when  they  are 
not  wanted,  they  remain  out  in  the  jungle,  the  mahout  going  and  seeing  them 
once  or  twice  a  day.  In  this  way  they  can  eat  just  what  they  like."  The 
teats  of  the  female  elephant  are  placed  between  the  hind  legs ;  and  the  young 
calf  sucks  with  its  mouth,  and  not  with  its  trunk. 

There  are  many  methods  by  which  elephants  are  captured,  among  which 
the  following,  as  detailed  in  The  Asian  newspaper,  may  be  selected  for  notice : 
— u  Elephant-capturing  operations  by  the  pit-fall  systems  were  set  in  work- 
ing order  in  the  locality  of  the  forest  station  at  Mount  Stuart  on  the  Anaimalai 
Hills  in  the  season  of  1890.  For  the  past  five  years,  during  each  of  the 
working  seasons  which  commence  in  June  and  end  in  December,  elephant- 
captures  have  been  attempted.  Places  were  selected  in  the  known  runs  of 
the  elephants,  and  the  pits  were  dug  in  groups  of  three.  To  commence  with, 
about  21  pits  were  dug  in  different  parts,  all,  however,  being  within 
a  two-mile  radius  of  the  Mount  Stuart  forest  station.  Since  1890,  some 
20  pits  more  have  been  dug  out.  The  dimensions  of  the  original  pits 
were  12  feet  by  9  feet,  with  a  depth  of  10  feet.  These  are  too  large,  and  a 
pit  10  feet  by  10  feet  by  10  feet  is  amply  big  enough.  The  sides  of  the 
pits  were  made  vertical  and  not  sloping  downwards,  as  are  the  pits  in  Malabar; 
and  some  2  or  3  feet  of  brushwood  was  placed  in  the  bottom  of  each  to  act 
as  bedding  to  break  the  fall  of  the  animal.  The  pits  were  then  covered  by 
means  of  bamboos  placed  across  them,  and  on  these  were  spread  grass,  leaves, 
etc.  The  pits  are  visited  every  morning  by  a  forest-guard  or  watcher  deputed 
for  the  purpose,  and  these  report  to  their  superior  officers  whenever  a  fall 
takes  place.  During  the  first  year,  one  animal,  to  which  the  name  of  Juno 
was  given,  was  captured.  This  subsequently  died.  In  the  second  year,  1891, 
four  animals  were  captured,  two  of  which  subsequently  died,  and  two  of 
which  are  now  living.  In  the  third  year,  1892,  two  extraordinary  falls  took 
place  by  which  seven  animals  were  captured  in  five  pits.  Out  of  these  seven 
animals,  four  are  still  living.  During  1893  two  animals  were  captured,  and 
during  the  present  year,  1894,  four  animals  have  been  caught,  all  of  which 
fire  living.  Out  of  a  total  of  17  captures,  12  are  now  living.  It  may  be  re- 
marked, moreover,  that  the  casualties  took  place  amongst  the  first  three 
years'  captures,  when  the  attendants,  who  are  local  hillmen,  called  Mulcers, 
were  entirely  inexperienced  concerning  elephants.  During  the  last  two  years 
the  bed  of  brushwood  has  been  increased  considerably  so  as  to  reach  to  with- 
in 4  feet  of  the  top  of  the  pit.  The  results  speak  for  themselves  :  not  a 
single  animal  has  since  been  injured  in  the  fall,  although  two  of  the  latest 
captures  are  the  largest  animals  caught  since  operations  were  commenced. 
The  removal  of  a  capture  to  the  kraals,  which  are  within  two  or  three  miles 
from  the  pits,  is  a  very  simple  matter,  provided  everything  is  in  readiness 
beforehand.  The  size  of  the  animal's  neck  is  estimated,  and  a  peg  is  put  in 
the  rope  so  as  to  prevent  the  noose  going  smaller  than  the  neck-size  as 


THE  HOOFED  MAMMALS.  123 

estimated.  This  noose  is  then  thrown  over  the  elephant's  neck  and  pulled 
tight  to  the  peg,  the  end  of  the  rope  being  bound  round  a  neighbouring  tree  ; 
next,  one  of  the  elephant's  hind-legs  is  noosed,  and  the  end  of  this  rope,  for 
the  time  being,  bound  round  a  neighbouring  tree.  The  neck-rope  at  the 
peg  then  has  to  be  tied  with  twine  or  fibre  to  prevent  the  noose  being  loosened 
by  the  elephant.  This  operation  is,  taking  it  all  round,  the  most  risky  one 
connected  with  the  capture.  But  if  proper  care  is  taken  there  is  nothing  to 
fear.  The  pit  is  then  filled  up  by  means  of  billets  of  wood  being  thrown  in, 
and  as  the  animal  rises  nearer  the  surface  of  the  ground,  the  two  ropes  fasten- 
ing him  are  pulled  tighter  around  the  trees.  Eventually  he  gets  out  of  the 
pit  somewhat  fatigued  ;  the  ropes  which  secure  him  are  then  fastened  to  two 
tame  elephants,  and  the  animals  are  marched  in  single  file  (the  captured  one 
being  of  course  in  the  middle)  to  the  kraal,  and  all  the  ropes  are  removed. 
He  is  watered  three  times  a  day,  and  soon  made  tame  by  kindness,  given 
sugarcane,  etc.  Somewhat  large  animals  are  generally  in  the  kraal  three 
months  before  they  can  be  taken  out ;  the  little  ones  of  4  feet  or  5£  feet 
high  are,  however,  removed  within  three  weeks  of  capture.  The  work  of 
capturing  elephants  is  an  exceedingly  interesting  one,  and  only  needs  care 
and  constant  supervision  to  render  it  successful ;  and  certainly  the  more  one 
has  to  do  with  these  animals  the  more  one  is  bound  to  recognise  what  in- 
telligent, useful  beasts  they  are." 

The  African  elephant  (E.  africanus),  which,  as  already  stated,  is  a  larger 
animal  than  the  Indian,  has  large  tusks  in  both  sexes,  and  is  broadly  dis- 
tinguished by  the  structure  of  the  molar  teeth,  in  which  the  plates  are  fewer 
and  lower,  with  the  ivory-spaces  wider  and  more  lozenge-shaped,  and  the  enamel 
thicker  and  only  slightly  crimped.  The  finger-like  processes  on  the  upper 
and  lower  edges  of  the  tip  of  the  trunk  are  more  nearly  equal  in  size  ;  the 
ears  are  enormous,  forming  large  flaps  extending  over  the  shoulders,  and 
there  are  only  three  nails  on  the  hind-foot.  As  in  the  Indian  species,  the 
rugged,  naked  skin  bears  only  a  few  sparse  hairs,  but  there  are  a  number  of 
stout  bristles  on  the  edges  of  the  end  of  the  tail.  Until  decimated  or  exter- 
minated in  many  districts  by  human  greed,  this  species  ranged  over  the 
whole  of  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara,  and  frequently  occurred  in  enormous 
herds.  It  is  less  impatient  of  the  sun  than  its  Indian  cousin,  and  subsists 
largely  on  the  soft  roots  of  trees,  which  are  dug  up  by  the  tusks  ;  one  tusk 
being  generally  employed  in  this  service,  and  thus  more  rapidly  worn  away 
than  its  fellow. 

The  second  sub-order  of  the  Ungulates — the  Hyracoidea — is  formed  by  the 
small  Rodent-like  animals  known  as  hy races,  all  of  which  are  confined  to 
Africa  and  Syria,  and  may  be  comprised  in  the  single  genus 
Procavia.     In  the  structure   of  the  wrist-joint  of  the  fore-      The  Hyraces 
foot  these  animals  resemble  the  elephants,  from  which  they        — Family 
differ  in  having  only  three  toes  on  the  hind-foot,   and  but      Procaviidos. 
four  functional  ones  in  the  fore-foot,  where  the  first  is  rudi- 
mental,  as  well  as  in  the  characters  of  the  dentition.     As  regards  their  front 
teeth,  the  hyraces  make  a  curious  approximation  to  the  Rodents,  the  upper 
jaw  having  a  single  pair  of  curved  incisors,  which  grow  throughout  life,  and 
are  separated  by  a  long  gap,  without  the  intervention  of  a  canine,  from  the 
cheek-teeth.     In  the  lower  jaw  there  are,  however,  two  pairs  of  the  former 
teeth,  in  place  of  the  single  pair  characterising  the  Rodents,  while  the  upper 
incisors   differ  from  those  of  the  latter  in  being  sharp-pointed  instead  of 
chisel-shaped,    and  also  in  their  triangular  section,  two  of  their  surfaces 


124 


MAMMALIA— ORDER   VI.  —  UNGULA  TA. 


Fig.  67.— A  HYRAX  (Procavia). 


The  Tapirs. — 

Family 
Tapiridce. 


being  coated  with  enamel.  The  cheek  teeth,  which  include  four  pairs  of 
premolars  and  four  of  molars  in  each  jaw,  are  singularly  like  those  of  the 
rhinoceroses,  and  thus  quite  different  from  those  of  the  Rodents.  With  the 

exception  of  the  second  toe  of  the  hind-foot, 
the  toes  are  protected  by  short,  broad  nails ; 
and  the  tail  is  remarkable  for  its  extreme 
shortness.  In  general  appearance,  hyraces 
(which  are  the  conies  of  Scripture)  are  very 
like  large  cavies.  While  the  majority  live  in 
colonies  among  the  cracks  and  crannies  of 
rocks,  some  of  the  African  species  are  arboreal 
in  their  habits,  climbing  the  sterns  arid  larger 
branches  of  trees,  and  sleeping  in  their  holes  ; 
in  this  respect  they  are  unique  among  the 
Ungulate  order. 

The  primitive  and  ancient  group  of  animals  commonly  known  as  tapirs  are 
the  first  representatives  of  the  third  sub-ordinal  section  of  the  Ungulates, 
technically  termed  the  Perissodactyle  section.  The  essential 
feature  of  the  members  of  this  section  is  to  be  found  in  the 
structure  of  the  feet,  in  which  the  toe  corresponding  to  the 
third  or  middle  digit  of  the  human  hand  or  foot  is  always 
larger  than  the  one  on  each  side  of  it,  and  symmetrical  in 
itself  ;  the  total  number  of  toes  on  the  hind-foot  never  exceeding  three,  and 
on  the  front-foot  four.  It  is  in  consequence  of  this  special  development  of 
the  third  toe  that  the  group  is  spoken  of  as  the  Odd-toed  or  Perissodactyle 
Ungulates.  In  addition  to  this  essential  feature,  the  Perissodactyla  differ 
from  the  two  preceding  sub-orders  in  the  structure  of  the  wrist-joint  of  the 
fore-foot,  in  which  the  two  horizontal  rows  of  small  bones  not  only  interlock 
with  one  another,  but  are  likewise  not  disposed  in  vertical  lines  immediately 
above  the  supporting  metacarpals.  Hence  in  these  animals  it  would  be  im- 
possible to  cleave  the  foot  between  any  two  of  the  toes  without  cutting  through 
solid  bone.  A  further  difference  from  the  elephants  is  to  be  found  in  the 

circumstance  that  the  huckle-bone, 
or  astragalus,  of  the  ankle-joint  of 
the  Perissodactyles  is  a  vertically 
elongated  bone  terminating  above 
in  a  deeply  grooved,  pulley-like 
surface  for  articulation  with  the 
larger  bone  of  the  leg,  instead  of 
being  shallow,  with  a  flat  upper 
surface.  All  these  animals  walk 
in  the  digitigrade  fashion  on  the 
summits  of  their  toes,  which  are 
more  elongated  than  in  the  ele- 
phants. At  the  present  day  the 
Perissodactyla  are  represented  by 
only  three  families,  each  containing  a  comparatively  small  number  of  species  ; 
but  in  former  epochs  of  the  earth's  history  they  were  much  more  numer- 


Fig.  68.— MALAYAN  TAPIR  (Tapirus  indicus). 


From  the  other  members  of  the  sub-order,  tapirs,  which  are  some  what  pig-like 
and  antediluvian-looking  animals,  are  readily  distinguished  by  the  production 
of  the  muzzle  into  a  short,  mobile  snout,  and  the  presence  of  four  toes  on  the 


THE  HOOFED  MAMMALS.  125 

front-feet,  the  hind  pair  having  three.  They  have  low-crowned  cheek-teeth  ; 
the  upper  molars  having  an  outer  wall  formed  by  the  union  of  two  conical 
tubercles,  from  the  inner  side  of  which  a  pair  of  transverse  crests  run  obliquely 
across  the  grinding  surface  of  the  crown.  In  the  lower  molars  there  is  simply 
a  pair  of  transverse  ridges  to  each  ;  the  total  number  of  teeth  being  42.  The 
skin  of  all  the  tapirs  is  sparsely  haired  ;  and  in  size  these  animals  may  be 
compared  to  a  large  donkey. 

The  whole  of  the  five  living  species  of  tapirs  may  be  included  in  the  single 
genus  Tapirus,  to  which  special  interest  attaches  on  account  of  its  remarkable 
geographical  distribution.  Thus,  whereas  one  of  the  five  species  is  found  in 
the  Malayan  countries,  the  whole  of  the  other  four  are  restricted  to  the  forest- 
region  of  Tropical  America,  some  of  the  latter  ranging  high  into  the  Andes. 
This,  however,  is  by  no  means  all,  sinee  the  Malayan  species  is  much  more 
nearly  related  to  two  of  the  American  species  than  are  the  latter  to  their 
compatriots.  Had  we  the  existing  forms  alone  to  deal  with,  this  discontinuous 
distribution  would  be  very  difficult  to  explain  ;  but  we  learn  from  geology 
that  these  animals  were  formerly  widely  spread  over  the  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere, whence  they  have  migrated  southwards  to  their  present  isolated 
habitats. 

The  Malayan  species  (T.  indicus),  which  is  the  largest  of  the  five,  differs 
from  all  the  others  in  having  the  middle  of  the  body  white  ;  the  remainder 
of  the  skin  being  uniformly  black,  as  is  the  whole  of  that  of  the  American 
species.  In  all  the  five  kinds  the  skin  of  the  young  is,  however,  striped  and 
spotted  with  white.  As  regards  their  mode  of  life,  tapirs  are  essentially  shy, 
harmless,  and  nocturnal  forest  animals,  always  frequenting  the  neighbourhood 
of  water,  in  which  they  often  swim. 

The  rhinoceroses,  which  include  by  far  the  largest  representatives  of  the 
Perissodactyle  sub-order,  may  be  best  distinguished  from  the  tapirs  by  the 
form  and  number  of  their  teeth.     These  are  always  numeri- 
cally less  than  42  in  the  living  species ;  and  the  upper  molars  The 
differ  from  those  of  the  tapirs  in  that  their  outer  surface  forms    Rhinoceroses.— 
a  continuous  wall,  undivided  into  lobes,  while  the  grinding           Family 
surface,  although  consisting  primarily  of  two  oblique  trans-     Rhinocerotida. 
verse  ridges,  presents  a  much  more  complicated  pattern.     In 
the  lower  molars,  the  ridges,  instead  of  being  simply  transverse,  are  curved 
into  crescents.     Another  point  of  distinction,  so  far  as  the  existing  kinds  are 
concerned,  is  the  presence  of  only  three  toes  on  both  the  front  and  hind-feet. 
Rhinoceroses  derive  their  name  from  the  presence  of  either  one  or  two  horns 
arising  from  the  middle  line  of  the  fore-part  and  middle  of  the  head  ;  these 
horns  consisting  entirely  of  an  agglutinated  mass  of  hair- like  substances,  having 
no  connection  with  the  bones  of  the  skull. 

In  appearance,  rhinoceroses  are  huge,  ungainly  brutes,  with  an  enormous 
head,  much  elevated  and  expanded  posteriorly,  short,  massive  limbs,  large, 
tubular,  upright  ears,  often  fringed  with  hairs,  a  moderately  long,  tapering 
tail,  and  very  thick  skin,  which  is  generally  but  sparsely  covered  with  hair, 
and  may  be  thrown  into  a  number  of  massive  folds.  They  have  always 
the  full  number  of  seven  pairs  of  cheek  teeth;  but  canines  are  wanting, 
and  the  incisors,  if  present  at  all,  are  reduced  below  the  typical  number  of 
three  pairs. 

Rhinoceroses  are  restricted  to  the  Oriental  countries  and  Africa ;  but  there 
is  some  difference  of  opinion  whether  they  should  be  divided  into  several 
genera,  or  all  included  under  the  single  generic  term  Rhinoceros.  Adopting 


126  MAMMALIA— ORDER   VL—UNGULATA. 


the  latter  alternative,  the  five  existing  species  may  be  arranged  in  two 
divisions,  of  which  one  includes  the  three  Oriental  forms,  and  the  other  the 
two  African.  The  Oriental  rhinoceroses  are  characterised  by  possessing 

incisor  teeth  in  both  jaws, 
one  (or  the  only)  pair  in  the 
lower  jaw  forming  sharp,  tri- 
angular, projecting  tusks,  cap- 
able of  inflicting  terrific  gashes 
when  their  owners  charge.  By 
far  the  largest  of  these  is  the 
great  Indian  rhinoceros  (R. 
unicornis\  which  is  confined 
to  the  great  grass- jungles  of 
North-Eastern  India,  and  is 
characterised  by  its  massive 
Fig.  69.— INDIAN  RHINOCEROS  (Rhinoceros  unicornis).  but  short,  single  horn,  the 

large  bosses  on  the  deeply- 
folded  skin,  the  numerous  pleats  round  the  neck,  and  the  complicated 
structure  of  the  upper  molar  teeth.  The  Javan  rhinoceros  (R.  sondaicus), 
which  is  a  much  smaller  animal,  ranging  from  Eastern  Bengal  and  the 
Sandarbans  to  Burma,  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  the  islands  of  Sumatra, 
Borneo,  and  Java,  differs  in  the  arrangement  of  the  folds  of  the  skin, 
which  lacks  the  great  bosses  of  the  larger  species,  and  likewise  by  the  lower 
and  simpler  crowns  of  the  upper  molar  teeth.  The  third  representative 
of  the  Oriental  group  of  the  genus  is  the  Sumatran  rhinoceros  (R.  suma- 
trensis),  which  ranges  from  Assam,  Chittagong,  and  Burma,  to  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  Siam,  Sumatra,  and  Borneo,  and  is  the  smallest  of  the  three. 
Having  upper  molar  teeth  of  the  same  type  as  those  of  the  Javan  species,  it 
differs  from  both  that  and  the  Indian  rhinoceros  in  having  two  horns  on  the 
head,  the  foremost  of  which  is  often  much  larger  than  the  single  one  of  either 
of  the  other  Asiatic  species. 

The  two  species  of  African  rhinoceroses  differ  in  that  the  incisors  of  the 
adults  are  rudimental  or  wanting  in  both  jaws,  and  likewise  in  the  absence  of 
foldings  in  the  skin,  which  covers  the  body  uniformly  ;  both  having  two 
horns.  The  largest  of  these  is  the  square-mouthed,  or  Burchell's  rhinoceros 
(R.  simus),  frequently  inappropriately  spoken  of  as  the  white  rhinoceros. 
This  animal,  which  was  formerly  met  with  in  enormous  numbers  to  the  north 
of  the  Orange  River,  but  is  now  well-nigh  exterminated,  if,  indeed,  it  be  not 
actually  extinct,  takes  its  name  from  its  square  and  truncated  upper-lip.  In 
addition  to  this,  it  is  characterised  by  the  tall  and  complex  crowns  of  the 
upper  molar  teeth,  which  present  a  pattern  very  similar  to  that  obtaining  in 
the  Indian  species,  as  well  as  by  the  great  length  of  the  front  horn,  which  is 
frequently  found  with  its  tip  obliquely  abraded,  on  account  of  having  been 
pushed  along  the  ground  as  its  owner  walked.  The  general  colour  of  the 
skin  is  slaty-grey.  On  the  other  hand,  the  common  African,  or  so-called 
black  rhinoceros  (R.  bicornis),  has  the  prehensile  lip  characteristic  of  the 
other  members  of  the  genus,  while  its  front  horn  does  not  attain  the  enor- 
mous length  reached  in  R.  simus,  and  the  upper  molars  are  of  simpler  struc- 
ture. This  rhinoceros  ranges  from  Abyssinia  to  the  Cape,  and  differs 
considerably  in  habits  from  the  other  African  species.  Possibly  a  third 
species  may  exist  in  North-Eastern  Africa. 

The  third  and  last  family  of  the  Odd-toed  Ungulates  is  that  of  the  horses, 


THE  HOOFED  MAMMALS.  127 

under  which  title  are  included  not  only  horses  proper,  but  also  zebras  and 
asses,  all  of  which  may  be  comprised  in  the  single  genus 
Equus.     From  all  other  living  Mammals  the  members  of     The  Horse  Tribe. 
this  genus  differ  by  the  reduction  of  the  number  of  toes  to  -—Family 

a  single  one  in  each  foot ;  but  as  there  are  certain  extinct  Equidce. 

horses  provided  with  three  perfect  toes  on  each  foot,  we 
learn  that  this  essential  peculiarity  of  the  existing  forms  is  a  feature  of  com- 
paratively late  acquisition.  Indeed,  evidence  of  this  descent  from  a  three- 
toed  ancestor  is  afforded  by  the  so-called  splint-bones  which  are  found  in  the 
horse,  lying  on  each  side  of  the  upper  half  of  each  cannon-bone,  and  corre- 
spond to  the  metacarpals  and  metatarsals  of  the  second  and  fourth  digits  of 
the  typical  five-toed  foot,  the  cannon-bone  representing  the  third  or  middle 
one.  In  the  case  of  such  well-known  animals  as  the  horses,  it  would  be 
quite  superfluous  in  a  work  of  the  present  nature  to  describe  them  in  any 
detail,  and  it  will  accordingly  suffice  to  point  out  a  few  of  the  features  which 
indicate  that  they  form  a  family  by  themselves.  More  important  than  the 
single  digit  of  the  feet  is  the  peculiar  structure  of  the  molar  and  premolar 
teeth,  which  form  tall  quadrangular  prisms,  in  which  the  enamel  is  thrown 
into  a  number  of  deep  foldings  and  plications,  the  intervening  depressions 
and  flutings  being  completely  filled  with  cement.  Although  the  resemblance 
is  at  first  not  very  easy  to  make  out,  a  careful  study  of  the  pattern  on  the 
crowns  of  the  upper  molar  teeth  of  a  horse  will  show  that  it  is  really  essen- 
tially the  same  as  in  the  rhinoceroses,  of  which  it  may  be  regarded  as  a 
specialised  modification.  The  upper  premolar  teeth,  which  are  generally 
three  in  number,  although  occasionally  a  small  anterior  one  is  present,  are  as 
complex  as  the  molars,  and  are  peculiar  in  being  larger  than  the  latter  ; 
similar  features  occurring  in  the  lower  jaw.  There  are  thus  normally  six 
pairs  of  cheek  teeth  in  each  jaw  ;  the  total  number  of  teeth  in  the  adult  male 
being  40,  although  in  the  female  it  may  be  reduced  to  36,  as  the  canines,  or 
tusks,  which  are  always  rudimental  in  that  sex,  are  in  some  cases  altogether 
wanting.  The  canines  occupy  the  centre  of  a  long  gap  between  the  pre- 
molars  and  the  incisors ;  the  three  pairs  of  the  latter  forming  a  semi-circle 
at  the  extremities  of  the  jaws.  The  incisors  of  the  horses  are  peculiar 
in  having  the  summits  of  their  crowns  deeply  infolded,  like  the  finger  of 
a  glove  with  the  tip  pushed  in  ;  and  it  is  according  as  to  how  much  of  this 
infold,  or  "mark,"  remains  in  the  teeth  of  a  horse  that  its  age  is  approxi- 
mately determined.  The  skull  of  a  horse,  which  is  of  an  exceedingly  elon- 
gated form,  differs  from  that  of  either  a  tapir  or  a  rhinoceros  in  having  the 
socket  of  the  eye  completely  surrounded  by  a  ring  of  bone  ;  and  in  the  limbs 
the  bones  known  as  the  ulna  in  the  front  pair,  and  the  fibula  in  the  hind,  are 
incomplete,  and  respectively  united  with  the  radius  and  the  tibia.  A  special 
feature  of  the  horses  is  the  great  elongation  of  the  cannon-bone  (metacarpal 
and  metatarsal)  in  each  foot,  which  gives  them  their  characteristic  length  and 
slenderness  of  limb,  and  enables  the  upper  parts  of  both  the  fore  and  hind- 
legs  to  be  enclosed  in  the  skin  of  the  body.  It  is  almost  superfluous  to 
observe  that  the  so-called  knee  of  a  horse  represents  the  human  wrist,  and 
the  hock  the  ankle  ;  the  whole  of  the  limbs  situated  below  these  joints  corre- 
sponding to  the  middle  finger  or  toe  of  the  human  hand  or  foot,  with  the  sup- 
porting metacarpal  or  metatarsal  bone.  The  toe  of  each  foot  is  enveloped  in 
a  solid  hoof,  which  is  broader  in  the  front  than  in  the  hind-limb  ;  and  the 
inner  sides  of  the  fore-limb  always  has  a  naked  wart-like  callosity  above  the 
wrist-joint,  while  there  may  be  a  similar  pair  of  callosities  on  the  hind-limb. 


128  MAMMALIA— ORDER   VI.—UNGULATA. 


The  ears  are  elongated  ;  the  long  and  tapering  tail  may  be  either  long-haired 
throughout  its  length,  or  only  at  the  tip ;  and  the  neck  is  ornamented  with 
an  upright  or  flowing  mane.  Horses  are  now  restricted  to  the  Old  World, 
although  they  formerly  existed  both  in  the  northern  and  southern  halves  of 
the  New  World. 

The  common  or  true  horse  (Equus  caballus)  is  now  best  known  in  a  domes- 
ticated or  half-wild  condition,  although  it  is  probable  that  the  wild  horses, 
or  tarpans,  of  the  Russian  steppes,  are  the  direct  descendants  of  the  original 
primitive  stock,  and  have  never  been  domesticated.  From  the  other  species 
of  the  genus  the  horse  is  distinguished  by  the  tail  being  covered  with  abun- 
dant long  hair  from  root  to  tip,  by  the  presence  of  a  warty  callosity  on  each 
hind-leg,  just  below  the  inner  side  of  the  ankle-joint,  the  longer  and  pendant 
mane,  snorter  ears,  more  elongated  limbs,  smaller  head,  and  wider  hoofs. 
Some  doubt  exists  whether  the  horse  from  Central  Asia  described  as  E. 
prezevalskii  is  a  valid  species  ;  but  if  it  be,  it  appears  to  be  intermediate 
between  the  horse  and  the  asses,  having  callosities  on  both  limbs,  an  erect 
mane,  no  forelock,  small  ears,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  tail  short-haired. 

The  zebras  of  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara  form  a  group  closely  allied  to 
the  asses,  but  distinguished  by  th.eir  more  or  less  completely  striped  colora- 
tion. Of  these  the  true,  or  moun- 
tain zebra  (E.  zebra)  formerly  in- 
habited the  mountains  of  the  Cape 
Colony  in  large  herds,  but  is  now 
greatly  reduced  in  numbers.  It  is 
a  rather  small  species,  standing 
about  four  feet  at  the  withers,  with 
rather  long  ears,  the  lower  part  of 
the  tail  somewhat  thinly  clothed 
with  long  hairs,  and  a  short  mane  ; 
the  ground  colour  being  white,  with 
broad,  black,  transverse  stripes,  ex- 
tending over  the  whole  skin,  except 
that  of  the  under-parts  and  the  inner 
surface  of  the  thighs,  and  the  lower 
Fig.  TO.-BURCHELL'S  ZEBRA  (Eqiius  burchelli).  part  of  the  face  chestnut  brown. 

On  the  hind-quarters  short  trans- 
verse stripes  extend  from  the  longitudinal  one  running  down  the  spine 
towards  or  to  the  oblique  ones  of  the  haunches.  Grevy's  zebra  (E.  grevyi), 
of  the  Galla  country,  differs  by  the  much  narrower  and  more  numerous 
stripes,  especially  those  of  the  head,  the  spine-stripe  being  disconnected 
from  the  others.  More  distinct  is  the  larger  BurchelPs  zebra  (E.  burchelli), 
from  the  open  plains  to  the  north  of  the  Orange  River,  characterised  by  the 
pale  yellowish-brown  ground-colour  of  the  hair,  and  the  broad  brown  or 
black  stripes  ;  a  dark  stripe,  to  which  the  lateral  stripes  may  be  united, 
traversing  the  middle  line  of  the  under-surface  of  the  body,  and  the  spinal 
stripe  being  isolated  from  the  uppermost  haunch-stripe  parallel  to  it.  Very 
generally  faint  stripes  occupy  the  middle  of  the  broad  intervals  between  the 
dark  stripes  of  the  haunches  ;  and  the  limbs  and  tail  may  be  either  fully  or 
partially  striped,  or  uniform.  Upon  such  variations  several  nominal  species 
have  been  established,  but  it  appears  preferable  to  look  upon  all  these  in  the 
light  of  mere  varieties  of  a  single  variable  species.  Many  attempts  have 
been  made,  with  more  or  less  marked  success,  to  break  this  zebra  to  harness. 


THE  HOOFED  MAMMALS.  129 


According  to  a  n3wspaper  report,  recent  experiments  in  the  Transvaal  have 
been  "successful,  in  so  far  as  the  training  is  concerned,  but  the  trials  with  these 
animals  have  wofully  disappointed  those  who  fancied  they  might  be  advan- 
tageously utilised  for  draught  purposes.  Most  people  in  South  Africa,  in 
districts  where  zebras  abound,  have  hitherto  regarded  these  animals  as  im- 
pervious to  that  human  control  that  would  be  necessary  to  render  them 
reliable  between  the  shafts  or  in  traces,  and  it  is  only  lately  that  efforts 
have  been  directed  towards  their  domestication.  Teams  of  them,  compris- 
ing ten  or  more,  have  been  broken  in  and  '  inspanned  J  to  coaches  and  other 
vehicles,  by  way  of  testing  their  amenability  to  the  bit  and  the  whip,  and 
their  behaviour  in  harness  has  been  in  some  respects  most  satisfactory  and 
promising,  though  their  peculiarities  sometimes  rather  out-mule  the  mule, 
their  shyness  being  particularly  pronounced,  and  their  disinclination  to  starb 
gently  another  characteristic,  resulting  often  in  jumps  out  of  harness,  or 
other  antics,  such  as  those  practised  by  a  jibbing  or  highly-nervous  horse. 
These  faults,  however,  cure  themselves  in  time,  simply  by  the  punitive 
lessons  they  teach  the  zebras  ;  but  the  stamina  of  the  animals  is  not  of  a 
nature  to  stand  the  strain  of  either  the  lessons  so  acquired,  or  the  burden  of 
the  draught  for  any  length  of  time,  and  looking  at  the  conformation  of  the 
zebra  one  is  hardly  surprised.  Resembling  the  mule  in  many  points,  he  yet 
lacks  that  essential  inherited  by  the  latter  from  both  his  progenitors — tough- 
ness of  bone  and  muscle,  prescribed  by  generations  of  usage  as  a  beast  of 
burden.  It  is  admitted  by  all  who  have  seen  zebras  in  harness  that,  from  a 
spectacular  point  of  view,  they  are  worth  the  trouble  spent  upon  their  train- 
ing, and  as  mounts  for  children  they  are  certainly  more  respectable-looking 
and  dignified  than  the  donkey,  and  in  chaises,  too,  they  would  probably  be 
found  equal  to  very  light  work.  As  draught  animals,  in  the  ordinary  sense 
of  the  term,  however,  they  are  not  successes.  Whether  a  breed  could  be 
manufactured  from  the  zebra,  in  the  same  way  as  the  mule  has  been,  and 
whether  with  similar  success,  are  questions  that  an  intermingling  of  blood  at 
the  present  time  might  satisfactorily  answer  in  the  future." 

The  fourth  species  is  the  quagga  (E.  quagga)  of  South  Africa,  which  forms 
a  connecting  link  between  the  others  and  the  asses,  having  the  head,  neck, 
shoulders,  and  the  middle  of  the  body  striped,  but  the  hind-quarters,  tail, 
and  limbs  uniformly  coloured.  This  animal  always  had  a  very  restricted  dis- 
tribution, and  is  now  nearly,  if  not  quite,  exterminated. 

The  leading  characters  by  which  the  uniformly-coloured  asses  differ  from 
the  horse  have  been  already  pointed  out.  The  Asiatic  wild  ass  (E.  hcmionus) 
is  a  variable  species,  of  an  isabelline  rufous  tint,  with  a  dark,  longitudinal 
stripe  down  the  spine,  but  none  across  the  withers,  and  comparatively  small 
ears.  Its  three  leading  varieties  are  the  Syrian  wild  ass,  the  onager  of  Persia, 
Baluchistan,  the  Punjab,  Sind,  and  Kach,  and  the  kiang  of  Mongolia  and 
the  Tibetan  highlands,  which  is  the  largest  and  most  horselike  of  the  three. 
All  these  wild  asses  inhabit  more  or  less  completely  desert  districts,  and  are 
exceedingly  fleet  of  foot,  passing  over  the  roughest  ground  at  a  gallop.  The 
African  wild  ass  (E.  asinus),  from  Abyssinia,  Nubia,  and  Somaliland,  differs 
from  the  preceding  by  its  greyer  coloration,  much  longer  ears,  and  the  general 
presence  of  a  dark  stripe  across  the  withers.  It  is  evidently  the  ancestor  of 
the  domestic  breed,  but  its  speed  and  endurance  must  not  be  judged  by  those 
of  the  latter.  The  late  Sir  Samuel  Baker  wrote  that  "those  who  have  seen 
donkeys  only  in  their  civilised  state  can  have  no  conception  of  the  beauty  of 
the  wild  or  original  animal.  It  is  the  perfection  of  activity  and  courage.  It 
10 


130  MAMMALIA— ORDER   VI.—UNGULATA. 


has  a  high-bred  tone  in  his  deportment,  a  high-actioned  step  when  it  trots 
freely  over  the  rocks  and  sand,  with  the  speed  of  a  horse  when  it  gallops  over 
the  boundless  desert.  The  specimens  now  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  will 
enable  any  one  to  perceive  the  character  of  the  animal  as  it  was  before  being 
altered  by  generations  of  captivity."  The  bray  of  the  Abyssinian  is  identical 
with  that  of  our  common  ass,  and  Darwin  notes  the  marked  aversion  to  walking 
across  a  brook,  which  characterises  the  domestic  donkey,  as  indicating  its 
derivation  from  a  desert-haunting  animal  ;  as  also  does  its  pleasure  in 
rolling  in  the  dust.  The  Somali  ass  differs  from  the  ordinary  African 
form  in  its  more  greyish  colour,  the  absence  of  the  cross-stripe  over  the 
shoulders,  the  very  slight  indication  of  the  spinal  stripe,  and  more  especially 
in  the  numerous  black  markings  on  both  front  and  hind-legs.  Jt  has,  like- 
wise, smaller  ears  and  a  longer  mane.  It  may  be  a  matter  of  doubt  whether 
these  differences  are  of  specific  value,  but  they  probably  only  indicate  a 
variety.  Of  this  form  Mr.  Lort  Phillips  writes  that  "on  March  22,  1884, 
when  about  20  miles  to  the  west  of  Berbera,  we  fell  in  with  a  small  herd  of 
wild  asses.  After  a  long  and  tedious  stalk  I  succeeded  in  bagging  one,  which 
turned  out  to  be  of  quite  a  new  species  to  me,  having  no  mark  whatever  on 
the  body,  which  was  of  a  beautiful  French  grey  colour.  On  its  legs,  however, 
it  had  black  stripes  running  diagonally.  I  have,  unfortunately,  lost  the  book 
in  which  I  put  its  measurements,  but  it  was  a  superb  creature,  and  stood 
quite  14  hands  at  the  shoulder  j  our  Berbera  horses  looked  quite  small  in 
comparison." 

The  two  species  of  hippopotamus,  both  of  which  are  now  confined  to  Africa, 
and  may  be  referred  to  the  genus  Hippopotamus,  bring  us  to  the  fourth  and 
last  sub-ordinal  division  of  the  Hoofed  Mammals,  which  far 
The  Hippopot-  outnumbers  the  whole  of  the  other  three  put  together,  both 
ami. — Family  as  regards  families,  genera,  and  species.  From  the  fact  that 
Hippopotamidte  the  two  toes  corresponding  to  the  third  and  fourth  digits  of 
the  human  hand  and  foot  are  of  equal  size,  and  symmetrical 
to  a  vertical  line  drawn  between  them,  this  group  has  been  appropriately 
named  the  Artiodactyla,  or  Even-toed  Ungulates.  Whereas,  however,  in 
some  species,  such  as  the  giraffe,  only  these  two  digits  are  present ;  in  others, 
like  the  hippopotami,  there  are  four  functional  digits  ;  while  in  yet  others,  as 
the  oxen,  the  middle  *pair  alone  are  functional,  and  the  lateral  ones  much 
reduced  in  size,  and  of  no  functional  importance.  In  the  peccaries  the  hind- 
foot  is  unique  among  the  sub-order  in  having  only  three  toes.  Although  the 
structure  of  the  feet  forms  the  prime  distinction  between  the  Artiodactyla 
and  Perissodactyla;  there  are  many  other  points  of  difference  between  the 
two  groups,  a  few  of  which  may  be  mentioned.  As  regards  the  teeth, 
the  premolars  of  the  Artiodactyla  are  almost  invariably  of  simpler  structure 
than  the  molars  ;  while  the  last  lower  molar  is  nearly  always  composed 
of  three  transverse  lobes,  whereas  in  all  the  living  representatives  of  the 
Perissodactyla  it  is  two-lobed.  The  femur  or  thigh-bone  of  the  latter 
group  is  always  provided  with  a  large  projecting  process  in  the  upper 
half  of  the  shaft  known  as  the  third  troehanter,  which  is  invariably  absent 
in  the  one  under  consideration.  Again,  in  the  ankle-joint  the  huckle-bone, 
or  astralagus,  of  the  Artiodactyla  has  its  lower  articular  surface  divided 
into  two  nearly  equal  facets,  whereas  in  the  Perissodactyla  such  surface  is 
single.  There  are  many  other  minor  points  of  difference,  but  those  given 
are  amply  sufficient  to  distinguish  between  the  two  sub-orders. 

The  hippopotami  are  the  most  primitive  and  least  specialised  of  the  existing 


THE  HOOFED  MAMMALS. 


Fly.  71.— COMMON  HIPPOPOTAMUS 
(Hippopotamus  amphibius). 


members  of  the  Artiodactyla,  and  are  characterised  as  a  family  by  the  follow- 
ing features.  Having  a  very  bulky,  clumsily-built  body,  and  short  limbs, 
these  animals  possess  a  very  broad  and  obtuse  muzzle  ;  the  feet  are  short 
and  broad,  each  having  four  toes  of  nearly  equal  size,  invested  in  rounded 
hoofs,  and  all  applied  to  the 
ground  in  walking ;  the  incisor 
teeth,  which  grow  throughout 
life,  are  curved  downwards  in  the 
upper  jaw,  and  project  straight 
forwards  in  the  lower  ;  and  the 
canines,  which  also  grow  con- 
tinuously, are  very  large  and 
curved,  those  of  the  upper  jaw 
being  directed  downwards.  The 
molar  teeth  are  tuber culated,  and 
have  four  columns,  the  summits 
of  which  show  trefoil  -  shaped 
surfaces  of  ivory,  bordered  by  a 
broad  rim  of  enamel,  when  worn 
by  use.  In  the  head,  the  great 
elongation  of  the  face  causes  the 
small  eyes  and  still  more  minute 
ears  to  be  situated  very  far  back- 
wards ;  the  legs  are  so  short  that  the  lower  surface  of  the  body  is  scarcely 
raised  above  the  ground  in  the  standing  posture  ;  and  the  round  tail  is  likewise 
extremely  short.  The  thick  skin  is  almost  entirely  naked.  The  common 
hippopotamus  (H.  amphibius)  is  an  animal  too  well-known,  both  as  regards 
form  and  habits,  to  require  any  detailed  description  ;  its  most  distinctive 
feature  being  the  possession  of  two  pairs  of  incisor  teeth  in  each  jaw.  On 
the  West  Coast  of  Africa  there  exists,  however,  in  Liberia,  a  second  species  of 
the  genus,  known  as  the  pigmy  hippopotamus  (H.  liberiensis),  differing  not 
only  in  size,  but  likewise  in  habits,  from  the  one  with  which  all  are 
familiar.  In  place  of  attaining  a  total  length  of  about  11  feet,  mea- 
sured in  a  straight  line,  and  weighing  probably  some  three  or  four 
tons,  the  pigmy  hippopotamus  is  not  larger  than  a  good-sized  wild 
boar,  although  it  has  the  short  and  stout  limbs  of  its  gigantic  cousin, 
with  which  it  also  agrees  to  a  certain  extent  in  the  relatively  large 
size  of  its  head.  As  regards  its  mode  of  life,  this  species  differs,  how- 
ever, in  toto  from  the  common  one.  Instead  of  passing  at  least  as  much  of  its 
time  in  the  water  as  on  the  land,  and  never  living  away  from  rivers  or  lakes, 
the  pigmy  hippopotamus  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  dense  tropical  forests  of  that 
part  of  Western  Africa  which  is  its  home,  where  it  apparently  leads  a  life  very 
similar  to  that  of  wild  pigs,  wallowing  in  swamps  after  the  manner  of  those 
animals,  but  apparently  not  habitually  frequenting  rivers,  though  it  is  doubt- 
less, like  almost  all  Mammals,  able  to  swim  well  when  th«  necessity  arises. 
Moreover,  in  place  of  associating  in  large  herds  after  the  manner  of  the 
common  species,  and  never  moving  far  from  one  particular  locality,  the 
Liberian  hippopotamus  is  a  comparatively  solitary  creature,  going  about  at 
most  only  in  pairs,  and  wandering  long  distances  through  the  woods.  It 
differs  essentially  from  the  common  species  in  usually  having  only  a  single 
pair  of  lower  incisors,  on  which  account  it  has  been  generically  separated  by 
some  under  the  name  of  Chozropsis.  Specimens  are,  however,  occasionally 


J32  MAMMALIA— ORDER  VI.—UNGULATA. 


met  with  having  two  pairs  of  these  teeth  on  one  side  of  the  jaw.  If  fossil 
species  be  taken  into  consideration,  other  variations  will  be  found  in  the 
number  of  these  teeth  ;  but  before  proceeding  farther,  it  is  necessary  to 
remark  that,  since  in  ordinary  Mammals  the  typical  or  full  complement  of 
incisor  teeth  consists  of  three  pairs,  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  one  pair  has 
been  lost  in  the  common  species.  That  such  is  the  case  is  demonstrated  by 
the  extinct  Siwalik  hippopotamus  (H.  sivalensis)  of  the  Himalaya,  in  which, 
between  the  two  large  tusks,  there  are  three  pairs  of  incisors,  differing  from 
those  of  the  common  species  in  being  all  of  nearly  equal  size  ;  and  if  we  were 
to  examine  the  upper  jaw,  we  should  find  the  same  number  of  teeth.  In  the 
presence  of  these  three  pairs  of  incisors  the  Siwalik  hippopotamus  resembles 
the  pig,  from  which  it  departs  less  widely  than  does  the  common  species,  in 
that  these  teeth  are  relatively  smaller,  and  also  of  nearly  equal  size.  The 
Siwalik  hippopotamus  must  accordingly  be  regarded  as  a  less  specialised 
species  than  either  of  its  living  cousins  ;  and  since,  together  with  an  allied 
species  from  Burma  (H.  iravaticus),  it  is  the  oldest  representative  of  the 
genus,  its  generalised  features  are  precisely  what  evolutionary  considerations 
would  have  led  us  to  expect.  There  is,  however,  yet  another  point  in  con- 
nection with  these  teeth  demanding  notice.  From  the  evidence  of  the 
common  species,  it  is  impossible  to  determine  which  of  the  three  pairs  of 
lower  incisors  found  in  the  Siwalik  hippopotamus  have  dissappeared  in  the 
former  ;  but  in  the  gravels  of  the  Narbada  Valley  in  Central  India,  there  are 
found  two  extinct  members  of  the  genus,  H.  namadicu-s  and  H.  pal&iiidicitg, 
in  the  former  of  which  the  lower  incisors  are  similar  in  size  and  number  to 
those  of  the  Siwalik  species  ;  but  in  the  latter,  while  the  inner  and  outer 
pairs  are  very  large,  there  occurs  on  each  side  between  them  a  minute  and 
rudimentary  tooth,  squeezed  out  from  the  general  line  to  the  upper  margin 
of  the  jaw,  and  evidently  about  to  disappear  altogether.  There  is  thus  evi- 
dence that  the  missing  pair  of  lower  incisor  teeth  in  the  common  hippopota- 
mus is  the  second  ;  and  a  complete  transition  can  be  traced,  as  regards  the 
number  of  these  teeth,  from  the  Siwalik  species  through  the  common  one  to 
the  Liberian  hippopotamus.  While  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  African  hip- 
popotamus may  have  been  derived  from  the  Siwalik  species,  it  is  clear  that 
the  pigmy  hippopotamus  is  not  the  descendant  of  its  giant  existing  cousin. 

With  regard  to  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  genus,  while  there  is 
no  evidence  that  the  pigmy  species  ever  ranged  beyond  its  present  habitat  of 
Liberia,  the  case  is  very  ditFerent  with  regard  to  the  range  of  the  common 
species.  At  the  present  day  this  animal  is  found  from  the  Cape  Colony 
northwards  to  the  cataracts  of  the  Nile,  and  it  extends  westwards  to  Senegal; 
but  while  for  several  centuries  it  has  been  very  seldom  met  with  on  the 
Nile  below  the  entrance  of  the  Atbara  and  Blue  Nile,  there  is  abundant  evi- 
dence that  in  the  time  of  the  Pharaohs  it  was  common  in  Egypt,  where  in 
the  temple  of  Edfu,  as  well  as  several  other  buildings,  there  are  frescoes  re- 
presenting the  mode  in  which  it  was  hunted  and  speared.  That  the  hippo- 
potamus is  the  animal  indicated  in  the  book  of  Job  under  the  name  of 
behemoth  is  undoubted,  but  there  is  no  evidence  that  the  Jews  were 
acquainted  with  it  otherwise  than  during  their  sojourn  in  Egypt.  It  is  true 
it  has  been  suggested  that  its  range  may  have  extended  eastwards  as  far  as 
Palestine,  but  this  is  conjecture,  and,  had  the  creature  ever  lived  there,  some 
of  its  remains  should  have  been  found.  In  the  superficial  deposits  of  Southern 
and  Central  Europe  there  occur,  however,  numerous  remains  of  a  hippo- 
potamus which  cannot  be  specifically  distinguished  from  the  existing  African 


THE  HOOFED  MAMMALS:  133 


form,  although  it  was  generally  of  rather  larger  size.  This  difference  in  size 
was  once  thought  to  indicate  that  the  fossil  form  was  a  distinct  species,  but 
the  discovery  of  a  half-fossilised  jaw  in  the  alluvium  of  the  Nile  near 
Kalabshi,  in  Nubia,  showed  that  in  former  times  the  African  hippopotamus 
attained  dimensions  as  large  as  the  European  form.  In  England  the  hippo- 
potamus ranged  at  least  as  far  north  as  Leeds,  and  it  is  a  remarkable 
circumstance  that  in  many  places  its  remains  have  been  found  in  association 
with  those  of  the  reindeer.  In  Algeria,  where  the  genus  is  now  unrepre- 
sented, a  small  species  (H.  hipponensis)  flourished  during  the  Pleistocene 
period ;  this  being  distinguished  by  having  three  pairs  of  lower  incisor  teeth, 
which  differed  from  those  of  other  members  of  the  genus  in  having  their 
enamel  smooth  and  their  extremities  somewhat  expanded,  thus  approximat- 
ing to  the  corresponding  teeth  of  the  pigs.  Equally  noteworthy  is  the 
occurrence  of  another  species  (H.  lemerlei)  in  Madagascar,  where  its  remains 
are  common  in  the  great  marsh  of  Ambulisatra.  Somewhat  intermediate 
between  the  common  and  the  Siwalik  species,  this  rather  small  hippopotamus 
had  sometimes  three  and  sometimes  two  pairs  of  incisors  in  the  lower  jaw. 
One  or  two  small  species,  which  may  have  been  partially  terrestrial  in  their 
habits,  dwelt  in.  Italy,  Malta,  and  some  of  the  other  Mediterranean  islands 
in  past  times. 

From  the  hippopotami  the  members  of  the  great  pig  tribe,  all  of  which 
are  confined  to  the  Old  World,  are  at  once  distinguished,  not  only  by  their 
lighter  build  and  longer  limbs,  but  likewise  by  the  peculiar 
form  of  the  snout,  which  always  terminates  in  an  oval,  fleshy    The  Pig  Tribe. 

disc,  in  which  are  perforated  the  nostrils.      The  feet,   al Family  Suidce. 

though  severally  furnished  with  four  toes,  are  also  different 
in  that  they  are  much  narrower,  and  that  the  middle  pair,  which  are  alone 
functional  when  the  animals  are  walking  on  firm  ground,  are  much  larger 
than  the  lateral  ones,  and  have  flat  adjacent  surfaces,  so  as  to  form  a 
so-called  divided  hoof.  In  the  teeth,  the  incisors,  which  are  somewhat  vari- 
able in  number,  are  rooted,  and  thus  only  grow  for  a  brief  period,  while  the 
canines  are  rootless,  and  distinguished  by  the  upper  pair  being  directed  more 
or  less  markedly  outwards  or  upwards.  The  molar  teeth,  which  are  tuber- 
culated,  do  not  wear  into  the  distinct  trefoils  characterising  the  correspond- 
ing teeth  of  the  hippopotami. 

The  true  pigs  (tins)  differ  from  all  the  other  members  of  the  family  in 
having  the  typical  number  of  44  teeth,  although  in  certain  African  represen- 
tatives of  the  genus  the  anterior  premolars  are  frequently  shed  in  the  adult. 
The  canines  of  the  upper  jaw  are  curved  outwards  and  upwards,  and  in  the 
males  are  very  large,  and  project  far  beyond  the  lips;  they  are  worn  on  their 
outer  convex  surfaces  to  a  sharp  edge  by  the  attrition  of  the  longer  and  more 
slender  lower  tusks.  In  the  upper  incisors,  which  are  directed  downwards, 
the  first'  is  considerably  larger  than  the  second,  which,  in  turn,  succeeds  the 
third  in  size  ;  and  the  three  pairs  of  lower  incisors  are  directed  almost 
horizontally  forwards.  The  skull  is  characterised  by  the  great  elevation  of 
its  hinder  or  occipital  portion.  The  external  form  of  the  pigs  is  too  well 
known  to  need  anything  in  the  way  of  description  ;  but  it  may  be  remarked 
that  whereas  in  many  of  the  domesticated  breeds  the  skin  is  nearly  naked,  in 
the  wild  boar  it  is  covered  with  a  thick  coat  of  bristly  hair.  Whereas  the 
adults  of  all  the  species  are  more  or  less  uniformly  coloured,  the  young  of 
the  wild  breeds  are  longitudinally  striped  and  spotted  with  yellow  or  white. 
The  typical  representative  of  the  genus  is  the  wild  boar  (S.  scrofa)  of  Europe, 


134 


MAMMALIA— ORDER   VL—UNGULA  TA. 


Fig.  72.— BUSH-PIG  (Sus  africanus). 


North  Africa,  Asia  Minor,  and  Central  Asia,  replaced  in  India  by  the  closely 
allied  S.  cristatus.  India  is  the  home  of  the  smallest  species,  the  pigmy  hog 
(<S.  salvanius)  of  the  Bhutan  terai,  which  scarcely  exceeds  a  hare  in  size. 
Numerous  species  inhabit  the  Malayan  countries  and  islands  as  far  east  as 
Celebes  and  the  Philippines,  while  one,  which  may,  however,  have  been  in- 
troduced, is  found  in  New  Guinea.  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara  has  but  one 
of  the  more  typical  representatives  of  the  genus,  which  inhabits  the  Senhaar 

districts.  Elsewhere  in  that  con- 
tinent, as  well  as  in  the  adjacent 
island  of  Madagascar,  the  place  of 
the  typical  swine  is  taken  by  the 
bush-pigs,  which  are  frequently  re- 
garded as  representing  a  distinct 
genus,  under  the  name  of  Potamo- 
chcerus.  The  bush-pigs  have  long, 
pencilled  ears,  and  tend  to  lose  the 
anterior  premolar  teeth  in  both  jaws, 
while  their  molars  are  of  simpler 
structure  than  those  of  the  other 
members  of  the  genus.  Of  the  two 
African  species,  £  africanus,  ranging  from  South  to  Central  Africa,  has  grey 
hair,  whereas  in  the  West  African  S.  porcus  the  colour  is  red,  and  tho 
pencilled  ears  are  of  great  length. 

The  other  two  genera  of  swine  differ  from  the  foregoing  in  having  uniformly 
coloured  young,  both  being  remarkable  for  the  extraordinary  development  of 
the  tusks  of  the  males.  This  feature  attains  its  maximum  in  the  babirusa 
(Babirusa  alfurus)  of  the  island  of  Celebes,  in  the  males  of  which  the  upper 
tusks  pierce  the  skin  of  the  face,  and  curve  backwards  over  the  eyes  in  a 
manner  recalling  the  horns  of  the  chamois.  The  lower  tusks,  which  are 
equally  long  and  slender,  curve 
backwards  in  a  somewhat  similar 
manner,  but  do  nob  wear  against 
the  upper  pair.  There  are  but 
two  pairs  of  upper  incisors,  and 
only  two  pairs  of  premolars  in 
each  jaw.  In  appearance,  the 
babirusa  is  a  rather  short-bodied 
and  long-limbed  pig,  with  small 
ears,  a  very  wrinkled  skin,  and 
the  upper  edge  of  the  extremity 
of  the  snout  overhanging  the 
lower.  By  far  the  most  hideous 
and  repulsive-looking  members  of 
the  family  are  the  two  African 
species  of  wart-hogs  (P/i-acoc/icer- 
iis),  characterised  by  large  conical  warty  growths  projecting  from  the  sides 
of  the  face.  The  whole  head  is  much  flattened  and  expanded,  and  the 
muzzle  very  broad.  The  huge  tusks,  which  are  nearly  as  large  in  the 
sows  as  in  the  boars,  curve  upwards,  outwards,  and  forwards  ;  the  upper 
ones,  which  are  tipped  with  enamel  only  at  the  apex,  being  of  great  thick- 
ness, and  abraded  on  their  convex  surfaces  by  the  more  slender  lower 
pair.  In  the  adult  there  is  but  a  single  pair  of  upper  incisor  teeth, 


Fig.  73.  —  WART-HOG  (Phacochoerus  cethiopicus). 


THE  HOOFED  MAMMALS.  135 


although,  as  in  all  the  pigs,  the  normal  three  pairs  of  these  teeth  are 
retained  in  the  lower  jaw.  The  premolars  are  reduced  to  three  pairs 
in  the  upper,  and  two  in  the  lower  jaw  ;  but  in  aged  animals  not  only 
all  these  teeth,  but  likewise  the  first  two  pairs  of  molars,  are  generally 
shed,  so  that  there  is  only  the  last  pair  of  molars  left  in  each  jaw  behind 
the  tusks.  These  last  molars  are  of  great  size  and  very  peculiar  structure, 
being  composed  of  a  number  of  narrow  cylindrical  columns  arising  from 
a  common  base,  and  closely  packed  together,  so  as  to  form  a  long, 
narrow,  tall  crown.  Different  as  such  a  tooth  looks  at  first  sight  from  the 
corresponding  molar  of  an  ordinary  pig,  a  closer  inspection  will  show  that 
it  is  nothing  but  a  highly  specialised  modification  of  the  same  general 
type. 

All  pigs  are  more  or  less  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  associating  in  droves,  or 
"  sounders,"  of  variable  size,  and  inflicting  much  damage  on  crops  by  their 
habit  of  grovelling  in  the  soil  in  search  of  roots  with  their  snouts.  In  diet 
they  may  be  said  to  be  omnivorous,  scarcely  anything  edible  coming  amiss  to 
them.  The  females  produce  a  large  number  of  young  at  a  birth,  and  thereby 
differ  very  remarkably  from  the  ruminants,  in.  which  the  number  very 
seldom  exceeds  two,  and  is  more  generally  one.  Boars  attack  with  their 
lower  tusks,  and  the  wounds  inflicted  by  these  formidable  weapons  are 
terrific,  a  horse  being  not  unfrequently  ripped  open  by  one  sweep  from  the 
tusk  of  a  charging  boar. 

Although  nearly  allied  to  the  pigs  of  the  Old  World,  with  which  they 
appear  to   be   still   more   intimately   connected    by    means   of   certain  ex- 
tinct types,  the  small  American  swine  known  as  peccaries 
(Dicotyles)  are   generally   regarded  as   indicating  a  family      Peccaries. — 
group  by  themselves.     They  are  specially  distinguished  by  Family 

the  circumstance  that  the  canine  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw  Dicotylidce. 
have  their  points  directed  downwards  in  the  ordinary 
manner,  with  their  hinder  edges  sharpened  to  a  cutting  edge  ;  and  likewise 
by  the  toes  on  the  hind-feet  being  reduced  to  three.  In  the  skeleton  the 
third  and  fourth  metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones  are  united  at  their 
upper  ends.  Another  peculiarity  is  to  be  found  in  the  circumstance  that  the 
last  premolar  in  the  upper  jaw  is  as  complex  as  the  first  molar,  its  crown 
carrying  four  distinct  tubercles.  The  stomach  also  is  of  a  more  complicated 
construction  than  that  of  the  true  pigs  ;  and  the  back  is  provided  with  a 
peculiar  gland,  from  which  these  animals  derive  their  scientific  title.  The 
total  number  of  teeth  is  38,  there  being  only  two  pairs  of  incisors  in  the 
upper  jaw,  and  three  pairs  of  premolars  in  each.  Peccaries,  which  range 
from  the  Red  River  of  Arkansas  to  the  Rio  Negro  of  Patagonia,  much 
resemble  small  blackish  pigs  in  general  appearance.  They  are  forest-haunting 
animals  ;  and  although  of  small  size  individually,  the  large  droves  in  which 
they  collect  render  them  foes  by  no  means  to  be  despised  by  the  lonely 
traveller  in  the  Brazilian  or  Paraguayan  forests. 

The  three  preceding  families  of  the  sub-order  Artiodactyla  constitute  a 
sectional  group  known  as  the  Suina,  and  are  collectively  characterised  by  the 
tuberculate  molar  teeth  and  the  circumstance  that  the  third 
Camel  Tribe.--—    and  fourth  metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones  of  the  feet  (that 
Family  is  to  say  those  corresponding  to  the  third  arid  fourth  digits 

Camelidce,         of  the  human  hand  and  foot)  are  never  completely  united 
together,  and  are  in  most  cases  entirely  separate.     The  re- 
maining members  of  the  sub-order  are  divided  into  three  other  sections,  all 


136  MAMMALIA— ORDER  VI.—UNGULATA. 


of  which  differ  from  the  Suina,  and  agree  with  one  another  in  that  the 
molar  teeth,  instead  of  being  simply  tubercular,  have  the  columns  on  their 
crowns  bent  into  the  form  of  crescents,  of  which  there  are  four  in  those  of 
the  upper  jaw.  Technically,  this  type  of  tooth  is  known  as  the  selenodont;  and 
all  the  animals  possessing  it  are  characterised  by  their  power  of  ruminating, 
or  chewing  the  cud.  Moreover,  in  all  cases  the  third  and  fourth  metatarsal 
bones  of  the  hind-feet  are  completely  fused  together  to  form  a  cannon-bone, 
terminating  inferiorly  in  two  pulley-like  surfaces,  or  trochleae,  which  carry 
the  two  middle  toes  ;  the  same  condition  also  obtaining  in  the  corresponding 
metacarpal  bones  of  the  fore-foot,  except  in  one  species  of  chevrotain.  All 
these  animals  are  thus  more  specialised  than  the  Suina  ;  the  tubercular  type 
of  molar,  and  the  separate  metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones  of  the  foot,  being 
evidently  the  more  primitive  type. 

The  first  section  of  these  selenodont  Artiodactyles  is  known  as  the  Tylopoda, 
or  cushion-footed  group,  and  includes  only  the  single  family  of  the  Camelidce, 
now  represented  by  the  camels  of  the  Old  World  and  the  llamas  of  South 
America.  Having  selenodont  molars  and  complete  cannon-bones  in  both 
feet,  the  camel  tribe  are  specially  distinguished  by  retaining  incisor  teeth  in 
the  upper  jaw,  and  by  the  lower  canines  being  tusk-like  and  separated  from 
the  incisors,  which  always  form  three  pairs.  The  limbs  are  long,  with  the 
thigh  of  the  hinder  pair  less  enclosed  in  the  skin  of  the  body  than  is  the  case 
in  the  following  families  ;  while  the  feet  have  but  two  toes,  which  are  em- 
bedded in  a  large  pad-like  cushion,  and  have  only  small  nails  on  the  upper 
surface  of  their  extremities.  In  the  cannon-bones  the  two  trochlese  of 
the  lower  extremity  are  widely  divergent,  and  lack  the  median  longitudinal 
ridge  found  in  all  other  members  of  the  sub-order.  The  neck  of  these 
animals  is  long  and  flexible,  and  its  component  vertebras  present  a  peculi- 
arity unknown  in  any  other  living  Mammals.  As  regards  their  soft  internal 
parts,  the  camels  have  a  less  complex  stomach  than  the  true  Ruminants  ; 
two  of  its  chambers  having  special  honeycomb-like  cells  for  the  retention  of 
water. 

From  their  allies  the  llamas,  the  two  species  of  camel  (Camelus)  are  readily 
distinguished  not  only  by  their  much  larger  bodily  size,  but  likewise  by  the 
presence  of  one  or  two  fatty  humps  on  the  back,  which  diminish  or  increase 
in  size  according  to  the  physical  condition  of  the  animal.  The  head  is  large, 
with  relatively  short  and  rounded  ears ;  the  broad  feet  have  the  toes  very 
slightly  separated ;  the  moderately  long  tail  terminates  in  a  tuft ;  and  the 
nearly  straight  hair  is  not  woolly.  Adult  camels  have  a  total  of  34  teeth, 
with  but  one  pair  of  upper  incisors,  although  in  the  young  there  are  three 
pairs  of  the  latter.  The  camels  are  among  the  few  animals  of  which  there 
are  now  no  wild  representatives  ;  the  so-called  wild  Bactrian  camels  of 
Turkestan  being  now  pretty  conclusively  proved  to  be  the  descendants  of  a 
domestic  race  which  escaped  long  ago  from  captivity.  Of  the  two  species, 
the  Arabian  camel  (0.  dromedarius),  which  is  found  in  a  domesticated  state 
from  Africa  to  India,  is  characterised  by  the  single  hump ;  while  in  the  stouter- 
built  and  more  shaggily-haired  Bactrian  camel  (C.  bactrianus)  there  are  two 
of  these  excrescences.  The  latter  species  is  kept  as  a  beast  of  burden  from 
the  Crimea  to  Turkestan  and  Pekin,  From  the  large  loads  they  are  capable 
of  carrying,  as  well  as  their  power  of  enduring  deprivation  from  water 
for  a  considerable  period,  camels  are  invaluable  as  a  means  of  transport  in 
dry  countries,  where  the  roads  are  not  too  rocky.  They  are,  however, 
best  suited  for  traversing  sandy  deserts;  but  where  the  ground  is  wet, 


THE  HOOFED  MAMMALS. 


137 


Fig.  74.— THE  ARABIAN  CAMEL. 


especially  on  inclined  roads,  they  are  almost  useless.  The  Bactrian  camel, 
which  is  doubtless  a  native  of  Asia,  is  much  better  suited  for  traversing  high 
mountains  and  enduring  cold  than  the  Arabian  species.  Regarding  the  two- 
humped  camels  of  the  neighbourhood  of  Yarkand,  it  has  long  been  a  disputed 
point  whether  these  are 
really  wild,  or  whether 
they  are  the  descendants  of 
an  originally  domesticated 
race.  Something  towards 
clearing  up  this  question 
has  been  done  by  Major  C. 
S.  Cumberland,  who  had 
the  good  fortune  to  shoot 
one  of  these  animals.  Its 
skin  and  skull  were  sub- 
mitted to  Mr.  Blanford, 
who  reports  that  they  be- 
longed to  a  two-humped 
camel,  in  which  the  humps 
were  represented  by  large 
tufts  of  hair.  The  skull 
agreed  fairly  well  with 

that  of  a  domestic  Bactrian  camel  (C.  badrianus),  and  differed  from  that  of  the 

Whether,  however,  such 
indicative  of  the  exist- 
ence of  a  distinct  race,  the  materials  at  hand  were  insufficient  to  deter- 
mine. In  regard  to  these  camels  in  their  native  home,  Major  Cumberland 
writes  as  follows  : — "  The  Habitat  of  the  wild  camel  is  the  Gobi  steppe  from 
Khotan  to  Lob-Nor.  Except  when  snow  lies  on  the  ground,  these  animals 

may  be  met  with  here  and  there 
along  the  old  bed  of  the  Yarkand 
and  Tarim  Rivers,  which  they 
frequent  for  the  pools  of  brackish 
water  that  are  to  be  found  here 
and  there.  But  as  soon  as  the 
snow  falls  they  move  off  into  the 
desert,  as  if  then  independent 
of  the  water-supply.  They  pre- 
fer the  snow,  I  imagine,  as 
being  less  salt  than  the  water, 
although  it  also  is  impregnated 
to  a  certain  extent  soon  after 
it  falls.  The  camel  is  very  shy 


single-humped  Arabian  camel  (C.  dromedarius). 
differences,    as    presented  by   the  former,    were 


Fig.  75.— THE  BACTKIAN  CAMEL. 


in  its  habits,  and,  so  far  as 
could  ascertain,  has  never  been 
caught  or  domesticated.  The 
natives  told  me  that  no  horse  in 

the  country  could  catch  the  camels  in  the  deep  sand  of  the  region  they 
frequent.  They  appear  to  me  to  be  distinct  from  the  Bactrian  camel  ; 
they  are  less  stumpy  in  build,  the  hair  is  finer,  closer,  and  shorter.  They 
vary  in  colour,  like  the  domestic  species,  from  dark  brown  to  lightish 
dun.  Their  origin  has  yet  to  be  traced.  I  take  it  that  they  have  sprung 


133  MAMMALIA— ORDER  VL—UNGULATA. 


from  camels  wlien  the  district  known  as  Takla  Makan  was  "buried  in  a  great 
sandstorm  some  centuries  ago.  Tradition  relates  that  no  human  beings 
survived,  but  it  is  likely  enough  that  some  of  the  camels  and  horses  did  so, 
and  that  this  was  the  origin  of  the  wild  camels  and  ponies  that  are  found  in 
this  district." 

Camels  have  "been  successfully  introduced  into  North  America  ;  and  for 
some  years,  according  to  a  writer  in  The  Asian  newspaper,  have  been  largely 
employed  as  a  means  of  transport  in  South  Australia  and  Queensland,  while 
recently  the  Swan  River  colonists  have  followed  the  example  there  set  them; 
a  large  number  of  superior  Rajputana  camels,  which  had  been  marched  down 
from  Bikanir  to  Calcutta,  having  been  shipped  to  Western  Australia  to  be 
used  in  carrying  supplies  from  Perth  to  the  newly  discovered  gold  fields  at 
Coolgardie.  The  utility  of  the  camel  being  thoroughly  recognised  in  the 
Antipodes,  the  fact  that  an  agitation  against  the  animal  is  being  raised  in 
Queensland  is  rather  a  surprise.  "  Such,  however,  is  the  case,  as  a  petition 
was  recently  presented  by  the  residents  of  the  Charleville  district  to  the 
Governor  of  Queensland,  praying  that  something  should  be  done  to  prevent 
the  introduction  of  camels  into  the  colony.  In  it  the  petitioners  pointed 
out  the  urgent  need  that  some  constitutional  means  should  be  adopted  to 
prevent  an  imminent  and  dangerous  invasion  of  Western  Queensland  by 
camels,  as  their  employment  would  tend  to  deprive  the  present  carriers  of 
their  means  of  livelihood.  It  was  stated  that  the  rates  of  carriage  were  low, 
the  teams  plentiful,  and  that  the  carriers  were  willing  to  travel  on  all  roads, 
while  the  low  standard  of  living  among  the  camel-drivers  must  result  in  loss 
of  trade  to  the  district.  It  was  further  said  that  many  of  the  Western 
carriers  were  settlers  on  the  land,  and  the  colony  would  suffer  if  such  a  class 
of  men  were  forced  to  emigrate ;  that  the  value  of  the  Western  lands  would 
be  depreciated,  and  the  welfare  of  the  community  injuriously  affected.  In 
reply  the  Premier,  to  whom  the  petition  was  forwarded  by  the  Governor, 
expressed  the  opinion  that  the  agitation  against  the  camels  was  rather  hasty. 
The  cause  of  their  presence  in  the  colony  was  the  drought  in  the  South- 
Western  districts.  It  was  impossible  for  teams  to  travel  at  all  times,  and  as 
the  Warrego  Rabbit  Board  could  not  get  their  netting  brought  by  the  ordi- 
nary methods,  an  officer  was  sent  to  South  Australia,  and  the  required 
quantity  of  netting  carried  to  its  destination  by  camels.  Then  a  squatter 
in  the  district,  whose  wool  could  not  be  taken  away  by  the  carriers  in  con- 
sequence of  the  want  of  water  on  the  route  to  be  travelled,  had  had  it  for- 
warded by  the  camels  to  Charleville.  The  forty  camels  carried  altogether 
eighty  bales  of  wool — two  bales  to  each  animal — or  just  about  the  quantity 
that  is  sometimes  taken  by  one  team  of  bullocks." 

Although  the  name  llama  properly  belongs  only  to  the  domesticated  forms,  it 
is  commonly  applied  to  all  the  South  American  representatives  of  the  family, 
which  differ  from  the  camels  by  their  greatly  inferior  size  and  lighter  build, 
the  want  of  any  hump,  the  longer  and  more  pointed  ears,  the  short  and  bushy 
tail,  the  narrower  feet,  with  more  distinctly  separated  toes,  and  the  long  and 
woolly  hair.  They  have  two  teeth  less  than  the  camels,  owing  to  the  upper 
premolars  in  the  adult  being  reduced  from  three  to  two  pairs.  Of  the  two 
wild  species,  the  vicuna  (Lama  vicuna)  is  the  smaller  and  more  lightly-built 
animal  of  the  two,  and  is  restricted  to  the  high  Andes  of  Peru,  Ecuador,  and 
part  of  Bolovia,  where  it  associates  in  large  herds  in  th3  coldest  and  most 
inhospitable  districts.  On  the  other  hand,  the  guanaco  (L.  guanacus)  ranges 
from  the  Peruvian  Andes  through  the  open  pampas  of  Argentina  to  Pata- 


THE  HOOFED  MAMMALS. 


139 


Fig.  76,— GUANACO  (Lama  guanacus). 


gonia  and  Tierra  del  Fuego  ;  although  it  has  now  been,  exterminated  from 
most  parts  of  the  pampas.  In  size  it  may  be  compared  to  a  red-deer  ; 
and  its  fur  is  of  beautiful,  light  fawn-brown  colour.  The  llama  and  alpaca 
are  domesticated  varieties  of  the  guanaco,  kept  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Peruvian  highlands;  the  former 
and  larger  of  the  two  being 
employed  as  a  beast  of  burden, 
while  the  latter  is  bred  for  the 
sake  of  its  valuable  wool.  All 
these  animals  have  a  peculiar 
cry,  with  some  resemblance  to 
the  neigh  of  a  horse  ;  and  in 
the  domesticated  state  they  are 
disagreeable  associates,  on  ac- 
count of  their  unpleasant  habit 
of  spitting,  apparently  as  a 
means  of  defence.  Extinct 
members  of  the  family  are 
common  in  the  Tertiary  rocks 
of  North  America,  while  fossil 
camels  occur  in  Northern  India ; 
and  it  is  by  these  lost  types 
that  we  are  enabled  to  account  for  the  present  anomalous  geographical  dis- 
tribution of  the  group,  which  is  evidently  of  northern  origin. 

Among  the  smallest  of  all  Ungulates  are  the  graceful  little  Oriental 
animals  commonly  known  as  chevrotains,  or  mouse-deer,  which  in  coloration, 
form,  and  habits,  more  nearly  resemble  the  Rodent  agutis 
than  ordinary  Hoofed  Mammals.  Together  with  a  nearly-  The  Chevrotains. 
allied  African  genus,  these  animals  constitute  a  third  section  — Family 
of  the  selenodont  Artiodactyles,  known  as  the  Tragulina.  Tragulidce. 
From  the  camel  tribe  they  differ  in  the  total  absence  of 
incisor  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  also  by  the  circumstance  that  in  the  lower 
jaw  the  canines  are  approximated  to  the  incisors,  which  they  resemble  in 
form,  as  well  as  in  the  structure  of  the  feet.  From  the  true  Ruminants  they 
may  be  distinguished  by  the  stomach  having  only  three  in  place  of  four  dis- 
tinct compartments,  as  well  as  by  the  fibula,  or  outer  and  smaller  bone  of  the 
lower  half  of  the  hind-leg,  being  complete  and  quite  distinct  from  the  larger 
bone,  or  tibia.  Another  point  of  distinction  is  to  be  found  in  the  form  of  the 
so-called  odontoid  process  projecting  from  the  lower  part  of  the  front  surface 
of  the  second  vertebra  of  the  neck,  which  in  the  present  group  is  conical, 
whereas  it  is  spout-like  in  the  true  Ruminants.  A  resemblance  to  the  latter 
group,  and  at  the  same  time  a  distinction  from  the  camel  tribe,  is  to  be  found 
in  that  the  two  bones  of  the  ankle-joint,  respectively  known  as  the  cuboid 
and  the  navicular,  are  welded  together  to  form  a  single  bone.  As  in  the  true 
Ruminants,  the  toes  are  enclosed  in  solid  hoofs  ;  four  complete  toes  being 
developed  in  each  foot. 

-  The  smallest  representatives  of  the  family  are  the  true  or  Oriental 
chevrotains  (Tragulus),  of  which  there  are  four  or  five  species,  ranging  from 
India  and  Ceylon  through  the  Malayan  countries,  as  far  east  as  the  island  of 
Palawan  in  the  Philippine  group.  They  have  a  total,  of  34  teeth,  arid  aro 
mostly  uniform  in  coloration.  The  somewhat  larger  West  African  chevro- 
tain  (JJorcatherium)  differs  by  the  shorter  and  stouter  feet,  and  the  separation 


140  MAMMALIA— ORDER  VL—UNGULATA. 


of  the  third  and  fourth  inetacarpal  bones  ;  the  latter  feature  distinguishing  ib 
from  all  other  selenodont  Artiodactyles,     In  colour,  it  is  deep  brown,  with 

longitudinal  white  stripes  on  the  flanks, 
spots  of  the  same  on  the  back,  and  a  white 
chest  and  throat.  Both  in  this  animal  and 
the  true  chevrotains  the  upper  canines  of 
the  males  form  tusks  projecting  below  the 
lip.  In  appearance  they  are  very  like  minute 
deer,  having  moderate-sized  ears  and  a  short 
ta^'  kut  tne  nead  nas  no  bony  or  horny  ap- 
pendages. 

The  deer  tribe  is  the  first  of  four  families 
Fig.  77.— A  CHEVROTAIN  (Tragulus).       constituting  the  true  Ruminants,  or  Pecora. 

andincluding  the  whole  of  the  remaining  mem- 
bers of  the  order.  They  derive  their  name  of  Ruminants  from  their  power  of 
chewing  the  cud — a  feature  which  they  possess  in  common  \vith  the  camel  tribe 
and  chevrotains  ;  and  they  agree  with  the  latter  group  in 
The  Deer  Tribe,  lacking  upper  incisors,  and  in  having  the  lower  canine  ap- 
— Family  proximated  to  and  resembling  the  lower  incisors  as  well  as 
CervidcK.  in  the  union  of  the  cuboid  and  navicular  bones  in  the  ankle- 
joint,  and  in  the  covering  of  the  toes  taking  the  form  of 
horny  hoofs.  From  the  chevrotains  they  may  be  distinguished  by  the  stomach 
being  divided  into  four  distinct  compartments,  by  the  anterior,  or  odontoid 
process  of  the  second  vertebra  of  the  neck  assuming  the  form  of  a  spout,  or 
half-cylinder,  and  by  the  fibula  of  the  hind-leg  being  reduced  to  a  mere 
nodule  representing  the  lower  extremity  of  the  complete  bone,  and  articu- 
lated to  the  tibia.  Another  point  of  distinction  is  that  the  lateral  metacarpal 
and  metatarsal  bones  of  the  feet  are  never  complete,  but  are  represented 
only  by  their  upper  or  lower  ends.  Very  generally  the  skull  is  provided 
with  a  pair  of  laterally  placed  appendages,  which  may  be  either  unbranched, 
covered  with  horn,  and  permanent,  or  branched,  bony,  and  deciduous. 
When  such  appendages  are  present,  the  upper  canines  are  generally  small  or 
wanting  ;  but  when  the  former  are  absent,  the  latter  are  frequently  large. 
As  a  source  of  food,  the  true  Ruminants  are  by  far  the  most  important  of 
all  animals  to  the  human  race.  Unknown  in  Australia  and  New  Guinea, 


World  the  only  members  of 

As  a  family,  the  deer  tribe  are  generally  distinguished  by  the  heads  of  the 
males  being  ornamented  with  the  branching  deciduous  appendages  properly 
known  as  antlers,  although  often  wrongly  termed  horns  ;  these  when  fully 
developed  consisting  simply  of  lifeless  bone,  and  being  nearly  always  shed 
annually,  to  be  reproduced  in  a  somewhat  more  complex  form  the  following 
season.  Both  sexes  usually  have  well- developed  upper  canines,  which  may 
attain  very  large  dimensions  in  the  males,  especially  in  the  few  instances 
where  antlers  are  wanting.  The  face  is  always  provided  with  the  so-called 
larmiers,  or  tear-pits,  below  the  eyes  ;  and  the  underlying  region  of  the 
skull  always  has  a  very  large  unossified  vacuity.  As  a  general  rule,  both 
fore  and  hind-feet  carry  four  toes  ;  and  very  often  the  lower  ends  of  the 
lateral  metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones  persist.  With  the  single  exception 
of  the  musk-deer,  the  liver  is  provided  with  a  gall-bladder. 

It  would  require  too  much  space  to  describe  the  mode  in  which  antlers  ara 


THE  HOOFED  MAMMALS.  141 


formed  and  subsequently  shed,  but  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  annual 
formation  of  such  an  enormous  amount  of  bone  as  is  contained  in  the  antlers 
of  the  wapiti,  for  instance,  is  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  phenomena  to  be 
met  with  in  the  whole  animal  kingdom.  As  regards  their  distribution,  it  is 
remarkable  that  deer  are  totally  absent  from  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara,  as 
they  are  from  Madagascar.  Although  the  more  northern  deer  inhabiting  the 
New  World  are  either  generically  or  specifically  identical  with  Old  World 
forms,  the  majority  of  the  American  forms,  and  all  those  inhabiting  South 
America,  are  perfectly  distinct  from  those  of  other  regions. 

The  most  aberrant  members  of  the  family  are  the  well-known  musk-deer 
(Moschus)  of  Asia,  which  constitute  a  sub-family  by  themselves,  and  are 
represented  by  one  species  (M.  moschi- 
ferus)  ranging  from  the  Himalaya  and 
Cochin-China  to  Siberia,  and  by  a 
second  (M.  sifaniciis)  from  Kansu,  in 
North-Western  China.  One  of  the 
peculiar  features  of  these  deer — the 
presence  of  a  gall-bladder  in  the  liver — 
has  been  already  referred  to  ;  a  second, 
although  less  peculiar  character,  is  the 
absence  of  antlers  in  both  sexes.  To 
compensate  for  this  deficiency,  the 
upper  jaw  of  the  male  is  provided  with 
a  pair  of  long  scimitar-like  tusks,  which 
may  project  as  much  as  three  inches  Fig.  73.— MUSK-DEER  (Moschus  moschiferus). 
below  the  margin  of  the  lips.  The 

musk-deer  has  moderately  long  and  somewhat  pointed  ears,  a  short  tail,  very 
large  lateral  hoofs  to  the  feet,  and  the  fur  of  a  peculiarly  coarse  and  brittle 
nature,  its  general  colour  being  a  speckled  brownish-grey.  The  most  peculiar 
feature  about  the  animal  is,  however,  the  presence  on  the  abdomen  of  the 
male  of  a  large  gland,  discharging  by  a  small  orifice,  and  secreting  the  highly 
odoriferous  substance  known  as  musk,  which  is  much  used  in  perfumery,  and 
commands  a  high  price  in  the  market.  For  the  sake  of  obtaining  this  pre- 
cious product,  musk-deer  are  regularly  hunted  by  the  natives  of  the  countries 
they  inhabit  ;  one  plan  being  to  drive  them  against  nets.  In  the  Himalaya 
they  are  met  with  either  singly  or  in  pairs  ;  and  during  the  early  spring  may 
be  seen  traversing  the  snow-clad  birch  and  pine  forests. 

Of  the  more  typical  deer,  the  first  group  is  that  of  the  Oriental  muntjacs 
(Cervulus),  all  of  which  are  comparatively  small  species  characterised  by  the 
short  antlers  arising  from  long  bony  pedicles  on  the  skull,  which  rapidly 
converge  as  they  descend  the  face.  From  this  peculiarity  these  animals 
are  often  called  rib-faced  deer.  The  males  have  large  tusks  ;  and  the 
antlers  consist  of  a  beam,  or  shaft,  with  a  small  tine  at  the  base.  In  the 
lateral  toes  all  traces  of  the  bones  have  disappeared.  There  appear  to  be 
three  well-marked  species  of  muntjacs,  the  range  of  the  genus  extending  from 
India  to  Eastern  Tibet  and  China.  In  common  with  most  of  the  deer  of  the 
Old  World ,  the  muntjacs  are  characterised  by  the  retention  of  the  upper  ex- 
tremities of  the  lateral  metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones  of  the  feet.  Nearly 
allied  to  the  muntjacs  are  two  small  deer  from  China  and  Eastern  Tibet, 
constituting  the  genus  Elaphodus,  and  commonly  known,  from  the  presence 
of  a  tuft  of  hair  between  the  antlers,  as  tufted  deer.  They  differ  from  the 
muntiacs  in  that  the  pedicles  of  the  antlers  converge,  instead  of  diverging,  as 


142  MAMMALIA— ORDER  VL—UNGULATA. 


they  ascend  on  the  face  ;  while  the  very  small  and  simple  antlers  have  no  basal 
knobs  representing  a  brow-tine.  The  males  have  large  upper  canines,  and  the 
hairs  are  coarse  and  almost  quill-like. 

By  far  the  greater  number  of  the  deer  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere  belong 
to  the  typical  genus  Cervus,  of  which  the  most  familiar  examples  are  the  red- 
deer  and  the  fallow-deer.  From  the 
muntjacs  and  their  allies  all  these 
deer  are  easily  distinguished  by  the 
absence  of  the  bony  ridges  which  form 
the  bases  of  the  long  pedicles  of  the 
antlers  of  the  former.  As  a  rule,  the 
antlers,  which,  as  in  most  members 
of  the  family,  are  confined  to  the  male 
sex,  are  of  large  size,  considerably 
exceeding  the  whole  skull  in  length, 
and  they  do  not  branch  in  the  re- 
gular forked  manner  characteristic  of 

Fig.  79.— MUNTJAC  (Cervulus  muntjac),  the  American  deer.     While,  in    the 

majority  of  the  species,  the  antlers 
are  rounded,  or  slightly  flattened,  in  a  few  they  are  flattened,  or  palmated. 
Unlike  those  of  the  muntjacs,  the  upper  canine  teeth  are  of  comparatively  small 
size,  and  in  the  lateral  digits  of  the  feet  the  bones  are  present.  Although 
the  genus  is  mainly  confined  to  the  Old  World,  it  is  represented  in  North 
America  by  the  magnificent  wapiti.  In  the  main,  deer  are  forest-haunting 
animals,  the  old  bucks  going  about  with  several  does  during  the  breeding 
season,  which  they  have  obtained  by  driving  away  younger  competitors,  or 
by  vanquishing  rivals  of  their  own  age.  Generally  but  a  single  offspring  is 
produced  by  the  hinds  at  a  birth,  and  these,  as  is  the  case  with  almost  all 
Ungulates,  are  able  to  run  by  the  side  of  their  dam  in  the  course  of  a  few 
days.  Whereas  the  adults  may  be  either  uniformly  coloured,  or  spotted  with 
white  for  a  portion  or  the  whole  of  the  year,  the  young  are  very  generally 
spotted,  although  those  of  the  Indian  sambar  are  usually  an  exception  in 
this  respect.  Many  of  the  uniformly  coloured  species  of  the  genus  display 
a  conspicuous  white  blaze  on  the  buttocks,  and  in  all  the  muzzle  is  naked 
and  narrow,  while  the  antlers  of  the  males  arise  at  a  sharp  angle  to  the 
middle  line  of  the  face.  The  European  species  are  very  regular  in  their 
times  of  feeding  and  repose  ;  and,  like  other  members  of  the  family,  the 
males  during  the  breeding  season  utter  a  peculiar  "  belling  "  cry,  which  is 
both  a  challenge  to  rivals  of  their  own  sex,  and  likewise  a  call  to  the  female. 
The  genus  may  be  divided  into  several  more  or  less  well  defined  groups 
according  to  the  form  of  the  antlers,  and  other  structural  features. 

Of  these  the  first  for  consideration  is  the  Rusine  group,  which  is  ex- 
clusively confined  to  the  Oriental  countries,  ranging  as  far  eastwards  as  the 
Philippine  Islands.  In  this  group  the  antlers  are  rounded  and  frequently 
marked  by  strong  vertical  grooves,  while  they  lack  the  so-called  bez-tine  (the 
one  arising  immediately  above  the  first,  or  brow-tine),  and  the  upright  and 
slightly  curved  beam  terminates  in  a  simple  fork,  so  that  the  number  of  points 
to  each  antler  is  only  three.  The  brow,  or  basal-tine,  rises  close  to  the 
thickened  rugose  ring  forming  the  base,  and  known  as  the  burr,  and  makes 
an  acute  angle  with  the  beam,  or  main  shaft.  In  the  more  typical  forms,  the 
colour  is  uniformly  brown,  the  tail  is  of  medium  length  in  all,  and  the  neck 
is  generally  maned.  The  largest  and  best  known  representative  of  this 


THE  HOOFED  AlAMMALS.  143 


group  is  the  eambar  (C.  im&oZor),  which  stands  nearly  five  feet  in  height,  and, 
with  its  numerous  varieties,  ranges  from  India  and  Burma.,  through  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  Borneo,  and  Samatra  to  China.  As  a  rule,  the  young  are 
not  spotted.  Jn  Formosa  there  is  the  nearly  allied  C.  swinhoei,  while  C. 
philippiwis  and  C.  alfredi  are  smaller  forms  inhabiting  the  Philippine  Islands, 
the  last  being  distinguished  by  its  spotted  coat.  Still  smaller  is  the  Indian 
hog-deer  (6.  porcinm),  easily  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  a  distinct  mane 
on  the  neck,  and  the  comparatively  simple  antlers,  the  young  being  spotted 
till  they  attain  an  age  of  about  six  months.  A  second  Oriental  assemblage  is 
the  Rucervine  group,  typically  represented  by  tho  Indian  swamp-deer 
(C.  du'vauceli\  and  the  closely  allied  C7.  schomburgki  of  Siam.  In  these  the 
beam  of  the  antlers  is  rather  flattened  and  more  curved  than  in  the  first 
group,  while  the  large  brow-tine  arises  at  an  obtuse  angle  from  the  beam, 
with  an  upward  curvature.  To  the  same  group  belongs  the  remarkable  Eld's 
deer,  or  tameng  (C,  eldi)  of  Burma,  Cambodia,  and  the  Island  of  Hainan,  in 
which  the  whole  antler  forms  a  continuous  curve  from  its  extreme  summit  to 
the  tip  of  the  brow-tine.  In  all  the  three  species  the  tail  is  sharp,  and  the 
neck  provided  with  a  mane,  the  young  being  spotted.  David's  deer 
(C.  davidianus)  of  Northern  China  may  be  regarded  as  representing  a  third 
group  by  itself,  the  antlers  rising  straight  from  the  brow,  and  then  giving  off 
a  long  back-tine.  Each  antler  is  forked  at  the  summit,  but  the  prongs  of  the 
fork  may  again  divide.  The  brilliantly  coloured  axis,  or  spotted  deer 
(C.  axis)  of  India,  in  which  the  coat  is  permanently  spotted  with  white,  like- 
wise forms  a  group  by  itself.  It  has  antlers  of  the  same  general  type  as  those 
of  the  Rusine  group,  the  brow-tine  usually  arising  at  an  acute  or  right  angle 
from  the  beam,  but  it  differs  in  the  absence  of  a  mane  on  the  neck,  and  the 
greater  length  of  the  tail.  The  molar  teeth  are  characterised  by  the  great 
height  of  their  crowns.  The  pretty  little  Japanese  deer  (C.  st'ca),  which  has 
been  successfully  introduced  into  several  English  parks,  is  the  typical  repre- 
sentative of  a  small  assemblage  of  species,  chiefly  from  North-Eastern  Asia, 
which  constitute  the  Pseudaxine  group.  When  fully  developed,  the  antlers 
have  a  brow  and  trez-tine  (the  second,  or  bez-tine,  being  absent),  and 
terminate  in  a  fork,  of  which  the  hinder-tine  is  the  smaller,  so  that  the  total 
number  of  points  on  each  is  four.  In  summer  the  coat  is  spotted,  but  it  be- 
comes uniformly  coloured  in  winter  ;  the  tail  is  of  medium  length,  ,and  the 
neck  slightly  maned.  . 

The  typical  or  elaphine  group,  which  includes  the  red-deer  (C.  elaphus)  of 
Europe,  and  the  North  American  wapiti  (C.  canadensis),  is  characterised  by 
the  presence  of  a  second,  or  bez-tine,  to  the  antlers,  when  these  attain  their 
maximum  development  ;  the  beam  of  each  antler  being  rounded,  and  near  its 
summit  splitting  up  into  a  larger  or  smaller  number  of  points,  which  in  some 
species  form  a  cup.  The  tail  is  short,  and  included  within  a  large  light- 
coloured  patch  on  the  buttocks  ;  the  remainder  of  the  body  being  uniformly 
brown.  The  red-deer,  which  ranges  over  Europe,  Western  Asia,  and  North 
Africa,  has  the  antlers,  when  fully  developed,  as  in  a  "  royal  hart,"  forming  a 
distinct  cup  at  the  summits.  The  deer  of  Northern  Asia,  from  the  Caucasus 
to  Siberia,  and  thence  to  North  China,  has  been  separated  as  C.  xatithopygus; 
but  its  right  to  specific  distinction  seems  rather  doubtful.  Other  members  of 
this  group  are  the  Persian  maral  (C.  tnaral);  the  Kashmir  stag  or  hangul  (C. 
cashmirianus),  represented  by  a  variety  in  Yarkand;  the  shou  (C.  affinis)  of 
Tibet;  Thorold's  deer  (C,  thoroldi),  which  is  also  a  Tibetan  form,  easily  dis- 
tinguished by  its  white  muzzle ;  the  great  Thian  Shan  stag  (C.  eustephanus); 


144  MAMMALIA— ORDER  VI.—UNGULATA. 


and  tha  closely-allied  wapiti  (C.  canadensu)  of  North  America.  In  all  these 
species,  which  include  the  largest  members  of  the  genus,  the  antlers  do  riot 
form  a  distinct  cup  at  the  summit.  The  Barbary  variety  of  the  red-deer  does 
not  develop  the  bez-tine, 

The  common  fallow-deer  (C.  dama),  whose  native  home  appears  to  be  the 
Mediterranean  countries,  and  the  Persian  fallow-deer  (C.  mesopotamicits),  are 
the  sole  existing  members  of  the  last,  or  Damine,  group  of  the  genus,  charac- 
terised by  the  palmation  of  the  antlers,  and  by  the  fur  being  generally 
spotted,  although  there  is  a  uniformly  brown  variety  of  the  common  species. 
These  deer  have  no  upper  canine  teeth,  and  the  tail  is  of  moderate  length. 
To  this  group  may  be  referred  two  very  fine  species,  which  have  only  become 
extinct  comparatively  recently.  Since  the  year  1697,  when  certain  of  its 
remains  were  described  by  a  Dr.  Molyneux  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  the  gigantic  extinct  deer  of  the  Irish  peat- 
bogs had  been  known  to  science ;  while  the  magnificent  proportions  attained 
by  its  antlers  have  given  it  a  notoriety  not  shared  by  most  other  animals  of  a 
past  epoch.  Although  found  more  abundantly,  and  generally  in  a  better 
state  of  preservation,  in  the  bogs  of  Ireland  than  elsewhere,  the  Irish  deer  is 
by  no  means  confined  to  the  island  from  which  it  takes  its  name.  On  the 
contrary,  its  remains  have  been  obtained  from  many  of  the  caverns  and 
superficial  deposits  of  both  England  and  the  Continent,  and  its  continental 
range  extended  from  Italy  in  the  south  to  Russia  in  the  north.  In  popular 
language,  this  deer  is  generally  spoken  of  as  the  Irish  elk ;  but,  as  is  the 
case  with  a  number  of  popular  terms,  this  is  a  misnomer,  the  animal  really 
being  a  true  deer,  referable  to  the  genus  Cervus.  It  is  true,  indeed,  that  its 
broad,  palmated  antlers  present  a  superficial  resemblance  to  those  of  the  elk; 
but  this  no  more  indicates  any  close  affinity  with  that  animal  than  do  the 
somewhat  similarly  palmated  antlers  of  the  fallow-deer.  Like  many  other 
animals,  both  living  and  extinct,  the  Irish  deer  rejoices  in  a  number  of  scien- 
tific names  ;  but  its  proper  title  is  Cervus  giganteus.  It  is  almost  superfluous 
to  mention  that  the  antlers  of  this  magnificent  deer  are  larger  than  those  of 
any  other  known  species,  having  a  span  in  some  cases  of  over  11  feet  from  tip 
to  tip.  In  form,  the  antlers  have  a  short  and  nearly  cylindrical  beam,  given 
off  in  a  nearly  horizontal  plane  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  skull.  Near 
their  origin  from  the  skull,  there  arises  a  descending  brow-tine,  which  is  flat- 
tened, and  generally  forked.  As  soon  as  the  beam  expands,  it  gives  off  from 
the  front,  or  lower  edge,  a  trez-tine,  nearly  opposite  to  which  is  a  third,  or 
posterior  tine  on  the  hinder  or  upper  margin,  both  these  tines  being  seen 
fully  from  the  front.  Beyond  these  tines,  the  antlers  expand  to  their  fullest 
width,  and  usually  terminate  in  five  or  six  snags,  of  which  the  topmost  are 
directed  nearly  upwards.  The  second  of  the  extinct  species  is  Ruff's  deer 
(C.  ruffi},  hitherto  only  found  in  Germany.  In  place  of  the  outward  hori- 
zontal extension  characteristic  of  the  Irish  deer,  the  antlers  of  Ruff's  deer 
are  directed  upwards  and  outwards,  nearly  after  the  fashion  of  a  fallow-deer, 
so  that  their  innermost  terminal  snags  are  separated  only  by  a  comparatively 
small  interval-.  That  this  deer  is  closely  allied  to  the  Irish  deer,  and  has  no 
such  close  kinship  with  the  fallow-deer,  is,  however,  proved  by  the  flattened 
and  expanded  form  of  the  brow-tine.  A  further  difference  from  the  ordinary 
Irish  deer  is  exhibited  by  the  different  position  of  the  plane  of  the  expanded 
portion  of  the  antlers.  Thus,  whereas  in  the  former  the  whole  of  their  inner 
surface  and  the  entire  trez  and  posterior  tines  are  visible  from  the  front,  in 
Ruffs  deer  we  see,  instead  of  the  inner  surface,  the  front  edge  and  a  part  of 


THE  HOOFED  MAMMALS. 


Fig.  80.— REINDEER  (Rangifa tarandus). 


the  outer  surface,  while  only  the  tips  of  the  posterior  tines  are  visible,  and 

the  trez-tine  (which  is  much  longer  than  in  the  normal  form)  is  foreshortened. 

The  position  of  the  plane  of  the  expanded  portion  of  the  antlers  is  another 

point  in  which  Ruffs  deer  approximates  to  the  fallow-deer. 

The  reindeer  (Rangifer),  together  with  all  the  remaining  members  of  the 

family,  differ  from  the  foregoing  in  that  the  lateral  metacarpal  bones  of  tho 

fore-feet  and  the  corresponding  me- 

tatarsals  in  the  hind-limbs  are  re- 

pre'-mted  by  their  lower,  instead  of 

their  upper,  extremities.     From  all 

other  deer,  the  reindeer  are  at  once 

distinguished  by  having  antlers  in 

both  sexes  ;  these  being  very  large, 

with  the  cylindrical  beam  suddenly 

bent  forwards  near  the   middle  of 

its  length,  and  having  a  brow-tine 

which   is   generally  branched    and 

pal  mated  on  one  side,  and  simple 

on  the  other.     Above  the  brow-tine 

comes   a   large   bez-tino.     In  form, 

reindeer  are  heavily-built  animals, 

with  short  limbs,  in  which  the  main 

hoofs  are  widely  separable,  and  the  lateral  pair  unusually  large,  the  muzzle 

being  broad   and  hairy.      The   young,    like   their  parents,   are  uniformly 

coloured.     The  ordinary  reindeer  (R.  tarandus}  ranges  from   Norway  and 

Sweden  over  the  northern  regions  of  the  Old  World  ;  and  it  is  probable  that 

the  North  American  variety  known  as  the  caribou  is  not  specifically  distinct. 

The  uses  to  which  reindeer  are  put  by  the  Lapps  and  the  inhabitants  of  other 

northern  countries  are  too  well  known  to  require  mention. 

The  largest  of  all  living  deer  is  the  elk  or  moose  (Alces  machlis),  which 

is  the  only  living  member  of  its  genus,  and  has  a  circumpolar  distribution, 

ranging  in  the  Old  World  as  far  south  as 
Prussia  and  the  Caucasus.  It  is  a  long- 
legged,  ungainly-looking  animal,  with 
the  large,  overhanging,  broad  muzzle 
covered  with  short  hairs,  except  a  small, 
naked  triangular  spot  below  the  nostrils. 
The  tail  is  rudimental,  and  the  hair  of 
the  young  uniformly  coloured.  In  tho 
males  the  enormous  antlers  arise  from  a 
cylindrical  beam  directed  at  right  angles 
to  the  middle  line  of  the  skull,  and  then 
expand  into  a  huge  basin-shaped  mass, 
consisting  primarily  of  an  upper  and 
lower  moiety,  and  having  the  free  edge 
bordered  by  a  number  of  irregular  snags. 
Elk  feed  chiefly  upon  the  leaves  and  twigs 
of  trees  ;  and  during  the  winter  collect 
in  small  parties,  keeping  open  a  small 
patch  of  ground  by  continually  trampling 
down  the  snow.  Frequently  the  hind 

Fig.  81.  -ELK  (Alces  machlis).  gives  birth  to  a  pair  of  fawns.    The  ant- 

11 


146  MAMMALIA—ORDER  VI.—UNGULATA. 


lers  may  weigh  as  much  as  sixty  pounds.  The  two  remaining  genera  of  Old 
World  deer  are  represented  by  small  forms.  Of  these,  the  roe-deer  (Capre- 
olus)  have  comparatively  short  cylindrical  antlers  with  three  tines  each  ;  the 
front  tine  rising  from  the  front  of  the  upper  half  of  the  beam  and  inclining 
upwards.  There  are  no  upper  canines,  the  naked  portion  of  the  muzzle  is 
small,  and  does  not  extend  below  the  nostrils,  the  tail  is  very  short,  and  the 
fur  of  the  young  spotted.  In  addition  to  the  common  roe  (G.  caprea)  of 
Europe  and  Western  Asia,  a  second  species  (C.  pygargus)  inhabits  Turkestan 
and  the  mountains  dividing  Russia  from  China,  while  a  smaller  variety  is 
found  in  Manchuria.  Roe-deer  usually  inhabit  more  or  less  open  country, 
and  go  about  in  pairs.  From  all  other  members  of  the  family  except  the 
musk-deer,  which  it  resembles  in  the  long  tusks  of  the  males,  the  small 
Chinese  water-deer  (Hydropotes  inermis)  differs  in  the  absence  of  antlers  from 
both  sexes.  The  muzzle  has  a  rather  large  naked  portion,  and  the  young  are 
spotted.  As  in  the  roes,  there  are  large  glands  in  the  hind-feet,  and  small  ones 
in  the  front  pair.  In  form,  these  deer  have  long  bodies  and  short  limbs,  and 
they  are  remarkable  for  producing  from  three  to  six  fawns  at  a  birth. 

Agreeing  with  the  genera  just  described  in  the  structure  of  the  metacarpal 
and  metatarsal  bones,  the  American  deer,  exclusive  of  the  wapiti,  reindeer, 
and  elk,  are,  with  two  exceptions,  included  in  a  genus  (Cariacus)  characterised 
by  the  antlers,  when  fully  developed,  dividing  in  a  more  or  less  regularly 
fork-like  manner.  Whereas,  however,  in  some  species  the  antlers  are  large 
and  branching,  in  certain  of  the  smaller  forms  they  form  simple  spikes.  The 
muzzle  resembles  that  of  Cervus,  the  tail  is  of  variable  length,  and  the  fur  of 
the  adults  is  uniformly  coloured.  The  genus  ranges  over  almost  the  whole 
of  the  American  Continent,  but  attains  its  maximum  development  in  the 
^south.  The  brockets,  of  which  the  red  brocket  (C.  rufus)  is  a  well-known 
example,  are  a  southern  group,  easily  recognised  by  their  unbranched,  spike- 
like  antlers.  They  have  a  tail  of  moderate  length,  and  the  fawns  are  spotted. 
The  Costa  Rica  deer-  (C.  clavatus)  of  Central  America  differs  from  the 
brockets  in  having  the  hair  of  the  face  directed  upwards,  instead  of  radiat- 
ing from  two  points.  The  Andes  is  the  home  of  two  species  (C.  chilensis  and 
C.  antisiensis)  known  as  guemels,  and  characterised  by  their  simply  forked 
antlers,  of  which  the  front  prong  is  the  longer.  There  are  tusks  in  the  upper 
jaw,  and  the  young  are  uniformly  coloured.  The  pampas-deer  (C.  campestris) 
is  the  typical  representative  of  another  South  American  group  of  the  genus, 
in  which  the  antlers  are  regularly  forked,  with  the  hinder  prong,  and  occa- 
sionally also  the  front  one,  again  forking.  There  are  no  upper  canines,  the 
tail  is  very  short,  and  the  coloration  of  the  fawns  is  uniform.  The  last 
group  of  the  genus  is  typified  by  the  Virginian  deer  (C.  virginianus),  and 
comprises  not  only  the  largest  species,  but  likewise  all  those  inhabiting 
North  America.  In  this  group  the  antlers  are  very  large  and  complex,  and 
distinguished  by  the  presence  of  a  larger  or  smaller  basal  snag  near  the  base 
of  the  front  surface.  Upper  tusks  are  absent,  arid  the  fawns  are  spotted. 
Whereas  in  the  Virginian  deer  the  basal  snag  is  very  large,  and  directed  up- 
wards, in  the  large-eared  mule-deer  (C.  macrotis)  of  North  America  it  is  much 
smaller.  Of  the  former  Mr.  Parker  Gilmore  writes,  that  "this  splendid  animal 
has  still  a  very  wide  habitat.  Its  boundaries,  however,  originally  were  from 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  Rockies,  and  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  about  47° 
N.  latitude,  and  although  eagerly  sought  by  everyone  deeming  himself  a 
hunter,  it  can  be  found  in  greater  or  less  numbers  near  the  oldest  settle- 
ments. As  an  article  of  food  the  meat  of  this  deer  is  unsurpassed,  especi- 


THE  HOOFED  MAMMALS. 


The  Giraffe. — 
Family 

GiraffidcR. 


ally  when  the  animal  has  fattened  upon  Indian  corn.  For  grace  and  contour 
of  outline  they  are  incomparable.  Their  horns  have  a  most  peculiar  and 
graceful  outline,  receding  at  first  backwards  from  the  burr,  then  coming  for- 
ward with  a  bold  sweep  It  is  extremely  timorous  and  wary,  bub  if  wounded 
and  unable  to  escape  it  will  fight  gallantly  for  its  life.  In  such  encounters 
its  horns  are  not,  in  my  experience,  so  much  to  be  dreaded  as  its  fore-feet." 
Finally,  the  two  pudu-deer  (Pudua)  of  the  Chilian  Andes  and  Ecuador,  al- 
though nearly  related  to  the  brockets,  differ  sufficiently  to  form  a  genus  by 
themselves.  In  size  they  scarcely  exceed  a  hare  ;  and  they  have  a  pair  of 
very  minute  simple  antlers  rising  from  the  middle  of  the  forehead,  while  they 
exhibit  certain  peculiarities  in  the  structure  of  the  skull  and  ankle-joint. 

The  African  giraffe  (Giraffa  camelopardalis\  which  is  the  sole  existing  re- 
presentative of  its  g^nus  and  family,  enjoys  the  proud  distinction  of  being 
the  tallest  of  all  Mammals,  and  is  easily  recognised  by  its 
extremely  elongated  neck  and  limbs,  as  well  as  by  its  dappled 
coloration.  In  many  respects  intermediate  between  the 
deer  and  the  hollow-horned  Ruminants,  although  more  nearly 
allied  to  the  former  than  to  the  latter,  it  is  chiefly  entitled 
to  form  a  family  by  itself  on  account  of  the  peculiar  structure  of  the  append- 
ages on  the  skull,  which,  properly  speaking,  come  under  the  designation  neither 
of  antlers  nor  horns.  Between  the  large  ears  are  a  pair  of  short  horns,  as  they 
may  be  called,  which  are  completely  covered 
with  skin,  and  are  formed  of  bones,  which  in 
the  young  state  can  be  easily  detached  from  the 
skull.  Lower  down  on  the  forehead  is  a  single 
median  dome-like  bone,  which  is  likewise  de- 
tachable in  the  young.  In  general  conforma- 
tion the  skull  of  the  giraffe  is  very  like  that 
of  the  deer  ;  but  the  cheek  teeth  have  very 
short  crowns,  and  a  peculiarly  rugose  enamel. 
There  are  no  upper  tusks  ;  the  lateral  hoofs 
are  totally  wanting  in  both  limbs  ;  the  tail  is 
long  and  tufted  at  the  end  ;  and  there  is 
generally  no  gall-bladder  to  the  liver.  In 
colour,  the  South  African  giraffe  differs  from 
the  North  African  variety  by  the  darker  tint 
and  larger  size  of  the  chestnut  blotches,  and 
the  narrower  buff  lines  by  which  they  are 
divided.  The  giraffe,  however,  has  attained 
its  towering  stature  without  any  important  de- 
parture from  the  general  structure  characteris- 
ing its  nearest  allies,  and  thus  preserves  all  the 
essential  features  of  an  ordinary  quadruped. 
It  owes  its  height  mainly  to  the  enormous 
elongation  of  two  of  the  bones  of  the  legs, 
coupled  with  a  corresponding  lengthening  of 
the  vertebrae  of  the  neck.  As  in  all  its  kin- 
dred, the  lower  segment  of  each  leg  of  this 
animal  forms  a  cannon-bone,  the  nature  of 
which  has  been  explained  above,  and  in  the  fore-limb  it  is  the  bone 
below  the  wrist  (commonly  termed  the  knee),  and  the  radius  above  the 
latter,  which  have  undergone  an  elongation  so  extraordinary  as  to  make 


Fig.  82.-  THK  GIRAFFE. 


J4S  MAMMALIA— ORDER   VL—UNGULATA. 


them  quite  unlike,  as  regards  proportion,  the  corresponding  elements  in  the 
skeleton  of  an  ordinary  Ruminant,  although  retaining  precisely  the  same 
structure.  Similarly,  in  the  hinder-limb,  it  is  the  cannon-bone  below  the 
ankle-joint,  or  hock,  and  the  tibia  above,  which  have  been  thus  elongated. 
To  one  unacquainted  with  anatomy,  it  might  appear  that  a  giraffe  and  a  hip- 
popotamus would  differ  greatly  in  regard  to  the  number  of  vertebrae  in  the 
neck  ;  but,  nevertheless,  both  conform  in  this  respect  to  the  ordinary 
Mammalian  type,  possessing  only  seven  of  such  segments. 

Other  noticeable  features  in  the  organisation  of  the  giraffe  are  the  large  size 
and  prominence  of  the  liquid  eyes,  and  the  great  length  of  the  extensile 
tongue  ;  the  former  being  designed  to  give  the  creature  the  greatest  possible 
range  of  vision,  while  the  extensibility  of  the  latter  enhances  the  capability 
of  reaching  the  foliage  of  tall  trees  afforded  by  the  lengthened  limbs  and 
neck.  In  comparison  with  the  slenderness  of  the  neck,  the  head  of  the  giraffe 
appears  of  relatively  large  size  ;  but  this  bulk,  which  is  probably  necessary 
to  the  proper  working  of  the  long  tongue,  is  compensated  by  the  extreme 
lightness  and  porous  structure  of  the  bones  of  the  skull.  Somewhat  stiff 
and  ungainly  in  its  motions — the  small  number  of  vertebrae  not  admitting  of 
the  graceful  arching  of  the  neck — the  giraffe  in  all  its  organisation  is  admirably 
adapted  to  a  life  on  open  plains  dotted  over  with  tall  trees,  upon  which  it 
can  browse  without  fear  of  competition  by  any  other  living  creature.  Its 
wide  range  of  vision  affords  it  timely  warning  of  the  approach  of  foes  ;  from 
the  effect  of  sand-storms  it  is  protected  by  the  power  of  automatically  closing 
its  nostrils  ;  while  its  capacity  of  existing  for  months  at  a  time  without 
drinking  renders  it  suited  to  inhabit  waterless  districts  like  the  northern  part 
of  the  great  Kalahari  desert.  Although  capable  of  withstanding  the  want  of 
water  for  a  long  period  during  the  summer,  the  giraffe,  when  opportunity 
offers,  will  drink  long  and  frequently  ;  but  it  is  certain  that  for  more  than 
half  the  year,  in  many  parts  of  Southern  Africa  at  least,  it  never  takes  water 
at  all.  In  certain  districts,  as  in  the  Northern  Kalahari,  this  abstinence  is, 
from  the  nature  of  the  country,  involuntary  ;  but  according  to  Mr.  Bryden, 
the  giraffes  living  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Botletli  River — their  only 
source  of  water — never  drink  therefrom  throughout  the  spring  and  winter 
months.  When  a  giraffe  does  drink,  unless  it  wades  into  the  stream,  it  is 
compelled  to  straddle  its  fore-legs  far  apart  in  order  to  bring  down  its  lips  to 
the  required  level,  and  the  same  ungainly  attitude  is  perforce  assumed  on  the 
rare  occasions  when  it  grazes. 

Absent  from  the  countries  to  the  north  of  the  Sahara,  as  well  as  in  the  great 
forest  regions  of  the  west,  which  are  unsuitable  to  its  habits,  the  giraffe  at 
the  present  day  ranges  from  the  North  Kalahari  and  Northern  Bechuanaland 
in  the  south,  through  such  portions  of  Eastern  and  Central  Africa  as  are 
suited  to  its  mode  of  life,  to  the  Southern  Sudan  in  the  north.  Unhappily, 
however,  it  is  almost  daily  diminishing  in  numbers  throughout  a  large  area 
of  Southern  and  Eastern  Africa,  and  its  distributional  area  as  steadily 
shrinking.  Whether  it  was  ever  found  to  the  south  of  the  Orange  River  and 
in  the  Cape  Colony  may  be  doubtful,  although  there  are  traditions  that  it 
once  occurred  there.  Apart  from  this,  it  is  definitely  known  that  about  the 
year  1813  these  animals  were  met  with  only  a  little  to  the  north  of  the  last- 
named  river  ;  while  as  late  as  1836  they  were  still  common  throughout  the 
Transvaal,  and  more  especially  near  the  junction  of  the  Marico  with  the 
Limpopo  River.  Now  their  last  refuge  in  these  districts  is  the  extreme 
eastern  border  of  the  Transvaal  (where  only  a  few  remain),  and  the  district 


THE  HOOFED  MAMMALS.  149 


lying  to  the  north  of  Bechuanaland  and  known  as  Khama's  country,  or 
Bawangwato,  together  with  the  Northern  Kalahari.  Even  here,  however, 
their  existence  is  threatened,  as  there  is  a  proposal  to  put  down  tube-wells  in 
the  Kalahari,  which,  if  successfully  accomplished,  will  open  up  the  one  great 
stronghold  of  the  animal  to  the  hunter.  Unless,  therefore,  efficient  and 
prompt  measures  are  taken  for  its  protection,  there  is  much  reason  to  fear 
that  the  giraffe  will  ere  long  be  practically  exterminated  from  this  part  of 
Africa,  although  it  will  doubtless  long  survive  in  the  remote  districts  of  the 
Sudan  and  Kordofan. 

Although  closely  allied  to  the  typical  hollow-horned  Ruminants,  the  prong- 
buck,  or  prong-horned  antelope  (Antilocapra  americana)  is  regarded  as  repre- 
senting a  distinct  family,  on  account  of  the  circumstance 
that  not  only  are  the  sheaths  of   the  horns  branched,  but  The   Prongbuck. 
that  they  are  annually  shed,  and  their  place  taken  by  new         — Family 
sheaths,  which  have  been  growing  up  beneath  the  old  ones.    Antilocapridce. 
In  size,  the  prongbuck  may  be  compared  to  a  fallow-deer, 
although  its  form  is  lighter  and  more  elegant.     It  has  no  lateral  hoofs  ;  the 
horns  are  present  usually  only  in  the  males;   the  ears  are -rather  long  and 
pointed ;  and  the  tail  is  short.     There  is  a  thick  mane  of  long  hair  on  the  neck, 
and  the  general  colour  is  chestnut ;  but  there  is  a  white  patch  on  the  rump, 
and  white  bars  on  the   throat,  while  the  lower  portion  of  the  flanks,  to- 
gether with   the   under-parts,    are    likewise   white  ;    the    compressed  and 
scimitar-like  horns  being  black.     Prongbucks  are  inhabitants  of  the  open 
plains  of  Eastern-Central  North  America,   where  they  associate  in  herds, 
which  may  frequently  be  of  large  size. 

The  last,   and  at  the  same  time  by  far  the  largest  family  group  cf  the 
Ungulates,  is  that  of  the  hollow-horned  Ruminants,  or  Eovidce;  under  which 
title  are    comprised    antelopes,    goats,   sheep,    oxen,    etc. 
Almost  the  whole  of  the  members  of  this  great  assemblage    Hollow-horned 
are  inhabitants  of  the  Old  World,  the  only  American  forms     Ruminants. — 
being  the  Rocky  Mountain  goat,  the  bighorn  sheep,  musk-  Family   llovidw. 
ox,    and  American  buffalo,  and  all   these   confined  to  the 
northern  half  of   that  continent.      Indeed,  there  is  little  doubt   that   the 
ancestors  of  at  least  three  of  these  were  immigrants  from  the  Eastern  Hemi- 
sphere ;  and  there  is  no  evidence 
that  South  America  was  ever  the 
home    of    any    member    of    the 
group.       The    essential    feature 
of  the  hollow-horned  Ruminants 
is  the   presence,  in  one  sex   at 
least  ot  all  the  existing  forms, 
of  a  pair  of  unbranched  horns  on 
the  upper  part  of  the  head,  com- 
posed of  an  underlying  core  of 
bone,    covered  with    a    hollow, 
horny   sheath,    which    is    never 
shed.      None  of    these   animals 
ever  have  upper  canine  teeth  ; 
and  the  lateral  metacarpal  and          fig,  33,— PRONGBUCK  (Antilocapra  americana). 
metatarsal  bones  of  the  feet  are 

invariably  absent,  although  lateral  hoofs  are  not  un frequently  present.  In 
many  cases  the  tear-pits,  or  larmiers,  so  characteristic  of  the  deer,  are 


150  MAMMALIA—ORDER  VL—UNGULATA. 

absent  from  the  face  ;  and  in  such  cases  the  underlying  region  of  the  skull  is 
fully  ossified,  while,  when  those  glands  are  developed,  the  unossified  space 
in  the  skull  below  each  eye  is  generally  of  less  extent  than  in  the  Cervidtv. 

The  first  and  least  specialised 
group  of  the  family  includes  the 
animals  commonly  known  as 
antelopes,  which  are  arranged, 
under  a  very  large  number  of 
genera,  and  pass  imperceptibly 
into  the  goats.  Although  no 
definition  can  be  given  of  an 
antelope,  as  a  rule  these  animals 
have  comparatively  long  necks, 
and  are  of  more  or  less  light 
and  graceful  build,  while  their 
bony  horn-cores  are  generally 
solid  throughout.  By  far  the 
great  majority  of  antelopes  in- 
habit  the  open  plains  of  Africa 

Fig.  84  — BUBALINE  ANTELOPE  (Bubalis)  south  of    the   Sahara,   but  there 

are  none  in   Madagascar,  while 

Burma  and  the  Malayan  countries  only  possess  a  few  forms,  which  may  be 
regarded  as  intermediate  between  the  true  antelopes  and  the  goats.  The 
well-known  hartebeests  (Bubalis),  so  remarkable  on  account  of  their  long, 
solemn-looking  faces,  are  the  typical  representatives  of  a  section  comprising 
two  genera,  all  of  which,  with  the  exception  of  one  species  of  hartebeest,  which 
is  Syrian,  are  confined  to  Africa,  and  mostly  to  the  regions  lying  south  of 
the  Sahara  desert.  All  are  of  comparatively  large  dimensions,  and  generally 
have  the  withers  considerably  taller  than  the  rump.  Horns  of  moderate 
length  are  present  in  both  zones,  and  are  either  lyre-shaped  or  recurved, 
with  their  bases  more  or  less  closely  approximated  ;  the  muzzle  is  naked; 
there  is  a  small,  tufted  gland  below  each  eye;  and  the  tail  is  comparatively  long. 
In  the  skull  there  are  no  large  pits  in  the  forehead,  nor  any  unossified  spaces 
below  the  eye-sockets ;  and  the  upper  molar  teeth  have  very  tall  and  narrow 
crowns.  The  typical  hartebeests,  of  which  there  are  several  species,  ranging 
from  Syria  and  Algeria  to  the  Cape,  are  characterised  by  the  great  height  of  the 
withers,  the  great  length  of  the  head,  which  has  the  horns  placed  on  a  kind 
of  crest  at  its  summit,  and  the  sudden  backward  flexure  of  the  extremities 
of  the  horns.  The  horns  themselves  are  compressed  and  ringed  at  the  base; 
the  muzzle  is  narrow,  and  the  tail  hairy.  In  certain  other  species  the  above- 
mentioned  features  are  less  strongly  developed ;  and  in  the  blesbok 
(B.  albifrons)  and  bontebok  (J5.  pygargus)  the  horns  are  lyrate,  the  crest  on 
the  top  of  the  head  much  less  strongly  marked,  and  the  withers  lower.  In 
consequence  of  these  differences  many  writers  separate  the  latter  animals 
under  the  name  of  Damaliscus.  The  strange-looking  wildebeests,  or  gnus 
(Connochcetes),  differ  from  the  hartebeests  by  their  shorter  head  and  broad  and 
bristly  muzzle,  as  well  as  by  the  heavily-maned  neck,  and  in  the  conforma- 
tion of  the  horns.  The  latter,  which  are  situated  on  the  vertex  of  the  skull 
and  approximated  at  their  bases,  are  nearly  smooth  and  cylindrical,  and  curve 
outwards,  or  outwards  and  downwards,  with  their  tips  bent  upwards.  The 
hoofs  are  remarkable  for  their  extreme  narrowness,  and  the  elongated 
sweeping  tail  is  clothed  with  a  mass  of  long  hairs.  Whereas  the  females  of 


THE  HOOFED  MAMMALS.  151 

the  hartebeests  resemble  sheep  in  having  but  two  teats,  those  of  the  wilde- 
beests agree  with  cows  in  possessing  four.  The  two  species  of  wildebeests 
are  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  strange  gambles  and  antics  in  which  they 
indulge,  especially  when  the  herd  is  approached  by  travellers.  They  are 
frequently  found  in  company  with  zebras. 

The  African  duikerboks  (Cephalophus),  most  of  which  are  exceedingly 
diminutive  and  graceful  little  creatures,  although  two  species  from  the  west 
coast  are  of  much  larger  dimensions,  form  the  typical  representatives  of  the 
second  section.  In  all  these  the  horns  are  short  and  simple,  without  ridges, 
and  are  developed  only  in  the  males.  There  is  a  more  or  less  elongated 
gland  beneath  each  eye ;  the  muzzle  is  large  and  naked ;  the  tail  is  short ;  and 
the  teats  of  the  females  are  always  four  in  number.  The  tipper  molar  teeth 
have  broad,  square  crowns ;  and  in  the  skull  there  are  no  pits  on  the  fore- 
head, and  no  fissure  beneath  the  socket  of  the  eye,  although  there  is  a  deep 
depression  in  the  bones  of  this  region.  The  duikerboks  are  characterised  by 
having  a  tuft  of  long  hairs  between  the  small  horns,  which  are  situated  far 
back  on  the  forehead,  the  gland  below  the  eye  taking  the  form  of  a-  narrow 
slit  or  a  row  of  pores,  and  the  tail  being  very  short.  The  nearly  allied  four- 
horned  antelope  (Tetraceros  quadricornis)  of  Peninsular  India  is  sufficiently 
distinguished  by  the  males  generally  carrying  two  pairs  of  horns,  of  which 
the  front  ones  are  very  minute. 

More  numerously  represented  is  the  Cervicaprine  group  of  antelopes, 
which  comprises  several  genera,  with  species  of  large  or  medium  size,  confined 
to  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara.  In  these  the  horns  are  confined  to  the  males  ; 
the  gland  below  the  eye  may  be  either  large,  rudimental,  or  wanting  ;  the 
muzzle  is  either  hairy  or  naked  ;  the  tail  is  short ;  and  the  upper  molars  are 
narrow.  There  is  usually  a  large  unossified  space  in  the  skull  below  the  eye, 
and  also  distinct  pits  on  the  forehead. 

According  to  the  recent  classification  of  Messrs.  Sclater  and  Thomas,  a 
number  of  small  African  antelopes  generally  included  in  the  Cermcaprince  are 
entitled  to  form  a  section  by  themselves  (Nanotragince).  Of  these  the  six 
species  of  the  genus  Madoqua — among  which  the  Abyssinian  Salt's  antelope 
(M.  saltiana)  has  been  longest  known — are  very  small  antelopes  characterised 
by  the  production  of  the  hairy  muzzle  into  a  more  or  less  marked  proboscis, 
and  the  presence  of  a  tuft  of  hair  on  the  crown  of  the  head.  In  three  of 
the  species,  among  which  is  the  one  named,  the  last  lower  molar  has  no 
third  lobe  at  its  hinder  end,  and  the  proboscis  is  relatively  short.  Nearly 
allied  is  the  royal  antelope  (Nanotragus  pygmceus)  of  Guinea,  the  smallest 
member  of  the  entire  family,  sufficiently  distinguished  by  the  smooth  crown 
of  the  head,  the  presence  of  a  small  naked  area  on  the  muzzle,  and  the 
minute  horns.  Another  genus,  which  includes  the  Zanzibar  steinbok 
(Nesotragus  moschatux')  and  JV.  livingstonianus,  differs  from  the  last  by  the 
larger  horns.  The  true  steinbok  (Raphiceros  campestris)  agrees  with  the  two 
last  genera  in  the  absence  of  lateral  hoofs  and  of  tuf fcs  of  hair  on  the  knees, 
but  differs  by  other  characters  which  are  regarded  as  entitling  it  to  form  a 
genus  apart.  More  distinct  is  the  South  African  oribi  (Oribia  scoparia), 
which  has  both  lateral  hoofs  and  tufts  of  hair  at  the  knees.  From  all  these 
the  well-known  klipspringer  (Oreotragus  saltator\  which  ranges  along  the 
east  coast  from  the  Cape  to  Abyssinia,  and  has  the  habits  of  a  chamois,  differs 
in  the  form  of  the  skull,  the  thick,  brittle  hair,  resembling  that  of  the  musk- 
deer,  and  the  clumsy  hoofs.  In  the  skull  of  both  genera  there  is  a  deep  pit 
below  the  eye.  Among  the  typical  Cervieaprines,  the  rehbok  (Felea  cdpreola) 


152  MAMMALIA— ORDER   VL  —  UNGULATA. 


of  South  Africa  is  a  larger  uniformly-coloured  animal,  with  small,  compressed, 
upright,  and  scarcely  diverging  horns  placed  over  the  eyes,  a  large  bare  part 
to  the  muzzle,  and  no  depression  in  the  skull  below  the  latter.  It  is  an  in- 
habitant of  open,  sandy  districts,  and  may  be  compared  in  size  to  a  fallow- 
deer.  Still  larger  is  the  handsome  water-buck  and  its  allies,  constituting 
the  genus  Cobus,  characterised  by  the  long  sub-lyrate  horns  of  the  males, 
which  are  ringed  nearly  throughout  their  length,  the  large  portion  of  the 
muzzle  that  is  devoid  of  hair,  the  deep  hollow  in  the  forehead  of  the 
skull  and  the  absence  of  a  depression  below  the  eye,  the  gland  being 
rudimental.  The  tail  is  long,  ridged  with  hair  above,  and  tufted  at  the  end  ; 
and  the  colour  of  the  fur  uniform.  In  most  species  the  hair  is  long  and 
coarse  ;  and  all  frequent  the  neighbourhood  of  water.  The  three  representa- 
tives of  the  allied  genus  Cervicapra  may  be  distinguished  by  the  short  and 
bushy  tail ;  and  also  by  the  circumstance  that  the  premaxillary  bones,  which 
from  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle,  do  not  extend  upwards  to  join  the  nasals. 
The  best  known  of  these  is  the  South  African  reitbok  (C.  arundineum),  which 
stands  nearly  a  yard  at  the  withers,  and  is  of  grizzled  ochre  colour. 

The  typical,  or  Antilopine,  section  is  also  a  large  one,  and  includes  the 
gazelles  and  certain  allied  forms  which  are  mostly  inhabitants  of  sandy  or 
desert  districts.  The  horns,  wrhich  are  usually  restricted  to  the  males,  are 
generally  either  compressed  and  lyrate  or  recurved,  or  cylindrical  and  spiral, 
with  well-marked  rings  on  their  lower  portion.  The  muzzle  is  covered  with 
short  hairs  ;  the  short  or  moderate  tail  is  compressed  arid  hairy  on  its  upper 
surface ;  and  the  upper  molars  are  narrow,  and  resemble  those  of  the  sheep.  In 
the  skull  there  are  generally  large  pits  in  the  forehead,  and  a  depression  below 
the  eye.  Perhaps  the  handsomest  member  of  the  group  is  the  Indian  black- 
buck  (Antilope  cervicapra),  which  is  the  sole  representative  of  its  genus,  and 
easily  recognised  by  the  deep  blackish  hue  of  the  back  and  head  of  the  adult 
males,  and  the  beautiful  spirally-twisted  and  ringed  horns  ;  the  gland  below 
the  eye  being  very  large.  The  pala  (dEpyccros)  and  its  other  African  allies 
have  the  horns  compressed,  widely  divergent,  and  ringed  only  at  the  base  ; 
and  differ  from  the  black  buck  by  the  absence  of  a  gland  on  the  face,  and  of 
lateral  hoofs  to  the  feet.  A  clumsily-built  and  somewhat  sheep-like  antelope 
from  the  Asiatic  steppes,  known  as  the  saiga  (Saiga  tatarica\  is  one  of  two 
genera  characterised  by  the  large  and  puffy  muzzle,  this  feature  being  most 
developed  in  the  present  form,  in  which  the  nostrils  open  downwards. 
There  is  a  small  gland  on  the  face,  lateral  hoofs  are  present,  and  the  female 
lias  four  teats.  In  the  males  the  horns  are  short,  lyrate,  ringed,  and  yellow 
in  colour.  The  Tibetan  chiru  (Pantholops  hodysoni)  differs  from  the  last  in 
the  nostrils  opening  anteriorly,  and  in  the  form  of  the  horns  ;  the  latter 
being  very  long,  erect,  compressed,  sublyrate,  and  ringed  in  front  for  two- 
thirds  in  length,  while  their  colour  is  deep  black.  There  is  no  gland  on  the 
face,  and  the  female  has  only  two  teats.  These  beautiful  antelopes  are  found 
in  herds  on  some  of  the  most  elevated  regions  in  the  world.  The  largest 
genus  of  the  group  (Gazella)  is  represented  by  the  beautiful  gazelles,  which 
are  mainly  confined  to  the  desert  regions  of  Africa  and  Asia,  although  the 
aberrant  springbok  is  found  on  the  plains  of  the  Cape  Colony  and  adjacent 
districts.  All  the  gazelles  are  noticeable  for  their  elegant  build,  and  their 
more  or  less  sandy  coloration,  while  the  majority  differ  from  the  foregoing 
members  of  the  section  in  that  horns  are  developed  by  both  sexes.  Nearly 
all  the  species  are  characterised  by  having  a  white  streak,  bordered  by  a  dark 
line,  running  down  the  face  from  each  horn  to  the  nostril,  so  as  to  isolate  a 


THE  HOOFED  MAMMALS.  153 


dark  central  patch  on  the  muzzle.  The  gland  below  the  eye  is  small  and 
concealed  by  hair,  and  the  knees  generally  carry  tufts  of  long  hair.  The 
springbok  (Gr.  evfhore),  remarkable  on  account  of  its  habit  of  taking  leaps  in 
the  air,  and  also  from  the  enormous  herds  in  which  it  was  formerly  found, 
differs  from  all  the  rest  of  the  gazelles  in  having  an  erectile  crest  of  long, 
stiff,  white  hair  running  down  the  back.  Clarke's  gazelle  (Ammodorcas 
clarkei),  from  Northern  Somaliland,  is  distinguished  by  the  regular  upwards 
and  forwards  curvature  of  the  horns  of  the  males,  which  are  ringed  in  part  at 
the  base ;  the  females  being  hornless.  The  skull  is  intermediate  between  that 
of  the  preceding  and  following  genus.  Waller's  gazelle  (Lithocranius  walleri), 
which  is  an  East  African  form  ranging  from  the  Kilimanjaro  district  to 
Somaliland,  represents  another  genus  by  itself.  The  females  are  hornless, 
but  in  the  males  the  horns  are  erect  and  curved  forwards  in  a  hook-like 
manner  ;  while  both  are  characterised  by  the  extraordinary  neck,  which 
gives  to  the  animal  almost  the  appearance  of  a  small  giraife.  The  genus  is, 
however,  best  characterised  by  the  solid  structure  of  the  skull.  The  small 
Somali  Dorcatragus  seems  to  be  another  aberrant  gazelle. 

The  next  group  of  antelopes,  which  are  common  to  Africa  and  Arabia,  are 
best  characterised  by  the  upper  molar  teeth  being  structurally  similar  to 
those  of  the  oxen.  In  these  teeth  the  crowns  are  very  tall  and  broad, 
so  as  to  form  an  almost  square  section,  while,  on  their  inner  side,  they 
have  a  narrow  additional  column  superadded  to  the  four  large  normal  cres- 
centic  ones.  All  these  antelopes  are  of  very  large  size,  and  both  sexes  are 
provided  with  long  horns,  which  are  placed  immediately  over  or  behind 
the  eyes,  and  are  recurved,  straight,  or  subspiral  in  form.  The  muzzle 
is  hairy,  there  is  no  gland  below  the  eye,  and  the  long,  cylindrical 
tail  is  tufted  at  the  extremity.  In  the  skull  there  are  no  distinct  pits  on  the 
forehead,  there  is  no  depression  below  the  eye,  and  only  a  very  small 
unossified  slit  in  the  same  region.  The  handsome  recurved  horns,  rising 
vertically  from  a  crest  above  the  eyes  and  sweeping  backwards  in  a  scimitar- 
like  sweep  at  an  obtuse  angle  to  the  profile  of  the  face,  serve  at  a  glance 
to  distinguish  the  sable-antelope  (Hippotragus  niger}  of  South  Africa  and 
its  near  ally  the  roan  antelope  (H. 
equinus).  In  both  these  large  and 
splendid  animals,  as  well  as  in  a 
kindred  species  from  the  Sudan,  the 
horns  are  ringed  nearly  to  their  tips, 
the  sable-antelope  being  one  of  the 
few  members  of  the  tribe  which  have 
the  whole  upper-parts,  save  some  white 
streaks  on  the  face,  a  deep,  full  black. 
In  all  these  antelopes  the  neck  is 
furnished  with  an  erect  or  curving 
mane,  and  the  tip  of  the  tail  is  strongly 
tufted.  The  gemsbok  of  South  Africa 
is  the  type  of  an  allied  genus  (Oryx\ 
ranging  not  only  over  the  whole  of  .Ffy.  85. -SABLE-ANTELOPE 

Africa  south  of  the  Sahara,  but  also  (ffippotragus  niger). 

found  in  Syria  and  on  the  shores  of  the 

Persian  Gulf.  Here  the  horns  are  long,  slender,  and  ringed  at  the  base,  bub 
may  be  either  straight  or  somewhat  curved  backwards,  although  in  all  the 
species  they  arise  behind  the  eyes  with  their  direction  at  first  iu  the  plane  of 


154  MAMMALIA— ORDER   VI.—UNGULATA. 


the  face.  The  mane  on  the  neck  is  shorter  and  the  tail  longer  and  more 
hairy  than  in  the  last  genus.  The  general  hue  of  the  hair  in  the  oryx  is  grey 
or  tawny,  with  black  markings  on  the  face  and  legs ;  and,  although  somewhat 
ungainly  in  build,  they  are  all  decidedly  handsome  animals,  the  typical 
species  standing  about  4  ft.  at  the  withers,  and  its  horns  often  exceeding  a 
yard  in  length.  Oryxes  are  inhabitants  of  open  sandy  plains,  where  they 
associate  in  small  herds.  The  third  genus  of  the  group  is  the  addax  (Addax 
nasomaculatus)  of  the  deserts  of  North  Africa  and  Arabia,  which  differs  from 
the  last  by  the  horns  being  subspiral  and  lyrate,  and  also  by  the  heavy  mane 
of  long  hair  on  the  neck  and  throat,  and  the  presence  of  a  tuft  of  hair  on  the 
throat,  the  general  colour  of  the  hair  being  whitish. 

The  last,  or  Tragelaphine,  section  of  the  true  antelopes  comprises  several 
genera  of  large-sized  forms,  all  of  which,  save  one,  are  inhabitants  of  Africa 
south  of  the  Sahara.  The  horns,  which  are  usually  confined  to  the  male  sex, 
are  not  ringed,  but  have  a  ridge  at  least  on  the  basal  portion  of  the  front 
surface,  and  are  generally  twisted  in  a  spiral,  with  the  front  ridge  curving 
outwards  from  the  base.  The  muzzle  is  naked,  and  there  is  a  small  gland 
below  each  eye.  The  skull  has  a  small  unossified  fissure,  but  no  depression 
below  the  eye,  arid  there  is  very  generally  a  pair  of  pits  on  the  forehead. 
The  upper  molar  teeth  are  broad,  but  may  have  either  tall  or  short  crowns. 
A  very  characteristic,  although  by  no  means  universal,  feature  of  the  group 
is  the  marking  of  the  body  by  vertical  white  stripes.  In  India  the  group 
is  represented  solely  by  the  well-known  nilgai  (Boselaphus  tragocamelus), 
characterised  by  having  the  hind  limbs  much  shorter  than  the  front  pair, 
the  short  horns — which  are  placed  behind  the  eyes — ridged  and  triangular  at 
the  base,  and  nearly  straight,  the  naked  portion  of  the  muzzle  large,  the 
ears  small,  and  the  upper  molars  tall,  with  an  additional  column  on  their 
inner  sides ;  the  body  being  uniformly  coloured.  Nilgai,  which  may  be 
found  either  in  jungle  or  open  country,  generally  associate  in  small  herds, 
although  the  bulls  are  often  found  singly.  In  all  the  other  members  of  the 
group  the  fore  and  hind  limbs  are  of  approximately  equal  length ;  the  horns 
are  long,  ridged  throughout,  and  twisted  into  a  spiral;  while  the  naked 
portion  of  the  muzzle  is  of  small  extent,  and  the  size  of  the  ears  large.  The 
molar  teeth  are  short-crowned,  and  the  body  is  generally  striped.  Perhaps  the 
handsomest  of  all  are  the  two  African  species  of  kudu,  constituting  the  genus 
Strepsiceros,  in  which  the  horns  of  the  males  are  situated  behind  the  line  of  the 
eyes,  rising  in  the  form  of  an  open  spiral,  with  their  front  ridge  very  strongly 
marked,  at  an  obtuse  angle  to  the  plane  of  the  face.  The  neck  is  fringed  with 
a  mane,  the  tail  relatively  short,  the  body  marked  with  vertical  white  streaks 
descending  from  a  spinal  stripe  of  the  same  colour,  and  the  hoofs  short.  In  the 
skull  there  is  a  deep  hollow,  with  pits,  on  the  forehead,  and  a  large  unossified 
space  below  each  eye.  Of  the  two  species,  the  true  kudu  (S.  kudu)  ranges 
from  South  Africa  to  Abyssinia,  while  the  much  smaller,  lesser  kudu  (S. 
imberbis)  is  confined  to  Somaliland  and  the  Kilimanjaro  district.  Of  the 
former  splendid  animal,  Mr.  Bryddon,  in  the  Asian  newspaper  of  November, 
1894,  writes  as  follows  : — '*  The  kudu  bull  stands  5  ft.  or  a  little  more  at  the 
withers.  Its  general  colour  varies  from  rufous  grey  to  almost  blue,  and 
especially  in  the  older  animals  this  bluish  colouring  will  be  found  predominat- 
ing. Along  the  spine  runs  a  white  streak,  and  from  this  thin  white  stripes 
extend  transversely  across  the  body  towards  the  belly.  Just  under  the  eye 
on  either  side  is  a  clear  white  band  which  meets  on  the  front  of  the  face  ; 
while  upon  the  cheeks  two  or  three  circular  white  spots  are  to  be  found.  The 


THE  HOOFED  MAMMALS.  155 


head  is  neat,  game-like,  and  altogether  beautiful,  and  is  surmounted  by  tall 
spreading  spiral  horns  of  great  weight  and  size,  which  diminish  in  corkscrew- 
like  formation  to  sharp  points.  The  greatest  recorded  length  of  a  kudu's 
horns  appear  to  be  3  ft.  9|  in.  in  a  straight  line  >  over  the  curve  5  ft.  f  in. 
The  greatest  length  of  the  horns  of  a  lesser  kudu  in  a  straight  line  is 
2ft.  Ijin.  ;  over  the  curve  2ft.  7£in.  There  are  often  great  and  striking 
differences  in  the  spread  of  kudu  horns.  Fine  specimens  will  sometimes 
spread  between  the  tips  as  much  as  nearly  3  ft.  9  in.  Other  and  equally  fin.o 
horns  will  only  spread  a  little  over  2ft.  But  whether  widespread  or  closer  in 
growth,  the  effect  of  these  magnificent  spiral  horns  is  equally  grand.  The 
eyes  are  large  and  very  beautiful.  The  ears  are  of  a  light  brown  colour,  and 
very  large  and  spreading.  The  hearing  of  this  antelope  is  marvellously  acute, 
and  the  great,  yet  delicate,  ears  are  manifestly  exactly  fitted  for  the  arrest  of 
the  slightest  vibration  of  sound.  The  senses  of  smell  and  sight  are  also 
excessively  fine,  and,  united  to  its  preternaturally  sharp  hearing  and  general 
suspiciousness,  render  the  kudu  usually  a  very  difficult  animal  to  approach  or 
surprise.  The  neck  of  the  male  is  strong,  shapely,  and  well  fitted  to  support 
the  weight  of  the  immense  horns.  The  chin  is  white.  From  the  throat  to 
the  dewlap  extends  a  long  and  handsome  fringe  of  white  and  blackish-brown 
hair,  which  adds  not  a  little  to  the  handsome  appearance  of  the  antelope. 
The  neck  also  is  slightly  maned.  The  legs  are  strong  yet  slender,  clean,  and 
beautifully  formed,  terminating  in  shapely  feet,  which  give  a  dainty  spoort 
shaped  like  the  ace  of  hearts.  The  kudu  spoor  is,  indeed,  one  of  the  most 
perfect  imprints  of  all  African  beasts  of  chase.  In  length  this  animal 
extends  some  9  ft.  The  withers,  as  in  so  many  other  examples  of  African 
game,  are  high  ;  the  body  is  stoutly  formed,  and  in  general  contour  not 
unlike  that  of  a  Highland  stag.  The  hair  is,  however,  much  closer  and 
finer  than  the  red  deer's.  The  tail  is  about  2  ft.  long,  terminating  in  a  point. 
The  general  port  and  demeanour  of  this  antelope  is  exceedingly  noble  ;  and 
the  magnificent  carriage  of  the  head,  surmounted  as  it  is  by  the  great  spiral 
horns,  is  one  of  the  finest  things  in  nature.  The  female,  lacking  as  she  is  in 
horns,  cuts  a  much  poorer  figure  than  her  lord  ;  and  her  ears,  unrelieved  by 
the  fine  spiral  horns,  appear  far  more  prominent  and  remarkable.  The 
calves  are  beautiful  little  creatures,  of  a  bright  rufous  colour,  strongly  lined 
with  white.  The  cows  have  only  one  calf  at  a  time,  usually  between 
September  and  November — the  favourite  calving  period  with  most  South 
African  antelopes.  The  kudu  feeds  more  upon  the  young  leafage  and 
sprouting  greenery  of  bushes,  shrubs,  and  trees,  than  upon  grass.  Its 
favourite  browsing-ground  is  bush  and  woodland,  the  stony  slopes  of  hills, 
and  well-bushed  mountain-sides.  In  these  haunts  this  antelope  is  difficult  of 
approach,  and  offers  very  excellent  stalking.  In  countries  not  much  shot 
over,  however,  the  kudu  may  be  occasionally  surprised  at  quite  close 
quarters.  In  woodland  and  bushy  country  the  pace  of  the  kudu,  considering 
the  weight  and  size  of  its  horns,  and  the  difficulties  and  obstacles  of  covert, 
is  surprising.  In  hill  country  it  is  wonderfully  active  and  will  jump  magnifi- 
cently ;  upon  open  ground,  however,  where  it  occasionally  strays,  it  may  be 
ridden  down  without  much  trouble,  and  upon  the  flat  its  gait  is  laboured  and 
somewhat  slow.  This  antelope  is  gregarious,  and  runs  usually  in  parties  of 
from  five  to  eight ;  occasionally,  however,  larger  troops,  numbering  as  many 
as  twenty  individuals,  are  encountered.  In  the  dense  forest  south  of  the 
Botletli  river,  while  hunting  giraffe,  I  startled  a  troop  of  fifteen  upon  one 
occasion.  The  hide  of  the  kudu  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  all  South 


156  MAMMALIA—ORDER  VL—UNGULATA. 


African  antelopes  ;  it  commands  a  high  price  and  is  much  sought  after. 
From  it  are  manufactured  velschoens  (shoes),  leather  thongs,  whip-lashes, 
and  even  harness.  The  hide  is  thinnish,  but  excessively  tough.  I  have 
seen  a  complete  set  of  Cape  cart  harness  made  of  kudu  hide,  which  was 
smart-looking,  serviceable,  and  of  everlasting  wear.  The  flesh  is  excellent 
and  well-tasted,  and  the  marrow  bones  are  esteemed  a  very  great  dainty  by 
hunters  and  natives  in  the  interior.  The  kudu  is  widely  distributed.  Its 
range  extends  beyond  the  Zambesi  into  Central  Africa,  and  it  is  found  as  far 
north  as  Somaliland  and  even  Abyssinia.  It  has  a  variety  of  native  names 
even  in  South  Africa.  The  Bechuanas  call  it  tolo ;  the  Matabele,  e-bala- 
bala  ;  the  Makalakas,  e-zilarwa  ;  the  Makobag,  unzwa  ;  the  Masarwa  bush- 
men,  dwar  ;  the  Mashunas,  noro.  In  North-east  Africa  the  Somali  name  is 
godir  ;  while  upon  the  Lower  Zambesi  it  is  goma." 

Nearly  allied  to  the  kudus  are  the  numerous  African  species  of  harnessed 
antelopes  (  Tragelaphus),  most  of  which  are  distinguished  by  the  smaller  number 

of  spiral  turns  in  the  horns,  although 
one  species  comes  so  close  in  this 
respect  to  the  kudus,  that  it  may  be  a 
question  whether  all  should  not  be 
included  in  a  single  genus.  The 
harnessed-antelopes  take  their  name 
from  the  white  stripes  or  rows  of 
spots  with  which  the  bodies  of  nearly 
all  are  adorned,  some  of  them  being 
remarkable  for  the  extreme  brilliancy 
of  their  coloration.  Whereas  the 
splendid  T.  euryceros  of  West  Africa, 
conspicuous  for  the  brilliant  chestnut 
ground  colour  of  its  coat,  is  only 
Fig.  SC.—  HARNESSED- ANTELOPE  second  in  size  to  the  kudu,  the  guib 

(Tragelaphus angasi).  (T.  scriptus)  does  not  exceed  a  goat  in 

height.     Two  of  the  species,   one  of 

which  is  the  well-known  sitatunga  or  nakong  (T.  spekei)  of  South  Central 
Africa,  have  their  hoofs  remarkably  elongated,  and  spend  their  time  in 
marshy  situations,  where  they  will  conceal  themselves  by  submerging  the 
whole  body  except  the  tip  of  the  muzzle.  The  largest  of  all  antelopes  are 
the  two  African  species  of  eland  (Orms),  which  differ  from  the  other  members 
of  the  present  section  by  having  horns  in  both  sexes,  while  they  are  further 
distinguished  by  the  close,  corkscrew-like  spiral  of  these  appendages. 
Although  in  one  variety  of  the  common  species  they  are  fairly  well  marked, 
as  a  rule  the  white  stripes  on  the  body  are  indistinct  or  absent.  There  are  few 
handsomer  antelopes  than  a  large  eland  bull,  with  its  fine  dewlap,  full  tuft 
of  dark  brown  hair  on  the  forehead,  slight  mane,  and  generally  pale  tawny 
hair. 

The  well-known  chamois,  gemze,  or  izard  (Rupicapra  tragus\  which  in- 
habits all  the  higher  mountain  ranges  of  Europe,  and  is  locally  known  by  the 
above-mentioned  names,  is  the  typical  representative  of  a  section  of  the 
hollow-horned  ruminants,  in  many  respects  intermediate  between  the  true 
antelopes  and  the  goats.  Accordingly,  they  are  often  spoken  of  as  the 
caprine,  or  goat-like  antelopes.  As  a  rule,  the  horns,  which  are  nearly  equally 
developed  in  both  sexes,  and  rise  behind  the  line  of  the  eyes,  are  short  arid 
wrinkled  at  their  bases,  and  conical  or  somewhat  compressed  in  form,  with  a 


THE  HOOFED  MAMMALS.  i$7 


more  or  less  divided  backward  curvature.  Although  it  may  be  much  reduced 
in  size,  there  is  generally  a  gland  beneath  each  of  the  eyes ;  the  short  and 
tapering  tail  is  well-haired  above,  the  hoofs  are  relatively  large,  and  the 
whole  build  is  heavy  and  clumsy.  In  form  the  molar  teeth  resemble  those 
of  the  goats ;  and  the  skull  generally  has  a  depression,  but  no  fissure,  below 
each  eye.  From  its  allies,  the  chamois  is  readily  distinguished  by  the 
peculiar  hooked  form  of  the  horns,  which  rise  close  together  almost  vertically 
from  the  forehead,  and  then  curve  suddenly  back  in  the  well-known  hook. 
The  muzzle  is  hairy,  and  the  gland  beneath  the  eye  small.  In  height,  a 
chamois  does  not  stand  more  than  a  couple  of  feet  at  the  withers.  Chamois 
are  inhabitants  of  the  high  Alpine  regions  immediately  below  the  snow-line ; 
and  although  they  were  formerly  met  with  in  large  herds,  in  most  of  their 
habitats  their  numbers  have  been  greatly  reduced  by  constant  persecution, 
while  from  some  districts  they  have  completely  disappeared.  Their  mar- 
vellous powers  of  leaping  are  familiar  to  all.  In  the  Himalaya,  Malay 
countries,  parts  of  China,  and  Japan,  the  place  of  the  chamois  is  taken  by 
the  allied  but  larger  and  more  clumsily-built  animals  known  as  serows 
(Nemorhcedus),  of  which  there  are  several  species.  From  the  former  they 
are  readily  distinguished  by  the  finely-wrinkled  and  sharply-tapering  black 
horns  having  no  distinct  hook  at  the  extremities.  The  ears  are  large,  the  fur 
is  coarse  and  long,  and  the  gland  below  the  eye  small.  The  Himalayan 
species  is  found  in  thick  bush  at  moderate  elevations,  and  is  a  marvellous 
adept  at  getting  over  the  roughest  ground  at  a  rapid  pace.  Nearly  allied  are 
the  smaller  animals  known  as  goral  (Cemas\  of  which  the  typical  representa- 
tive is  met  with  in  the  outer  ranges  of  the  Himalaya,  while  other  forms 
occur  in  Eastern  Tibet,  Northern  China,  and  Amurland.  They  differ  from 
the  serows  in  lacking  a  gland  beneath  the  eye,  and  also  in  the  conformation 
of  the  skull.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  members  of  the  group  is  the 
takin  (Budorcas  taxlcolor)  of  the  Mishmi  Hills  in  Assam,  and  Eastern 
Tibet,  which  may  be  compared  to  a  very  large,  rough-haired,  and  reddish- 
coloured  serow,  with  greatly  developed  smooth  horns,  whose  size  and  curva- 
ture strongly  recalls  those  of  the  gnus.  Scarcely  anything  is  known  of 
these  animals  in  a  wild  state,  although  they  are  probably  sufficiently  common 
in  their  native  haunts.  Another  nearly  allied  form  is  the  so-called  Rocky 
Mountain  goat  (Haploceros  montanus) 
of  North  America,  which  is  one  of 
the  very  few  American  representa- 
tives of  the  hollow-horned  ruminants. 
Ifc  is  likewise  one  of  the  few  animals 
which  are  permanently  white  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year,  its  coat  being  very 
long  and  shaggy,  and  forming  a  mo^t 
striking  contrast  to  the  jet-black  horns 
and  hoofs.  The  horns,  which  are  set 
close  together  and  curve  somewhat 
backwards,  are  distinctly  compressed  Fig.  87.  .-ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  -GOAT 

at  their  bases  ;  the  ears  are  small,  and  (Uaploceros  montanus). 

there  is  no  gland  below  the  eyes.     The 

most  remarkable  structural  peculiarity  about  the  animal  is,  however,  the 
extreme  shortness  of  the  cannon-bones  in  both  the  fore  and  hind  feet,  which 
in  this  respect  are  quite  unlike  those  of  any  other  ruminants. 
The  next  group  of  the  Bovidce  is  formed  by  the  goats  and  sheep,  wnich  are 


IS8  MAMMALIA— ORDER  VI.  —  UNGULATA. 


BO  nearly  allied  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  distinguish  between  them.  In  this 
Caprine  section  both  sexes  are  provided  with  horns,  but  those  of  the  females 
are  much  inferior  in  size  to  those  of  the  males.  They  are  usually  compressed, 
triangular  in  cross  section,  and  marked  with  bold,  transverse  ridges  or 
wrinkles,  while  they  may  either  curve  backwards  or  outwards,  or  may  be 
spirally  twisted.  The  muzzle  is  usually  completely  covered  with  hair  ;  the 
gland  below  the  eye  is  either  very  small  or  totally  absent ;  the  tail  is 
generally  short  and  flattened  ;  and  glands  are  often  present  between  the 
hoofs.  With  the  exception  of  one  species  of  goat,  the  females  have  but  a 
single  pair  of  teats.  The  molar  teeth  are  characterised  by  the  great  height 
of  their  crowns,  those  of  the  upper  jaw  having  only  four  crescentic  columns. 
In  the  skull  a  depression  below  each  eye  may  or  may  not  be  developed. 
In  the  true  goats,  constituting  the  genus  Capra,  the  long  horns  are  laterally 
compressed,  and  either  curve  backwards  in  a  bold  sweep,  with  an  outward 
inclination  at  the  tips,  or  are  spirally  twisted.  There  is  neither  a  gland 
beneath  the  eye  nor  a  depression  of  the  skull  in  the  same  region  ;  the  chin 
is  more  or  less  distinctly  bearded ;  the  males  emit  a  powerful  and 
characteristic  odour  ;  and,  if  glands  are  developed  between  the  hoofs,  these 
are  confined  to  the  fore  feet.  The  true  goats  are  mainly  confined  to  the 
mountains  of  Europe  and  Asia,  although  sparingly  represented  in  Abyssinia, 
Egypt,  and  Palestine.  In  Europe  there  are  two  species,  viz.,  the  ibex  (G. 
ibex)  and  the  Spanish  ibex  (G.  pyrenaica),  of  which  the  former  was  confined 
to  the  Alps,  but  is  now  extinct  in  its  pure  form,  although  a  half-breed 
between  this  and  the  domestic  goat  exists  in  certain  districts.  The  ibex  is 
easily  recognised  by  the  bold  transverse  ridges  or  knobs  on  the  front  of  its 
scimitar-like  horns,  whereas  in  the  Spanish  ibex  these  are  much  less 
developed,  and  the  curvature  tends  to  become  spiral.  Mr.  A.  Chapman  writes 
that  this  goat  survives  in  some  of  the  secluded  valleys  on  the  Spanish  side  of 
the  Pyrenees,  and  finds  a  congenial  home  in  the  elevated  Cordilleras  of 
Central  Spain,  especially  in  the  Sierra  de  Gredos — the  apex  of  the  long 
range  which  forms  the  watershed  between  the  Tagus  and  the  Douro,  and 
continues  to  Portugal  as  the  Sierra  de  Estrelha.  In  the  south  of  Spain  the 
ibex  occurs  in  the  Sierra  Morena,  and  especially  in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  as 
well  as  the  Sierra  Bermeja,  which  runs  parallel  with  the  Mediterranean  ; 
but  examples  from  these  localities  differ  somewhat  from  those  of  the  northern 
and  central  ranges,  and  Schimper  distinguished  the  southern  race  as  Capri 
hispanica.  In  the  Gredos  and  Nevada  ranges  the  ibex  leave  the  vicinity  of 
the  snow,  or,  at  least,  the  most  rugged  and  inaccessible  ground,  after  sunset 
only,  when  they  descend  to  feed  ;  and  under  no  circumstances  are  they 
found,  even  in  winter,  amongst  forest  or  covert  of  any  kind  ;  but  in  the 
lower  ranges  of  the  Bermeja  and  Palmitera,  which  do  not  exceed  4800  feet 
in  height,  and  where  the  scrub  and  even  pine  trees  attain  the  summit,  they 
are  found  comparatively  low  down,  and  may  be  hunted  over  ground  that 
looks  far  more  suitable  for  roe-deer.  But  wherever  found,  the  races  have 
one  habit  in  common :  they  take  refuge  on  the  narrowest  ledges, 
where  it  seems  hardly  possible  that  their  bodies  can  pass,  and  still 
further  avail  themselves  of  crevices  and  recesses  in  the  wall  of  rock. 
In  the  Caucasus  there  are  at  least  two  species  of  goats,  one  known 
as  C.  cylindricornis,  in  which  the  horns  in  curvature,  smoothness,  and 
colour  are  so  like  those  of  certain  wild  •  sheep  as  to  render  it  almost 
impossible  to  draw  any  valid  distinction  between  the  two  groups. 
Of  wild  goats  five  well-defined  species  are  recognised  from  India,  four  of 


THE  HOOFED  MAMMALS. 


159 


which  are  not  found  southwards  of  the  Himalaya.  Three  out  of  these  are 
included  in  the  genus  Capra ;  while  the  other  two  have  much  shorter  horns, 
and  are  referred  to  a  second  genus.  The  pasang  or  Persian  wild  goat 
(C.  cegagrus)  is  a  western  form  only  extending  into  India  on  its  western  side, 
where  it  is  met  with  in  Baluchistan  and  Sind.  It  is  easily  recognised  by  the 
sharp  edge  of  its  scimitar-like  horns ;  and  is  considered  to  be  the  ancestral 
stock  from  which  the  domesticated  breeds  of  goat  have  been  derived.  The 
Himalayan  ibex  is  generally  regarded  as  identical  with  the  ibex  of  Siberia  and 
the  Thian  Shan  (G.  sibirica),  although  it  has  been  thought  that  it  may  be  dis- 
tinct. It  differs  from  the  pasang  by  the  front  of  the  horns  of  the  bucks  being 
flattened  and  marked  by  bold  knots.  Further  information  is  required  about 
a  dark-coloured  ibex  from  Baltistan,  which  has  been  considered  to  be  merely 
the  common  species  in  its  winter  dress,  but  this  is  not  yet  ascertained  with 
certainty.  There  is  also  much  uncertainty 
about  an  ibex  of  which  three  specimens 
have  been  obtained — probably  from  the 
upper  Kishanganga  Valley  in  Kashmir  ter- 
ritory— characterised  by  the  marked  out- 
ward curvature  of  the  horns,  and  the  ab- 
sence of  knobs  except  near  their  tips.  The 
markhor  ((7.  falconeri)  is  easily  recognised 
by  its  spirally  twisted  horns ;  and  zoologists 
are  now  satisfied  that,  in  spite  of  the  great 
difference  in  the  form  of  the  spiral  of  their 
horns,  all  the  varieties  belong  to  a  single 
species.  The  two  remaining  Indian  wild 
goats  are  the  Himalayan  tahr  (Hemitragus 
jemlaicus)  and  the  so-called  Nilgiri  ibex 
(Hemitragus  hylocrius).  Both  differ  from 
the  true  goats  by  their  comparatively  short 
horns;  and  they  are  further  distinguished 
by  having  a  small  naked  area  at  the  end  of 
the  muzzle.  The  Nilgiri  wild  goat  differs 
from  the  tahr  by  having  the  outer  side  of  its 
horns  convex,  and  not  passing  into  a  sharp 
ridge  in  front;  while  the  latter  is  distinguished  from  all  other  goats  and 
sheep  by  the  presence  of  four  teats  in  the  females.  A  third  species  of  the 
same  genus  inhabits  the  Muscat  district  of  Southern  Arabia.  The  sheep 
( Ovis)  are  connected  with  the  sheep-like  goats,  such  as  Capra  cylindricornis  of 
the  Caucasus,  by  means  of  the  bharal  of  Tibet  and  the  North  African  arui,  or 
Barbary  sheep,  both  of  which  differ  from  the  more  typical  representatives  of 
their  genus  by  the  absence  of  a  gland  below  the  eye.  and  their  smooth,  olive- 
coloured  horns;  although  they  resemble  other  sheep  in  having  glands  between 
the  hoofs  of  both  the  fore  and  hind  feet.  As  a  group,  sheep  are  character- 
ised by  the  massive  horns  of  the  rams  curving  backwards  and  downwards  in 
a  bold  sweep,  with  the  tips  generally  turned  inwards,  while  they  are  usually 
marked  with  more  or  less  prominent  transverse  ridges.  Except  in  the 
two  species  named,  their  colour  is  brownish,  and  there  is  a  small  gland 
on  the  face  below  the  eye,  with  a  corresponding  shallow  depression  in  the 
skull.  All  the  feet  have  glands  between  their  hoofs ;  the  chin  is  devoid  of 
a  beard,  although  there  may  be  a  ruff  of  long  hair  on  the  throat ;  and  the 
rams  have  not  the  unpleasant  odour  characteristic  of  the  males  of  the  goats. 


Fig.  87.— THE  MARKHOB 
( Capra  falconeri). 


160  MAMMALIA— ORDER   VL—UNGULATA. 


Sheep  are  mainly  inhabitants  of  Central  and  North-Eastern  Asia,  one 
species  just  entering  the  Punjab.  In  Europe  two  or  three  kinds  are  found 
in  the  Mediterranean  regions,  and  there  is  one  in  the  north  of  Africa,  but 
no  other  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  that  continent ;  while  a  single 
species  inhabits  North  America.  The  largest  and  finest  of  the  group  are 

the  argalis  of  Central  Asia,  and 
amongst  these  the  most  magnificent 
is  the  Pamir-sheep  (0.  poll),  whose 
horns  are  characterised  by  their 
double  twist  and  outward  direction. 
In  the  true  argali  (0.  ammon)  of 
the  Altai,  and  the  closely-allied  O. 
hodgsoni  of  Tibet,  the  horns,  al- 
though more  massive,  are  shorter, 
and  form  bub  a  single  curve.  In 
these  species  the  wrinkles  on  the 
horns  are  strongly  marked,  but  in 
the  bighorns,  of  which  one  species 
(0.  canadensis)  inhabits  the  high- 
lands of  western  North  America, 
Fig,  89  -PAMIR-SHEEP  (Ovispoli).  while  the  second  (0.  nivicola)  is 

found    on    the    opposite    side    of 

Behring  Straits  in  the  Kamschatkan  Peninsula,  these  wrinkles  are  much 
less  developed,  and  the  depression  below  the  eye  in  the  skull  is  less  deep. 
Another  group,  in  which  the  horns,  although  well  wrinkled,  are  smaller  than 
in  the  argalis,  is  represented  by  the  sha  (0.  vignei)  of  the  inner  Himalaya, 
Persia,  and  certain  ranges  of  the  Punjab  (where  it  is  known  as  the  urial),  as 
well  as  by  the  Armenian  sheep  (0.  gmelini)  of  Asia  Minor  and  Persia,  the 
smaller  but  closely  allied  0.  ophion  of  the  island  of  Cyprus,  and  the  mouflon 
(0.  musimon)  of  Sardinia  and  Corsica,  easily  distinguished  by  the  saddle- 
shaped  mark  on  the  back ;  the  three  last-named  kinds  being  further 
characterised  by  the  absence  of  horns  in  the  ewes.  The  two  remaining 
species,  as  already  said,  differ  from  all  the  foregoing  in  their  comparatively 
smooth  and  olive-coloured  horns,  and  the  absence  of  a  gland  below  the  eye 
and  a  depression  in  the  skull  for  its  reception.  Of  these  the  bharal  (O. 
nahura)  is  a  Tibetan  form,  with  short,  bluish-grey  fur  ornamented  with  black 
markings  ;  while  the  arui  (0.  tragelaphus)  of  the  mountains  of  Northern 
Africa  differs  from  all  the  others  in  possessing  a  fringe  of  long  hair  on  the 
fore-quarters,  and  likewise  by  the  greater  length  of  the  tail.  It  is  a 
remarkable  fact  that  nearly  all  the  wild  sheep  are  short-tailed  animals,  and 
have  fur  instead  of  wool ;  but,  although  it  is  difficult  to  explain  the  origin  of 
the  long  tail  of  the  domesticated  breeds,  it  is  noteworthy  that  certain  African 
races  have  the  fleece  partaking  more  of  the  nature  of  fur  than  of  wool.  In 
habits  sheep  much  resemble  goats,  the  young  males  and  females  associating 
in  large  flocks,  from  which  the  old  males  often  disassociate  themselves, 
except  during  the  breeding-season.  Both  groups  are  exceedingly  wary 
animals,  and  both  are  inhabitants  of  mountain  regions ;  but  whereas  goats 
always  restrict  themselves  to  rocky  and  more  or  less  precipitous  districts, 
wild  sheep  may  be  often  found  on  open,  undulating,  grassy  ground  like  ~the 
Pamirs. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  sheep  is  the  somewhat  larger  ruminant  commonly 
known  as  the  musk-ox  (Ovibos  moschatus),  which  may  be  compared  roughlv 


THE  HOOFED  MAMMALS.  161 


in  point  of  size  to  Highland  cattle,  although  its  coat  is  still  more  shaggy. 
The  musk-ox  is  now  restricted  to  Arctic  America  and  the  north  of  Green- 
land, although  in  a  past  epoch  it  ranged  over  northern  Asia  and  Europe 
as  far  south  as  Britain.       With  the 
sheep    this    ruminant   agrees   in   its 
hairy  muzzle  and  the  general  struc- 
ture  of   the   molar   teeth ;    but   the 
horns  are  quite  peculiar,  those  of  the 
adult  males  being   greatly  flattened 
and  expanded  at  their  bases,  where 
they  almost  meet  in  the  middle  line 
of  the  forehead,  after  which  they  bend 
downwards  by  the  sides  of  the  face, 
and    then    curve    sharply   upwards. 
While  they  are  whitish  and  fibrous  at  Fig.  90- MUSK-OX  (Ovibos  moschatus\ 

the  base,  at  the  tips  they  are  smooth 

and  black,  with  a  nearly  circular  section.  The  small  and  pointed  ears  are  almost 
buried  in  the  long  hair ;  the  general  colour  is  brown,  and  the  short  and  sheep- 
like  tail  is  completely  lost  among  the  hair.  In  winter  a  woolly  under-fur  is 
mingled  with  the  long  hair  to  form  an  efficient  protection  against  the  intense 
cold  of  the  regions  inhabited  by  this  animal.  A  peculiar  feature  of  the  feet 
of  the  musk-ox  is  that  the  two  hoofs  of  each  are  not  symmetrical ;  these  being 
partially  covered  with  hair  on  the  lower  surface.  In  general  habits  musk- 
oxen  much  resemble  sheep,  collecting  in  flocks  of  considerable  size,  among 
which  the  proportion  of  old  rams  is  comparatively  small.  The  musky  odour 
from  which  the  animal  derives  its  name  does  not  appear  to  be  due  to  the 
secretion  of  any  special  scent-gland. 

The  last,  or  bovine  section  of  the  family,  is  represented  by  the  buffaloes, 
bison,  and  oxen,  all  of  which  may  be  included  in  the  single  genus  Bos.  All 
are  animals  of  very  massive  build,  with  a  short  neck,  and  the  head  carried 
nearly  in  the  line  of  the  back,  the  largest  members  of  the  whole  family  being 
included  among  them.  From  the  sheep,  the  oxen,  as  the  group  may  be 
collectively  termed,  are  markedly  distinguished  by  the  conformation  of  the 
tall  crowns  of  the  molar  teeth.  In  the  upper  jaw  these  have  a  nearly  square 
cross  section,  with  a  well-defined  additional  fifth  column  on  the  inner  side, 
and  the  whole  of  the  valleys  and  clefts  completely  filled  up  with  cement. 
r\  he  horns,  which  are  massive,  arid  nearly  as  large  in.  the  females  as  in  the 
males,  are  placed  on  the  summit  of  the  skull  with  their  bases  far  apart,  and 
may  be  cylindrical  or  triangular  in  section,  their -direction  being  at  first  more 
or  less  outwards,  after  which  they  turn  upwards  at  and  near  the  tips.  They 
always  lack  the  transverse  knobs  of  the  goats  and  the  wrinkles  of  those  of 
the  sheep,  so  that  the  surface  is  comparatively  smooth,  the  colour  being 
dark.  Internally  the  bony  cores  of  the  horns,  like  those  of  the  goats  and 
sheep,  are  much  honeycombed.  In  all  cases  the  broad  muzzle,  in  which  the 
nostrils  are  placed  wide  apart,  is  more  or  less  completely  naked  and  moist ; 
there  is  no  gland  beneath  the  eye,  and  consequently  no  depression  in  this 
region  of  the  skull ;  the  bulls  usually  have  an  ample  dewlap  beneath  the 
throat,  the  long  and  tapering  tail  is  generally  tipped  with  a  large  bunch  of 
long  hair,  and  there  are  no  glands  between  the  hoofs  of  either  foot.  The 
udders  of  the  cows  are  provided  with  four  teats.  As  in  the  sheep  and  g-oats, 
small  lateral  hoofs  are  retained.  The  majority  of  the  oxen  are  confined 
to  the  continents  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  but  one  species  of  bison 
12 


162  MAMMALIA— ORDER  VL—UNGULATA. 


inhabits  North  America,  and  a  small  aberrant  form  is  found  in  the  Island  of 
Celebes. 

The  latter  species,  which  is  known  as  the  anoa  (B.  depressicornis),  is  the 
smallest  and  most  antelope-like  member  of  the  whole  group,  having  the 
short  angulated  horns  directed  nearly  upwards  from  the  forehead,  and  the 
colour  black,  with  a  few  white  spots  on  the  hind  quarters.  Another  small 
but  more  buffalo-like  form  (B.  mindorensis)  inhabits  the  Philippine  Islands, 
where  it  is  locally  known  as  the  tamarao,  but  it  is  not  certain  whether  this 
miy  not  prove  to  be  a  hybrid  between  the  anoa  and  the  Indian  buffalo 
The  true  buffaloes  are  characterised  by  their  more  or  less  angulated  horns 
and  convex  forehead.  Of  these,  the  Indian  buffalo  (B.  bubalus)  has  its  home 
in  the  Oriental  countries,  but  has  been  introduced  as  a  domesticated  animal 
into  Egypt  and  the  South  of  Europe.  Ib  is  a  huge,  ungainly  brute,  with  the 
long  horns  flattened  and  angulated  throughout  their  length  ;  those  of  the 
bulls  being  very  thick  and  curving  upwards  in  a  crescentic  form,  while  those  of 
the  cows  are  slender  and  directed  more  immediately  outwards.  In  their 
habits  these  buffaloes  are  essentially  marsh-haunting  animals,  loving  to 
wallow  in  the  soft,  warm  mud  of  such  situations.  The  skin  of  old  animals  is 
almost  devoid  of  hair.  The  Cape  buffalo  (B.  caffer)  is  a  very  different- 
looking  animal,  with  a  shorter 
ekull  and  horns  than  the  Indian 
species  ;  the  bases  of  the  horns 


growing  together  in  a  kind   of 
helmet-like    mass  on    t 


the  fore- 
head, where  they  nearly  meet  in 
the  middle  line  ;  these  append- 
ages curving  downwards  at  their 
origin  from  the  skull,  and  then 
taking  an  inward  direction,  while 
their  tips  are  almost  cylindrical. 
The  black  skin  is  nearly  naked, 
but  the  ears  are  margined  with  a 
fringe  of  elongated  hairs.  la 
certain  forms  from  Central 
Fig.  90.— CAPE  BUFFALO  (Bos  ca/er±  Africa  the  hairs  on  the  skin  are 

reddish  in  colour,  and  the  horns 

smaller  and  less  expanded  and  approximative  on  the  forehead.  This  form 
grades  almost  imperceptibly  into  a  smaller  variety  or  species  known  as 
B.  pumilus,  in  which  the  small  horns  are  very  widely  separated  from  one 
another  at  their  bases. 

The  bisons  differ  from  the  buffaloes  by  their  cylindrical  horns,  which  are 
placed  rather  low  down  on  the  forehead ;  the  latter  being  very  wide  and 
convex,  and  the  whole  skull  comparatively  short  and  wide.  In  the  skeleton 
the  number  of  pairs  of  ribs  may  be  either  fourteen  or  fifteen.  In  place  of 
the  nearly-naked  or  sparsely-haired  hide  of  the  buffaloes,  the  bisons  have  an 
abundant  coat  of  short,  thick,  crisp,  curly  brown  hair  over  the  greater  part 
of  the  body,  while  the  head,  neck,  shoulders,  and  fore  limbs  are  clothed 
with  a  massive  mane  of  longer  and  darker  hair,  almost  hiding  the  ears,  and 
concealing  the  bases  of  the  horns,  as  well  as  shading  the  eyes.  The  great 
elevation  of  the  withers,  as  compared  with  the  hind  quarters,  gives  the 
appearance  of  a  large  hump  behind  the  neck.  Of  the  two  species,  the 
European  bison  (B.  bison)  is  now  confined  to  the  Caucasus,  Lithuania,  and 


THE  HOOFED  MAMMALS.  163 

some  of  the  adjacent  districts,  running  completely  wild  in  the  former  area, 
but  artificially  protected  in  the  latter.  It-appears  to  be  essentially  a  forest- 
haunting  animal.  The  American  bison  (B.  americanus),  locally  known  as  the 
buffalo,  is  very  closely  allied,  but  is  of  rather  smaller  dimensions,  with  lower 
and  weaker  hind-quarters,  but  a  stronger  and  more  massive  sho'ulder,  a 
greater  abundance  of  long  hair  on  the  fore-quarters,  and  a  rather  shorter 
tail.  The  range  of  this  splendid  animal  extended  from  a  short  distance 
north  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  beyond  the  Saskatchewan  in  Canada,  and 
probably  reached  almost  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  sea-board.  For 
seventy  years,  at  least,  the  Mississippi  may,  however,  be  regarded  as  its 
extreme  eastern  boundary.  The  countless  millions  in  which  bison  formerly 
roamed  over  the  open  prairies  are  known  to  all ;  but  incessant  pursuit 
and  the  opening  up  of  the  country  by  railroacjs,  slowly,  but  too  surely, 
tended  to  its  complete  extermination  from  the  open  country.  According, 
however,  to  Mr.  Theodore  Rooseveldt,  there  are  still,  and  always  have  been, 
small  numbers  of  bison  inhabiting  the  Rocky  Mountains  northwards  from 
Colorado,  and  the  depths  of  the  great  forests  in  the  sub-Arctic  regions  beyond 
the  Saskatchewan  River,  and  these,  though  locally  called  mountain-buffalo 
or  wood- bison,  are  only  a  variety  of  the  bison  of  the  plains.  For  some 
years  there  have  been  reports  of  a  small  herd  of  bison  inhabiting  the  remote 
corner  of  Val  Verde  county,  Texas,  near  the  Rio  Grande  border  ;  and  some 
time  ago  a  shepherd  came  upon  the  herd  and  counted  it  to  comprise  fifty 
individuals.  Commenting  on  this,  a  writer  in  the  Asian  newspaper  of  June 
15th,  1895,  observes  that,  "when  we  consider  the  enormous  area  of  the 
country  and  the  sparse  population  in  the  more  mountainous  and  wooded 
districts,  we  find  no  difficulty  in  believing  that  the  animal  survives  in  small 
numbers,  as  a  denizen  of  the  forest,  varying,  in  accordance  with  his  new  con- 
ditions of  life,  from  the  bison  which  roamed  the  prairies  in  tens  of  thousands 
a  quarter  of  a  century  ago.  And  when  we  consider  the  physical  peculiarities 
of  the  animal,  there  is  reason  to  think  that  in  the  woods  the  species  may  hold 
its  own  against  man  and  other  enemies  with  better  success  than  it  did  on  the 
plains.  His  eyesight  is  not  keen — a  defect  gravely  against  hioi  in  the  open,  but 
for  obvious  reasons  of  much  less  consequence  in  the  forest.  His  acute  hearing, 
of  little  service  on  the  plains,  is  invaluable  in  the  woods;  and  his  excellent  nose 
is  equally  serviceable  in  either  case.  It  would  seem  as  though  the  bison  had 
been  primarily  designed  for  a  sylvan  existence.  Mr.  Rocseveldt  observes 
that  the  so-called  mountain-buffalo  or  wood-bison  is  rather  heavier  in 
body  and  shorter  of  limb  than  his  brother  of  the  prairie  ;  but  in  regard  to 
this  we  have  to  remember  what  a  recent  writer  has  said  of  the  prairie-bison 
in  his  latter  days.  Living  in  a  state  of  perpetual  flight  from  mounted 
hunters  he  became  specialised  with  wonderful  rapidity.  His  heavy  body 
became  lighter,  his  legs  developed  in  length,  and  his  whole  appearance 
acquired  a  certain  'ranginess,'  indicative  of  the  effort  of  nature  to  adapt  her- 
self to  changed  conditions  ;  flight  was  the  refuge  of  the  bison  in  the  last  days 
of  his  existence  as  a  beast  of  the  plains,  and  his  formation  in  a  few  genera- 
tions underwent  the  change  compelled  by  the  struggle  for  life.  It  is  possible 
that  Mr.  Rooseveldt,  when  comparing  the  bison  of  the  Rockies  with  that  of 
the  plains,  may  have  had  in  mind  this  latterly  specialised  animal  ;  but, 
nevertheless,  we  can  well  believe  that  forest  existence,  more  sedentary  than 
prairie  life  even  in  its  past  peaceful  days,  is  calculated  to  develop  greater 
weight  of  body  and  brevity  of  limb.  There  is  no  good  reason  for  believing 
that  the  bison  »ow  dwelling  in  the  Rockies,  sub- Arctic  regions,  Texas,  and, 


MAMMALIA— ORDER  VI. — UNGULA  TA. 


we  venture  to  hope,  elsewhere,  in  inaccessible  corners  of  the  continent, 
varies  very  markedly  from  the  prairie  form.  There  always  have  been  wood 
land-dwelling  members  of  the  species.  Bison  were  indigenous  to  the  tract 
of  country  known  as  the  Yellowstone  Park,  when  it  was  proclaimed  a 
national  reserve.  The  park  is  admirably  adapted  for  a  sanctuary.  Embracing 
an  area  of  some  3300  square  miles,  and  forming,  roughly  speaking,  an  oblong 
of  about  70  miles  by  50,  not  less  than  84  per  cent,  of  the  whole  is  forest-clad 
mountain,  valley,  and  plateau.  The  central  portion  forms  a  plateau  varying 
from  7000  to  8500  feet  in  elevation,  and  averaging  8000  feet.  Here  the 
indigenous  bison  finds  comparative  security,  and  is  steadily  increasing  in 
numbers.  In  1884  the  bison  population  of  the  Yellowstone  Park  was 
estimated  at  200  ;  in  the  winter  of  1891-92  a  snow-shoe  party,  exploring  for 
the  purpose,  found  various  small  herds,  which  by  actual  count  gave  nearly 
300  animals,  each  herd  containing  a  proportion  of  well-grown  calves."  ' 

Somewhat  intermediate  between  the  bison  and  the  true  oxen  is  the 
Tibetan  yak  (B.  grunniens),  so  invaluable  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  highlands 
of  the  inner  Himalaya  as  a  means  of  transport  across  those  arid  and  inhos- 
pitable regions.  While  the  horns  are  not  unlike  those  of  the  bison  in  form 
and  position,  and  the  general  conformation  of  the  skull  is  also  similar  in  the 
two  groups,  the  yak  has  the  long  hair  disposed  as  a  fringe  from  the  fore  legs 
along  the  flanks  to  the  hind  limbs,  the  tail  being  also  invested  with  similar 
elongated  hairs  from  root  to  tip.  The  ribs  are  fourteen  in  number  ;  and 
the  colour  of  the  wild  race  is  uniformly  blackish-brown,  although  many  of 
the  hybrid  domestic  breeds  are  more  or  less  variegated  with  white.  The 
male  lacks  the  distinct  dewlap  characteristic  of  almost  all  the  other  oxen. 
Another  peculiarity  of  the  yak  is  to  be  found  in  the  strange  grunting  cry 
from  which  its  scientific  name  is  taken. 

Three  species  of  oxen  confined  to  the  Oriental  countries  constitute  what  is 
termed  the  Bibovine  group.  These  are  characterised,  like  the  true  oxen,  by 
possessing  only  thirteen  pairs  of  ribs,  but  are  peculiar  in  having  a  more  or  less 
well-marked  ridge  running  down  the  anterior  half  of  the  back,  produced  by 
the  unusual  height  of  the  spines  of  the  vertebrae  in  that  region.  The  horns, 
which  occupy  the  highest  portion  of  the  skull,  are  somewhat  flattened,  more 
especially  at  the  base,  and  after  inclining  outwards  for  some  distance  are 
then  directed  upwards.  The  tail  is  relatively  short,  not  reaching  below  the 
hocks  ;  the  lower  portions  of  the  legs  are  white,  and  the  general  colour  of 
the  males  is  blackish,  and  those  of  the  females  either  amber  or  blackish- 
brown.  The  largest  and  handsomest  of  the  three  species  is  the  well-known 
gaur  (B.  gaums) — the  bison  of  Indian  sportsmen — which  inhabits  hilly 
forests  throughout  India,  and  is  also  found  in  the  Malay  peninsula.  The 
most  characteristic  feature  of  this  splendid  animal,  which  attains  a  height  of 
fully  six  feet  at  the  withers,  is  the  large,  convex,  and  forwardly-curving 
crest  between  the  bases  of  the  horns,  communicating  a  concave  profile  to 
the  forehead.  The  ridge  on  the  back  is  very  strongly  developed,  and  stops 
very  sharply  with  a  sudden  step-like  descent ;  and  the  colour  of  the  female 
is  nearly  similar  to  that  of  the  male.  As  in  the  other  members  of  the  group, 
the  thick  coat  of  hair  is  short,  fine,  and  remarkably  sleek.  From  thio 
species  the  gayal,  or  mithan  (B.  frontalis),  differs  by  the  straight  line  formed 
by  the  ridge  of  the  skull  between  the  widely-sundered  horns,  and  the  conse- 
quently straight  profile  of  the  forehead.  The  horns  differ  from  those  of  tho 
gaur  in  being  shorter,  rounder,  and  less  curved,  their  tips  having  no  distinct 
inward  curvature,  while  their  colour  is  uniformly  black,  instead  of  being 


THE  MAN  ATI S  AND  DUGONGS.  165 


of  a  greenish  tinge  afc  the  base.  In  the  males  also  the  dewlap  is  more 
developed,  while  in  both  sexes  the  limbs  are  relatively  shorter  and  the 
colour  is  blacker.  Gayals  are  kept  in  a  semi-domesticated  state  in  Assam, 
Chittagong,  and  other  parts  of  north-eastern  India,  but  occur  wild  in  the 
interior  of  the  Tenasserim  provinces  of  Burma.  From  both  the  above,  the 
smaller  animal  from  Burma,  Java,  Balli,  and  Lombok  known  as  the 
banteng  (B.  banting),  differs  by  the  more  rounded  horns,  the  slight  develop- 
ment of  the  ridge  on  the  back,  the  white  patch  on  the  rump  of  both  sexes, 
and  the  reddish-brown  colour  of  the  body  of  the  cows. 

Lastly,  the  true,  or  Taurine  oxen  are  represented  by  the  common  ox 
(B.  taurus)  and  the  Indian  humped  cattle  (B.  indicus),  both  of  which  are  now 
known  only  in  the  domesticated  state,  although  ifc  is  possible  that  the  half- 
wild  cattle  of  certain  British  parks  may  be  the  more  or  less  modified  direct 
descendants  of  the  old  English  aurochs,  as  the  wild  ox  was  originally  called. 
In  this  group  the  spinal  ridge  characterising  the  gaur  and  its  allies  is  absent; 
the  horns  are  cylindrical,  with  their  tips  inclined  backwards,  and  are  placed 
at  the  very  extremity  of  the  highest  ridge  of  the  skull ;  while  the  forehead  is 
flat,  and  the  whole  skull  much  elongated.  The  tail  also  is  larger,  reaching 
below  the  hocks  ;  and  the  hoofs  are  large  and  rounded,  instead  of  being 
narrow  and  pointed.  Probably  the  original  colour  of  the  aurochs  was 
reddish. 


ORDER  YIL— SIRENIA. 

THE  MANATIS  AND  DUGONGS. 

THIS  and  the  following  order  of  mammals,  differ  from  all  those  hitherto 
described  in  that  all  their  members  are  adapted  for  a  permanently  aquatic 
life — that  is  to  say,  they  never  voluntarily  leave  the  water,  as  do  the  seals 
during  the  breeding-season.  Accordingly,  their  bodies  have  assumed  a  more 
or  less  completely  fish-like  form,  with  little  or  no  traces  of  a  distinct  neck  ; 
while  the  fore-limbs  are  modified  into  paddle-like  flippers,  the  hind-limbs 
are  completely  wanting  externally,  and  the  tail  forms  a  flattened  paddle  lying 
horizontally  in  the  water.  Structural  evidences  clearly  show  that  both  groups 
are  descended  from  terrestrial  mammals ;  and  as  these  creatures  have  to 
come  to  the  surface  periodically  for  the  purpose  of  breathing,  the  horizontally- 
expanded  form  of  the  tail-fin  is  sufficiently  obvious  ;  such  an  organ  being 
admirably  adapted,  by  means  of  a  few  powerful  strokes,  to  bring  its  owner 
rapidly  to  the  surface.  In  fishes,  on  the  other  hand,  which  breathe  the 
atmospheric  air  contained  in  water  by  means  of  their  gills,  there  is  no 
necessity  for  such  periodical  visits  to  the  surface,  and  the  tail-fin  is  accord- 
ingly expanded  in  the  vertical  direction,  thus  forming  a  most  efficient 
propeller  for  progression  in  a  horizontal  plane. 

The  manatis  and  dugongs,  forming  the  present  order,  constitute  a  very 
small  group  of  mammals,  all  of  which  may  be  included  in  the  single  family 
Manatidce.  Having  the  general  fish-like  bodily  conformation  alluded  to  above, 
the  sirenians,  as  members  of  the  present  group  are  collectively  termed, 
differ  in  many  important  respects  from  the  whales  and  porpoises.  One 
marked  point  of  distinction  is  to  be  found  in  the  circumstance  that  the  body, 


166  MAMMALIA— ORDER  VIL—SIRENIA. 


instead  of  being  laterally  compressed,  is  flattened  from  above  downwards. 
The  head,  again,  is  of  an  ordinary  type,  being  relatively  small  in  comparison 
to  the  body,  with  the  nostrils  placed  at  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle,  and  the 
summit  rounded.  To  meet  the  exigencies  of  an  aquatic  life,  external  ears 
are,  however,  wanting,  and  the  nostrils  are  capable  of  being  closed  at  will 
by  means  of  tightly- fitting  valves,  so  as  to  prevent  the  ingress  of  water.  In 
no  case  is  the  back  furnished  with  a  fin ;  and  the  fore  flippers  may  retain 
traces  of  nails,  although  the  whole  of  their  toes  are  enveloped  in  a  common 
skin,  while  the  skeleton  of  these  parts  contains  no  more  than  the  normal 
complement  of  bones  to  the  toes — that  is  to  say,  each  toe,  except  the  first 
(where  there  are  but  two),  has  three  joints.  The  backbone,  or  spinal  column, 
differs  from  that  of  land  mammals,  in  that  none  of  the  vertebrae  in  the 
region  of  the  haunches  are  welded  together  to  form  a  sacrum,  such  a  struc- 
ture being  unnecessary  in  an  animal  devoid  of  hind  limbs,  while  its  presence 
would  hinder  the  supple  movements  of  the  body  so  essential  in  purely  aquatic 
creatures.  From  those  of  whales  and  porpoises,  the  vertebrae  of  existing 
sirenians  differ  by  the  absence  of  thin  bony  plates  at  the  extremity  of  each 
end  of  the  body,  or  lower  portion  of  the  same ;  although  these  were  well 
developed  in  certain  extinct  members  of  the  order.  The  manati  is  remark- 
able for  the  circumstance  that  the  seven  vertebrse  of  the  neck,  which  are  so 
remarkably  constant  in  the  class,  are  reduced  to  six.  Neither  of  the  genera 
have  collar-bones,  or  clavicles,  but  in  all  the  members  of  the  group  the  bones 
of  the  skeleton  are  remarkable  for  the  extreme  solidity  and  denseness  of 
their  structure.  Great  variability  is  displayed  in  regard  to  the  dentition ;  the 
recently  extinct  species  from  Behring  Strait  having  no  teeth  at  all ;  whereas 
in  the  manatis  there  is  a  very  full  series  of  masticating  organs,  which  present 
a  certain  resemblance  to  the  molars  of  the  hippopotamus.  In  no  case  do  the 
teeth  resemble  those  of  the  toothed  cetaceans  ;  and  although  in  the  recent 
forms  milk-teeth  are  not  developed,  rudiments  of  these  have  been  detected, 
and  in  certain  extinct  kinds  such  teeth  were  functional.  Similarly,  nasal 
bones,  or  those  roofing  the  cavity  of  the  nose  in  ordinary  mammals,  have 
disappeared  in  the  existing  representatives  of  the  group,  although  they  were 
well  developed  in  the  earlier  forms.  From  these  peculiarities  it  is  evident 
that  the  existing  sirenians  are  specialised  creatures  evidently  derived  from 
land  mammals  of  a  more  ordinary  type.  To  fit  them  for  long  periods  of  sub- 
mergence, both  manatis  and  dugongs  have  the  lungs  much  elongated,  and 
extending  almost  the  whole  length  of  the  back  ;  while  the  blood-vessels  are 
expanded  in  certain  parts  of  the  body  into  net-like  structures,  known  as 
retia  mirabilia,  in  which  pure  blood  can  be  held  back  for  a  considerable  time, 
instead  of  immediately  passing  onwards  to  the  heart. 

As  regards  their  mode  of  life,  the  sirenians  are  inhabitants  of  large  rivers, 
estuaries,  sheltered  bays,  and  shallow  seas  generally ;  never  ploughing 
through  the  water  of  the  open  ocean  in  the  manner  so  characteristic  of  the 
whales  and  porpoises  ;  and  seldom,  indeed,  wandering  out  of  sight  of  shore. 
Moreover,  instead  of  having  the  carnivorous  habits  so  characteristic  of  the 
cetaceans,  all  the  sirenians  are  exclusively  vegetable  feeders  ;  tearing  up  the 
sea-weed  and  tangle  when  in  the  ocean,  and  other  aquatic  plants  when  they 
frequent  fresh- waters,  and  masticating  them  after  the  manner  of  a  pig  either 
by  means  of  their  powerful  molar  teeth,  or,  when  these  are  wanting,  with 
the  aid  of  horny  plates  which  then  invest  the  surface  of  the  mouth.  Both 
manatis  and  dugongs  produce  but  a  single  offspring  at  a  birth,  which  is 
tended  with  great  care  and  affection  by  the  mother.  When  suckling,  the 


THE  MANATIS  AND  DUGONGS.  167 


young  is  held  between  the  flippers  of  the  female  parent  and  pressed  close  to  her 
breast,  upon  which  are  situated  the  single  pair  of  teats  ;  and  as  both  parent 
and  offspring  hold  their  rounded  and  somewhat  human-shaped  heads  above 
water,  there  is  no  reasonable  doubt  that  it  is  these  animals  that  have  given 
rise  to  the  old  legends  of  mermaids  and  mermen.  The  representatives  of 
both  the  existing  genera  are  usually  found  associating  in  small  herds,  their 
range  including  the  coasts  of  the  warmer  portions  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  the 
Red  Sea,  Indian  Ocean,  parts  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  and  the  seas  of  Australia. 
The  northern  sea-cow  was,  however,  an  inhabitant  of  colder  regions,  being 
only  found  in  Behring  Strait. 

The  manatis  (Manatus\  of  which  there  appear  to  be  three  well-defined 
species  from  the  tropical  coasts  of  the  Atlantic,  are  chiefly  fluviatile  creatures, 
seldom  venturing  into  the  ocean,  but  ascending  long  distances 
up  the  larger  rivers,  and  being  especially  abundant  in  the  Manatis. 
Amazon.  They  grow  to  a  length  of  about  twelve  feet,  and 
are  heavy,  ungainly-looking  creatures,  with  the  thick  and  almost  bark-like 
skin  traversed  by  a  number  of  fine  wrinkles.  Although  in  old  age  the  skin 
may  be  nearly  naked,  in  early  life  it  is  sparsely  covered  with  soft  hairs. 
Externally  these  animals  are  specially  distinguished  by  the  position  of  the 
nostrils  at  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle,  the  rounded  form  of  the  rudder-like 
tail, -and  the  usual  retention  of  three  rudimental  nails  on  each  of  the  flippers. 
In  the  front  of  the  jaws  no  incisor  teeth  are  visible,  although  in  the  young 
state  rudiments  exist  beneath  th0  horny  plates  investing  this  region  ;  but 
the  cheek-teeth,  of  which  eleven  pairs  are  developed  in  each  jaw,  are  fully 
developed  and  approximate  in  structure  to  those  of  the  hippopotamus.  As 
a  rule,  however,  only  six  pairs  of  the  latter  teeth  are  in  use  at  any  one  time, 
the  anterior  ones  falling  out  before  those  at  the  hinder  end  of  the  series  have 
cut  the  gums.  In  the  skeleton  the  extremity  of  the  skull  and  lower  jaw  are 
comparatively  short  and  bub  slightly  bent  downwards,  while,  as  already 
mentioned,  there  are  only  six  vertebrae  in  the  neck. 

The  triangular  muzzle  of  the  manati  is  remarkable  for  the  circumstance 
that  the  extremities  of  the  upper  lip  are  developed  into  a  pair  of  large  fleshy 
flaps,  which  can  be  either  brought  into  apposition  with  one  another  or 
widely  separated,  so  that  the  animal  can,  when  they  are  in  the  former 
position,  seize  and  retain  a  leaf  between  them.  Commercially,  manatis  are 
valued  for  their  thick  hides  and  the  abundant  supply  of  oil  yielded  by  their 
fat ;  and  they  have  in  consequence  of  late  years  been  greatly  reduced  in 
numbers. 

The  dugong  (Hallcore  dugong),  which  ranges  from  the  Red  Sea  along  the 
Indian   and  Malayan  coasts  to  Australia,  may  be  distinguished  externally 
from   the  manatis   by  the   nostrils   being  situated   on   the 
superior  aspect  of  the  muzzle,  the  concave  hinder  border        Dugong. 
of  the  tail,  and  the  total  disappearance  of  all  traces  of  nails 
from  the  flippers.     In  the  skull  the  front  extremity  of  both  of  the  upper 
and  lower  jaws  are  extremely  massive  and  deep,  with  a  very  marked  and 
sudden  downward  flexure,  while  the  dentition  is  of  a  totally  different  type 
from  that  of  the  manatis.    None  of  the  teeth  develop  roots,  and  consequently 
grow  throughout  the  life  of  their  owner  ;  the  number  in  the  adult  condition 
including  a  pair  of  upper  incisors  and  five  pairs  of  cheek-teeth  in  each  jaw. 
In  the  males  the  upper  incisors  take  the  form  of  large  downwardly-directed 
tusks,  partially  invested  with  enamel ;  but  in  the  female  these  teeth  never 
pierce  the  gums.     The  cheek-teeth,  which  are  quite  devoid  of  enamel,  and 


MAMMALIA— ORDER   VIL—SIRENIA. 


Fig.  92.— DUGONG  (Haticore  dugong). 


equally  developed  in  both  sexes,  form  simple  cylinders,  increasing  in  size  from 
the  first  to  the  last,  the  latter  being  more  complex  than  those  in  advance, 
and  consisting  of  two  cylinders  united  by  a  narrow  bridge.  Although  usually 

measuring  from  5  to  7  feet  in 
length,  dugong  grow  to  as  much 
as  from  8  to  9  feet.  In  colour 
they  are  generally  bluish -grey 
throughout,  but  in  some  examples 
the  under-parts  are  more  or  less 
decidedly  lighter.  The  essential 
difference  between  the  dugong 
and  manatis  in  tihe  matter  of 
habits  is  that  the  former  is  essen- 
tially a  marine  animal  which 
never  attempts  to  ascend  rivers, 
and  its  food  consequently  con- 
sists entirely  of  seaweed  of 
various  kinds.  In  former  days 
dugong  were  met  with  in  herds 
comprising  hundreds  of  individuals,  which  were  remarkable  for  their  extra- 
ordinary tameness  and  fearlessness  of  man.  Human  greed  has,  however,  done 
the  usual  work,  and  now  their  haunts  are  tenanted  only  by  solitary  individuals 
or  pairs,  which  are  shy  and  difficult  of  approach.  Dugong  oil  is  valued  for 
its  extremely  limpid  character  ;  and  in  Timor-Laut  these  animals  are  hunted 
by  the  natives  for  the  sake  of  their  tusks,  from  which  ear-rings  and  other 
ornaments  are  manufactured. 

To  their  comparatively  wide  geographical  distribution  may  be  attributed 
the  escape  of  the  manatis  and  dugong  from  complete  extermination  ;  but  the 
rhytina,  or  northern  sea-cow  (Hhytina  gigas\  which,  at  the 
Northern  time  of  its  discovery  in  1741,  existed  in  numbers  on  the 
Sea-Cow.  shores  of  the  Commander  group  of  islands  in  Behring 
Strait,  soon  fell  a  victim  to  the  persecution  of  man.  In- 
deed, it  appears  that  within  less  than  thirty  years  from  the  date  when  its 
haunts  were  first  invaded  by  Behring's  pirty,  the  rhytina  had  ceased  to 
exist  ;  and  it  is  now  known  to  us  only  by  certain  descriptions  and  a  number 
of  more  or  less  well-preserved  skeletons  which  have  been  disinterred  from 
its  former  haunts.  In  size  the  northern  sea-cow  vastly  exceeded  all  its 
allies,  being  stated  to  attain  a  length  of  between  20  and  30  feet,  with 
a  weight  in  some  cases  of  upwards  of  eight  thousand  pounds.  It  was 
evidently  the  most  specialised  member  of  the  group,  teeth  being  entirely 
wanting,  and  their  function  discharged  by  horny  plates  on  the  surfaces  of 
the  mouth,  while  the  extremities  of  the  flippers  were  blunted,  and  the  bones 
of  the  digits  apparently  wanting.  The  head  was  small  in  proportion  to  the 
size  of  the  body,  and  the  tail  was  more  deeply  forked  than  in  the  dugong. 
So  rough  and  ragged  was  the  thick  epidermis  of  the  naked  skin,  that  it  has 
been  compared  to  the  bark  of  an  oak  tree,  and  could  only  be  cut  by  an  axe. 
While  one  account  states  that  the  colour  of  the  skin  was  generally  uniform 
brown,  although  occasionally  flecked  with  white,  a  drawing  taken  from  life 
shows  alternate  dark  and  light  transverse  bandings. 


WHALES,  PORPOISES,  AND  DOLPHINS.  169 

ORDER  VIII.— CETACEA. 
WHALES,  PORPOISES,  AND  DOLPHINS. 

BEFORE  the  doctrine  of  the  adaptation  of  animals  to  their  natural  surround- 
ing had  become  understood,  no  creatures  were  a  greater  puzzle  to  naturalists 
than  the  cetaceans,  under  which  title  are  included  whales,  sperm-whales, 
porpoises,  and  dolphins.  Their  fish-like  form  and  marine  habits  seemed 
indicative  of  their  fish-like  affinities ;  whereas  their  internal  structure, 
breathing,  and  mode  of  reproduction  proclaimed  their  mammalian  kinship. 
The  latter  features  ought  to  have  shown  at  once  what  their  real  position  in  the 
zoological  scale  really  was  ;  but,  nevertheless,  they  long  occupied  a  place 
among  the  fishes.  We  read,  for  instance,  in  an  abridged  English  edition  of 
Buffon's  "Natural  History,"  published  in  the  year  1821,  that  all  these 
creatures  "resemble  quadrupeds  in  their  infernal  structure,  and  in  some  of 
their  appetites  and  affections.  Like  quadrupeds,  they  have  lungs,  a  midriff, 
a  stomach,  intestines,  liver,  spleen,  bladder,  and  parts  of  generation  ;  their 
heart  also  resembles  that  of  quadrupeds,  with  its  partitions  closed  up  as  in 
them,  and  driving  red  arid  warm  blood  in  circulation  through  the  body  ;  and 
to  keep  these  parts  warm,  the  whole  kind  are  also  covered  between  the  skin 
and  muscles  with  a  thick  coat  of  fat  or  blubber.  As  these  animals  breathe  the 
air,  it  is  obvious  that  they  cannot  bear  to  be  any  long  time  under  water. 
They  are  constrained,  therefore,  every  two  or  three  minutes,  to  come  up  to 
the  surface  to  take  breath,  as  well  as  to  spout  out  through  their  nostril — for 
they  have  but  one — that  water  which  they  sucked  in  while  gaping  for  their 
prey.  But  it  is  in  the  circumstances  in  which  they  continue  their  kind 
that  these  animals  show  an  eminent  superiority.  Other  fish  deposit  their 
spawn,  and  leaye  the  success  to  accident ;  these  never  produce  above  one 
young,  or  two  at  the  most,  and  this  the  female  suckles  entirely  in  the  manner 
of  quadrupeds,  her  breasts  being  placed,  as  in  the  human  kind,  above  the 
navel.  Their  tails  also  are  different  from  those  of  all  other  fish  ;  they  are 
placed  so  as  to  lie  flat  on  the  surface  of  the  water  ;  while  the  other  kinds  have 
them,  as  we  every  day  see,  upright  or  edgeways.  This  flat  position  of  the  tail 
enables  them  to  force  themselves  suddenly  to  the  surface  of  the  water  to 
breathe,  which  they  are  continually  constrained  to  do." 

With  such  a  generally  admirable  account  of  the  leading  features  of  their 
organisation,  it  is  marvellous  how  naturalists  could  have  failed  to  recognise 
the  true  affinities  of  the  cetaceans,  and  continued  to  class  them  among 
fishes,  instead  of  transferring  them  to  mammals.  Indeed,  almost  the  only 
error  in  the  foregoing  account  is  the  portion  relating  to  the  "  spouting  "  of 
cetaceans  ;  this  error  being  by  no  means  extinct  among  non-zoological  per- 
sons even  at  the  present  day.  Instead  of  the  water  thrown  up  in  the  air 
when  a  whale  "spouts"  having  been  taken  in  at  the  mouth  and  expelled 
through  the  nostrils,  it  is  mainly  the  condensed  vapour  from  the  creature's 
breath,  although  when  a  whale  commences  to  spout  or  blow  before  it  has 
quite  reached  the  surface,  a  certain  quantity  of  the  superincumbent  water 
is  thrown  up  with  the  breath. 

Cetaceans,  then,  are  neither  more  nor  less  than  highly  specialised  mammals 
which  have  assumed  a  fish-like  form  in  correlation  with  the  needs  of  a  purely 
aquatic  mode  of  existence.  Although  a  few  are  found  in  large  rivers,  the 


170  MAMMALIA— ORDER   VIIL—CETACEA. 


majority  are  thoroughly  pelagic  in  their  habits,  never  coming  to  shore 
even  for  the  purpose  of  breeding,  and,  in  consequence,  their  fish-like 
characters  are  even  more  pronounced  than  is  the  case  with  the  sirenians. 
The  tail,  or  "flukes,"  which  is  always  more  or  less  distinctly  forked,  is,  how- 
ever, as  we  have  seen,  expanded  in  a  horizontal,  instead  of  in  a  vertical, 
plane,  and  in  place  of  the  two  paired  fins  of  most  fishes,  cetaceans  have 
only  a  single  pair  of  flippers,  corresponding  to  the  fore  limbs  of  ordinary 
mammals.  Although  these  flippers  are  completely  invested  in  a  continuous 
skin  without  any  nails  or  external  traces  of  digits,  internally  they  contain 
the  same  skeletal  elements — albeit,  highly  modified — as  their  terrestrial 
kindred.  There  is,  however,  the  important  exception  that  the  bones  of  the 
digits  are  greatly  more  numerous  than  in  other  mammals,  although  the 
number  of  digits  themselves  never  exceeds  the  normal  five  ;  this  peculiarity 
offering  an  important  distinction  between  cetaceans  and  sirenians.  Like 
fishes,  many  members  of  the  present  order  have  a  back-fin  ;  although 
this  differs  from  that  of  the  former  group  in  lacking  an  internal 
skeleton.  Unlike  most  fishes,  cetaceans  have,  however,  a  perfectly  naked 
skin  ;  although  the  general  presence  of  a  few  scattered  bristles,  especially  in 
the  young  state,  around  the  mouth,  proclaims  their  origin  from  fully  haired 
mammals.  And  here  may  be  mentioned  the  very  remarkable  circumstance 
that  certain  extinct  members  of  the  order  were  furnished  with  a  bony 
armour,  somewhat  comparable  to  that  of  crocodiles  ;  although  this  does  not 
permit  of  our  saying  that  all  cetaceans  are  descended  from  armoured 
ancestors.  In  coloration,  whales  and  porpoises  resemble  most  fishes 
inhabiting  the  surface  of  the  sea,  such  as  mackerel  and  herrings,  in  that  the 
upper  surface  of  the  body  is  dark,  and  the  lower  light — this  being  obviously 
a  protective  resemblance,  as  the  dark  upper  surface,  when  viewed  by 
reflected  light,  harmonises  with  the  dark  waves  ;  while  the  light  under 
surface,  when  viewed  from  below  by  transmitted  light,  must  be  ,arcely 
distinguishable  from,  the  bright  sky  above.  As  in  the  sirenians,  the  external 
conchs  of  the  ears  are  totally  wanting,  and  the  aperture  of  the  ear  itself  is 
extremely  minute.  The  e  es  also  are  relatively  small,  and  placed  far  back 
on  the  sides  of  the  head,  which  is  always  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the 
body.  An  important  difference  from  the  sirenians  is  to  be  found  in  the 
position  of  the  nostrils,  which  may  open  externally  by  either  a  double  or  a 
single  aperture  ;  these  being  invariably  situated  on  the  very  summit  of  the 
head,  and  thus  enabling  the  creatures  to  commence  breathing  the  very 
moment  they  reach  the  surface,  without  altering  their  normal  horizontal 
position.  To  prevent  the  ingress  of  water  while  beneath  the  surface,  the 
nostrils  can  be  completely  closed  by  a  valve  or  valves.  Reference  has  already 
been  made  to  the  essential  difference  between  the  skeleton  of  the  flipper  of  a 
cetacean  and  a  sirenian  ;  and  it  may  be  added  that  the  vertebree  of  the 
former  have  the  terminal  plates,  or  epiphyses,  which  are  practically  or 
entirely  wanting  in  the  existing  members  of  the  latter  group,  very  strongly 
developed.  The  coat  of  fat,  or  blubber,  lying  beneath  the  skin,  so  charac- 
teristic of  all  cetaceans,  has  been  already  alluded  to  ;  but  it  must  be  also 
mentioned  that  these  animals  have  net-works — retia  mirabilia — of  blood- 
vessels for  the  retention  of  oxygenated  blood  during  their  descent,  which 
can  be  used  gradually,  and  thus  enable  them  to  stay  below  for  a  longer 
period  than  would  otherwise  be  the  case.  The  two  teats  of  the  female  differ 
from  those  of  the  sirenians  in  being  placed  far  back  on  the  abdomen. 
Although  none  of  the  porpoises  and  dolphins  attain  very  large  dimensions, 


WHALES,  POXPOISES,  AND  DOLPHIN'S.  171 


and  some  of  them  are  comparatively  small  creatures,  the  cetacean  order 
includes  not  only  the  largest  of  all  mammals,  but  likewise  of  all  living 
animals.  That  they  trace  their  origin  back  to  terrestrial  mammals  may  be 
considered  beyond  all  doubt,  although  from  what  particular  group  they  are 
descended  cannot  at  present  be  determined.  As  a  rule,  the  various  pelagic 
representatives  of  the  order  enjoy  a  very  wide  geographical  range,  although 
certain  species,  such  as  the  Greenland- whale  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  the 
pigmy-whale  of  the  Southern  Seas,  are  confined  to  a  relatively  small  area^ 
Almost  all  cetaceans  are  carnivorous. 

Cetaceans  are  divisible  into  two  great  divisions,  or  sub-orders,  known  as 
the  whalebone-whales  (Mystacoceti),  and  the  toothed  whales  (Odontoceti)  j  the 
former  group  comprising  only  the  single  family  (Balcenida), 
whereas  the  latter  is  divided  into  three  families.  As  their  Whalebone- 
names  imply,  the  most  obvious  distinction  between  these  two  Whales, 
groups  relates  to  the  absence  or  presence  of  functional  teeth  ; 
the  absence  of  teeth  in  the  first  group  being  compensated  by  the  develop- 
ment of  the  peculiar  substance  known  as  whalebone,  or  baleen.  In  the 
young  of  the  whalebone-whales,  rudiments  of  true  teeth  are,  however, 
developed  beneath  the  roots  of  the  incipient  whalebone,  although  these  sub- 
sequently wither  without  having  ever  cut  the  gum.  As  the  nature  and  struc- 
ture of  whalebone  is  a  matter  of  some  interest  and  importance,  a  small  space 
must  be  devoted  to  its  consideration  before  entering  upon  the  leading  charac- 
teristics of  the  Mystacoceti.  Whalebone,  then,  is  a  horny  substance  attached 
to  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  from  which  it  hangs  by  a  broad,  transversely-arched 
base,  in  the  form  of  a  series  of  parallel,  narrow,  elongated  triangular  plates, 
placed  transversely  to  the  long  axis  of  the  mouth,  with  their  external  edo;e3 
firm  and  straight,  but  the  inner  ones  frayed  out  into  a  kind  of  fringe.  The 
longest  plates  of  whalebone  are  situated  near  the  middle  of  the  jaw,  from 
which  point  the  length  gradually  diminishes  towards  the  two  extremities, 
where  they  become  very  short.  Whereas,  however,  in  the  Greenland-whale 
the  length  of  the  longest  plates  varies  from  some  10  to  12  ft.,  and  the  total 
number  of  plates  in  the  series  is  about  380,  in  the  great  rorquals  or  fin-whales, 
the  length  is  only  a  few  inches,  while  the  number  of  plates  is  considerably 
less.  To  accommodate  the  enormous  whalebone- plates  of  the  Greenland- 
whale,  the  bones  of  the  upper  jaw  are  greatly  arched  upwards,  and  the 
slender  lower  jaw  is  bowed  outwards,  thus  leaving  a  large  space— both  in  the 
vertical  and  horizontal  directions— the  transverse  diameter  of  which  is  much 
wider  below  than  above.  When  the  mouth  is  closed,  the  plates  of  whalebone 
are  folded  obliquely  backwards,  with  the  front  ones  lying  beneath  those  be- 
hind them  ;  but  directly  the  jaws  are  opened,  the  elastic  nature  of  this 
substance  causes  it  to  spring  at  once  into  a  vertical  position,  and  thus  form  a 
sieve-like  wall  on  both  sides  of  the  mouth,  the  thin  enas  of  the  plates  being 
prevented  from  pushing  outwards  by  the  stiff  lower  lip  which  overlaps  them. 
By  elevating  its  enormous  fleshy  tongue  within  the  cavity  thus  formed,  the 
whale  causes  the  enclosed  water  to  rush  out  between  the  plates,  leaving  such 
small  creatures  as  it  contained  lying  dry  on  the  surface  of  the  tongue  ready 
for  swallowing.  In  structure,  whalebone,  which,  although  black  in  the 
Greenland- whale,  is  white  in  some  of  the  other  species,  is  of  a  horny  nature, 
and  grows  from  transverse  ridges  on  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  roof  of 
the  mouth ;  being,  in  fact,  nothing  more  than  an  extreme  development  of 
the  ridges  on  the  palate  of  a  cow,  hardened  and  lengthened  by  an  excessive 
growth  of  a  horny  superficial  or  epithelial  layer.  The  whole  of  this  vast 


172  MAMMALIA— ORDER  VIII.—CETACEA. 


horny  growth  takes  place,  however,  after  birth,  young  whalea  having  smooth 
palates,  with  no  trace  of  the  horny  plates. 

Apart  from  the  presence  of  the  distinctive  and  characteristic  whalebone, 
the  members  of  the  present  group  have  the  following  characteristic  features 
in  common.  In  the  first  place,  the  nostrils  open  externally  by  two  distinct 
longitudinal  slits,  or  " blow-holes;"  while  the  internal  region  of  the  nose 
retains  traces  of  an  organ  of  smell — this,  by  the  way,  being  another  proof 
that  cetaceans  are  descended  from  terrestrial  mammals.  Distinct,  although 
small,  nasal  bones  partially  roof  over  the  nose-cavity  of  the  skull ;  and  the 
whole  region  of  this  part  of  the  skull  retains  the  normal  symmetry.  In 
order  to  accommodate  the  whalebone,  the  two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw  are 
curved  outwards  in  a  bow-like  form ;  while  at  their  front  extremities  they 
are  only  loosely  connected  together  by  ligament.  The  breast-bone,  or 
sternum,  consists  of  only  a  single  piece,  to  which  but  one  pair  of  ribs 
articulate ;  and  all  the  ribs  have  but  a  slight  connection  with  the  vertebra), 
articulating  only  with  the  horizontal  transverse  processes,  and  not  touching 
the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae.  Although  the  whalebone- whales  are  represented 
by  a  comparatively  small  number  of  species,  all  these  are  of  large  bodily 
dimensions,  the  smallest  of  them — the  pigmy -whale — attaining  a  length  of 
some  20  ft. 

The  most  specialised  representatives  of  the  sub-order  and  family  are  the  true, 
or  right-whales,  constituting  the  genus  Balcena,  of  which  there  appear  to 
be  two  well-defined  species.  Externally,  the  right-whales  are  easily  recog- 
nised by  the  enormous  relative  size  of  the  head,  the  perfectly  smooth  throat, 
the  absence  of  a  back-fin,  and  the  moderate  length  of  the  flippers.  Their 
whalebone,  which  is  black  in  colour,  is  proportionately  longer  and  more 
elastic  than  that  of  any  other  species,  with  the  exception  of  the  pigmy-whale ; 
and  for  its  accommodation  the  palate  of  the  skull  is  much  narrower  and  more 
highly  arched  than  in  other  whales,  while  the  branches  of  the  lower  jaw  are 
more  bowed  outwards.  The  skeleton  of  the  flippers  contains  five  fully- 
formed  digits ;  the  vertebrre  of  the  neck,  which  are  reduced  to  the  condi- 
tion of  thin  plates,  are  completely  welded  together  into  a  solid,  immovable 
mass,  and  the  tympanic  bone  of  the  internal  ear  is  squared.  In  conformity 
with  the  arched  form  of  the  skull,  the  margin  of  the  lower  lip  runs  high  up 
on  the  sides  of  the  head  and  is  highly  convex  ;  while  the  size  of  the  opened 
mouth  is  enormous.  In  spite,  however,  of  the  huge  dimensions  of  this 
cavity,  the  calibre  of  the  throat  is  so  small  that  it  is  a  common  saying  among 
sailors  that  a  herring  is  sufficient  to  choke  a  whale.  Of  the  two  existing 
species,  the  Greenland-whale  (B.  mysticetus)  of  the  Arctic  seas  is  the  more 
specialised,  the  head  being  larger  and  the  whalebone  longer  than  in  its 
southern  cousin.  The  latter  (B.  australis)  is  commonly  known  as  the 
southern  right-whale,  and  although  formerly  abundant  in  the  Atlantic,  is 
nowadays  a  rare  creature.  From  the  right-whales  the  single  species  of 
pigmy-whale  (Neobalcena\  from  the  South  American  and  Australasian  seas, 
differs  in  having  a  small,  hooked  back-fin,  as  it  does  in  its  white  whalebone. 
Whereas  the  Greenland  species  grows  to  a  length  of  from  45  to  50  ft.,  the 
pigmy- whale  does  not  appear  to  exceed  20.  A  connecting  link  between  the 
right-whales  and  the  under-mentioned  rorquals  is  afforded  by  the  great  Pacific 
grey-whale  (Rhachianectes),  in  which  the  throat  has  a  single  fold,  and  the 
back  is  devoid  of  a  fin,  while  the  whalebone  is  even  shorter  and  more  coarse 
than  in  the  rorquals,  the  palate  showing  but  a  slight  degree  of  vaulting,  and 
the  head  being  relatively  small,  and  the  body  elongated.  The  vertebrae  of 


WHALES,  PORPOISES,  AND  DOLPHINS. 


173 


the  neck  are  thicker  than  in  the  right-whales,  and  mostly  free  from  one 
another.  In  length  the  female  varies  from  40  to  44ft.,  but  the  male  is  rather 
smaller. 

The  other  members  of  the  family  are  the  humpback  (Megaptera)  and  the 
rorquals  or  finners  (Balcenoptera),  in  both  of  which  the  skin  of  the  throat  is 
marked  by  a  number  of  longitudinal  flutings  or  grooves,  while  the  back  carries 
a  fin  ;  the  whalebone  being  short  and  coarse,  and  usually  of  a  yellowish  colour. 
The  vertebrae  of  the  neck  are  of  considerable  thickness,  and  totally  separate 


Fig.  93.— A  FIN  WHALE  (Balcenoptera)- 

from  one  another  ;  and  the  tympanic  bone  of  the  internal  ear  is  much  more 
rounded  and  globular  than  in  the  right- whales,  its  shape  somewhat  recalling 
that  of  a  large  cowri  shell.  In  the  skeleton  of  the  flippers  the  number  of 
digits  is  reduced  to  four  ;  and  the  head  is  comparatively  small  in  proportion  to 
the  body,  with  the  palate  bub  slightly  arched,  and  the  branches  of  the  lower 
jaw  little  bowed  outwards.  Another  character  of  the  group,  as  compared  with 
the  right- whales,  is  the  smaller  degree  of  expansion  of  the  tail-fin  or  flukes. 
From  the  finners,  the  single  species  of  humpback  (Megaptera  boops)  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  relative  shortness  a.nd  depth  of  the  body,  which  rises  above 
the  level  of  the  back-fin  behind  the  shoulders,  and  likewise  by  the  extra- 
ordinary length  of  the  flippers,  which  is  nearly  one-fourth  that  of  the  entire 
animal.  In  length  the  female  is  about  the  same  as  the  Greenland-whale. 
As  a  rule  humpbacks  have  the  flippers  of  a  pure  glistening  white  ;  and  when 
one  of  these  animals  is  gambolling,  as  they  often  do,  it  will  frequently  lie  on  its 
side  just  below  the  surface  of  the  water,  so  that  the  whole  body  is  concealed. 
In  this  position  one  white  flipper  will  be  seen  sticking  straight  up  some  9  or 
10  ft.  above  the  water,  and  when  first  viewed  from  the  deck  of  a  passing 
vessel  appears  a  most  extraordinary  object,  which  may  well  puzzle  the 
beholder. 

The  rorquals,  or  finners,  on  the  other  hand,  are  characterised  by  the 
elongation  and  slenderness  of  the  body  and  the  comparative  shortness  of 
tne  flippers,  which  are  pointed  at  their  extremities.  The  largest  member  of 
the  group,  as  indeed  it  is  of  all  whales,  is  the  blue,  or  Sibbald's  rorqual 
(Baloenoptera  sibbaldi),  commonly  known  to  the  American  whalers  by  the 


174  MAMMALIA— ORDER  V12I.—CETACEA, 


name  of  "  sulphur-bottom,"  which  reaches  the  enormous  length  of  from  80  to 
84  ft.  The  common  rorqual  (B.  musculus),  frequently  stranded  on  the  British 
coasts,  is  also  a  huge  animal,  frequently  measuring  from  65  to  70  ft. ;  but  the 
other  two  species  are  of  inferior  dimensions,  the  smallest  being  the  lesser  fin- 
whale  (B.  rostrata),  of  which  the  length  does  not  exceed  from  30  to  35  ft, 
While  some  of  the  species  feed  largely  on  cod,  others  subsist  chiefly  on  cuttle- 
fish. 

On  account  of  the  length  and  elasticity  of  the  whalebone,  and  the  abundance 
of  oil  yielded  by  their  blubber,  from  a  commercial  point  of  view,  the  right- 
whales  are  of  far  greater  value  than  the  humpback  and  finners  ;  while  their 
inferior  speed,  as  compared  with  the  latter,  renders  them  far  more  easy  to 
overtake,  and  capture.  The  southern  right-whale  was,  however,  long  ago 
practically  exterminated  from  the  Atlantic  by  the  old  Basque  whalers  ;  and 
incessant  persecution  has  so  diminished  the  numbers  of  the  Greenland-whale 
that  comparatively  few  are  now  to  be  met  with  on  the  old  whaling-grounds. 
Consequently,  whalers  have  been  compelled  to  turn  their  attention  to  the 
less  valuable  finners  and  humpback  ;  and  the  use  of  steam  vessels  and 
explosive  harpoons  fired  from  guns  has  rendered  their  capture  far  less 
difficult  than  in  the  days  of  rowing-boats  and  harpoons  and  lances  thrown  by 
hand.  Till  recently  the  "fishing"  has  been  mainly  carried  on  in  the 
northern  and  sub-tropical  seas,  but  a  few  years  ago  four  ships  were  fitted  out 
for  whaling  in  the  Antarctic  ;  and  the  following  account  of  what  was  observed 
13  condensed  from  a  newspaper  report.  It  is  there  stated  that  the  right- 
whales  always  come  north  to  the  grounds  eastward  of  New  Zealand  early  in 
October,  and  remain  till  near  the  end  of  December.  Then  they  collect  in 
"schools,"  and  stirt  on  a  south-east  course  with  a  speed  of  about  five  knots  an 
hour  night  and  day.  Several  ships  have  followed  them  in  this  course  until 
they  met  with  the  ice-drift  in  lat.  50  deg.  south  and  long.  160  deg.  west, 
where  the  chase  was  abandoned.  The  whales  always  arrive  on  the  ground 
in  schools  of  ten  or  fifteen,  and  then  separate  and  pair  off — or  at  most  one 
bull  and  two  cows.  It  is  not  thought  that  the  whales,  with  the  exception  of 
the  humpbacks,  come  north  to  calve,  as  they  are  never  seen  with  any  young. 
Of  late  years  right-whales  have  been  seen  north  of  35  deg.  30  min.  south  lat. 
Finners  and  humpbacks  are  always  to  be  found  on  the  "ground,"  apparently 
travelling  in  a  south-easterly  direction.  The  humpbacks  come  up  from  the 
southward  along  both  the  east  and  west  sides  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand 
about  the  end  of  May,  and  continue  their  course  northerly  to  about  lat.  18 
deg.  south,  when  they  disperse.  About  the  first  week  of  October  they  begin 
to  work  their  way  back  south  until  lost  amidst  the  ice.  Experienced  whaling- 
masters  are  of  the  opinion  that  there  must  be  some  place  to  the  southward,  as 
yet  unknown,  where  the  whales  assemble  in  large  numbers.  A  vessel  fitted 
with  an  auxiliary  screw,  it  is  stated,  could  follow  the  whales  to  their  destina- 
tion without  danger  of  being  blocked  by  the  ice.  The  right-whale,  according 
to  men  who  are  engaged  in  the  trade  at  the  present  time,  must  be  very 
numerous  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  as  the  fishery  has  never  been  carried  on 
there  with  any  constancy  and  vigour  ;  whereas  in  the  Arctic  Ocean  the 
whales  are  looked  upon  as  almost  extinct.  The  southern-whale  is  not  so 
large  as  the  Greenland,  only  yielding  from  800  Ibs.  to  1200  Ibs.  of  bone — 
the  length  of  which  varies  from  8  ft.  to  15  ft.  — valued  at  £1600  to  £1800  a 
ton,  while  the  oil,  averaging  from  8  to  14  tons,  brings  £28  per  ton.  The 
humpbacks  are  very  numerous  off  Norfolk  Island  of  late.  These  whales 
measure  from  60  to  70  ft.  in  length  and  yield  from  50  to  70  barrels  of  oil. 


WHALES,  PORPOISES,  AND  DOLPHINS.  175 


The  Australians  interested  in  the  success  of  the  trade  are  confident  that  a 
large  industry  in  whale  and  seal-fishing  could  be  developed  in  the  Antarctic 
seas  by  auxiliary  screw- whalers,  which  could  be  fitted  out  at  the  comparatively 
small  cost  of  £6000  each. 

The  essential  characteristic  of  the  toothed-whales,  or  Odontoceti,  is  a 
negative  one,  and  consists  in  the  entire  absence  of  whalebone.  Very  generally, 
indeed,  teeth  are  developed,  at  least  in  the  lower  jaw,  but 
these  may  be  reduced  to  a  single  pair,  or  even  in  the  male  Toothed  Whales, 
narwhal  to  a  solitary  tooth,  while  in  the  female  of  the  latter 
species  there  are  none  of  any  functional  importance.  Another  very  well- 
marked  point  of  distinction  is  the  single  external  aperture  of  the  nostrils, 
which  very  frequently  takes  the  form  of  a  transverse  crescentic  slit,  closed  by 
a  flap-like  valve.  Then,  again,  the  skull  is  always  more  or  less  unsymmetrical 
in  the  region  of  the  nostrils,  and  in  the  existing  members  of  the  sub-order  the 
nasal  bones  are  reduced  to  mere  rounded  nodules,  taking  no  share  in  roofing 
the  nasal  cavity.  In  certain  extinct  forms,  however,  these  bones  are  of  more 
normal  character,  and  partially  cover  the  chamber  of  the  nose.  No  trace  of 
an  organ  of  smell  is  retained  by  any  of  the  toothed-whales.  In  the  skeleton 
the  breast-bone,  or  sternum,  is  usually  composed  of  several  distinct  portions, 
to  which  the  extremities  of  several  of  the  ribs  are  articulated  by  the  interven- 
tion of  cartilages ;  and  a  certain  number  of  the  anterior  ribs  are  articulated  at 
their  upper  ends  to  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrse,  as  well  as  to  the  transverse 
processes  of  the  same.  The  lower  jaw  of  a  toothed-whale  may  always  be 
distinguished  from  that  of  a  whalebone-whale  by  the  two  branches  being 
nearly  straight,  of  great  depth  at  the  hinder  extremity,  and  in  front  uniting 
with  one  another  by  a  bony  union  of  larger  or  smaller  extent.  In  all  the 
members  of  the  group  the  skeleton  of  the  nippers  exhibits  five  complete 
digits.  Throughout  the  sub-order  the  teeth  are  always  of  a  simple  structure, 
having  conical  or  compressed  crowns  and  undivided  roots  ;  and  only  a  single 
series  is  ever  developed,  the  replacement  of  the  anterior  teeth,  so  common 
among  mammals,  being  wanting.  In  number  the  teeth  of  many  species  greatly 
exceed  the  ordinary  mammalian  series.  Observations  on  foetal  cetaceans 
have  indeed  shown  that  rudiments  of  a  second  series  of  teeth  are  developed 
in  the  gums,  which  serve  to  show  that  the  functional  teeth  correspond  in  the 
main  to  the  milk-series  of  ordinary  mammals. 

Although  in  the  development  of  whalebone  and  the  loose  articulation  of  the 
ribs  to  the  backbone  the  whalebone-whales  are  clearly  more  specialised  than 
the  toothed-whales,  yet  as  regards  the  single  nostril  and  the  structure  of  the 
nasal  bones  the  latter  group  is  decidedly  more  aberrant  than  the  former. 
Hence  it  may  be  inferred  that  neither  of  the  two  sub-orders  is  derived  from 
the  other,  but  that  both  have  grown  up  side  by  side  quite  independently. 
Ib  has  generally  been  considered  that  they  are  divergent  branches  from  a 
common  ancestral  stock  ;  but  it  is  possible  that  they  have  no  sort  of  genetic 
affinity  with  each  other,  and  have  respectively  originated  from  two  totally 
distinct  mammalian  groups.  More  decisive  evidence  than  any  yet  adduced 
h,  however,  required  before  the  latter  view  can  be  definitely  accepted. 

The  largest  of  all  the  toothed-whales  is  the  gigantic  sperm-whale  (Physeter 
macrocephalus),  the  sole  member  of  its  genus,  and  the  typical  representative 
of  a  family  (Physeter idee)  characterised  by  the  absence  of  teeth  in  the  upper 
jaw  of  the  adult,  and  the  variability,  both  as  regards  size  and  number,  of  those 
of  the  lower  jaw.  In  all  the  members  of  the  family  the  hinder  portion  of  the 
skull  is  much  elevated,  so  as  to  form  either  a  semi-circular  wall,  or  a  pair  of 


1 76 


MAMMALIA— ORDER   VIII. — CE  TA  CEA. 


crests  behind  the  nasal  aperture.  All  these  cetaceans  are  entirely  pelagic  in 
their  habits,  and  feed  exclusively  or  chiefly  on  cuttles  and  squids.  In  the 
sperm-whale  the  number  of  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw  varies  from  twenty  to 
twenty-five  pairs  ;  the  teeth  themselves  being  of  large  size,  with  pointed 
and  somewhat  curved  crowns,  upon  which  there  is  no  trace  of  enamel.  The 
head  is  of  enormous  dimensions,  measuring  about  one-fourth  the  total  length 


Fig.  94.—  TUB  SPERM-WHALE  (Physeter  macrocephalus). 

of  the  animal,  and  characterised  by  the  abrupt  truncation  of  the  enormous 
muzzle,  the  S-like  form  of  the  blow-hole,  which  is  situated  somewhat  to  the 
left  of  the  middle  line,  and  the  long  mouth  opening  below,  and  somewhat 
behind,  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle.  The  fik ull  behind  the  nostrils  has  an 
enormous  cavity,  bounded  behind  by  a  pemi-circular  wall  of  bone  of  several 
feet  in  height,  and  containing  during  life  the  oily  substance  which  yields, 
when  refined,  the  valuable  spermaceti.  An  even  more  precious  product  of 
this  cetacean  ia  ambergris,  which,  although  generally  found  floating  on  the 
surface  of  the  ocean,  is  really  a  concretion  formed  in  the  intestines  of  the 
sperm-whale.  It  is  an  amber-coloured  substance,  generally  containing  a 
number  of  the  horny  beaks  of  the  squids  on  which  sperm-whales  feed. 
Although  the  female  is  a  much  smaller  animal,  the  male  cachalot,  as  the 
sperm-whale  is  often  called,  grows  to  a  length  of  between  50  and  60  ft.  In 
the  sperm-whale  the  two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw  are  united  in  front  for 
about  half  their  length,  but  in  the  much  smaller  and  somewhat  porpoise  like 
animal  known  as  the  lesser  sperm-whale  (Cogia  Ireviceps)  the  union  between 
the  two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw  is  less  than  half  the  total  length  of  the 
JHW,  and  the  number  of  lower  teeth  is  reduced  to  from  nine  to  twelve  pairs. 
This  whale  attains  a  length  of  about  10  ft.,  and  differs  from  the  cachalot 
in  carrying  a  large  back-fin.  The  flippers,  moreover,  which  in  the  sperm- 
whale  are  remarkably  small  in  proportion  to  the  si^ze  of  the  body,  are  here 
relatively  longer.  It  is  interesting  to  notice  that  fos&il  sperm-whales 
(Physodon)  have  been  discovered  possessing  a  full  series  of  enamel-capped 
teeth  in  both  the  upper  and  lower  jaw. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  preceding  are  the  bottled-nosed  and  beaked-whales, 
belonging  to  a  group  distinguished  by  the  reduction  of  the  lower  functional 
teeth  to  a  single  pair,  the  others  being  rudimentary  and  con-cealed  in  the 
gum.  None  attain  a  large  size,  and  all  are  pelagic,  subsisting  almost 


WHALES,  PORPOISES,  AND  DOLPHINS.  177 


exclusively  on  squids  and  cuttle-fish.  The  bottle-noses,  as  typified  by  the 
common  Hyperoodon  rostratus,  so  frequently  stranded  on  the  British  coasts, 
take  thair  name  from  the  extreme  convexity  of  the  crown  of  the  head  in  the 
adult  male,  which  rises  abruptly  above  the  base  of  the  short  beak.  They  have 
but  a  single  pair  of  teeth  in  front  of  the  lower  jaw,  but  even  these  are  in- 
visible in  the  living  state  ;  and  the  back,  like  that  of  the  beaked-whales, 
bears  a  fin.  Although  the  common  bottle-nose,  which  has  a  very  wide 
geographical  distribution,  does  not  exceed  about  30  ft.  in  length,  ft  is 
valued  not  only  on  account  of  its  oil,  but  likewise  for  the  spermaceti  con- 
tained in  the  head.  In  addition  to  the  large  overhanging  and  unsymmetrical 
crests  above  the  nostrils,  the  skulls  of  old  males  have  another  pair  of  longi- 
tudinal crests  on  the  sides  of  the  base  of  the  beak,  which  come  almost  into 
contact,  and  have  their  front  surfaces  broad,  flat,  and  rugose.  Cuvier's  whale 
(Choneziphius*  cuvieri]  differs  from  the  bottle-nose  in  possessing  a  pair  of  large 
forwardly  and  upwardly  directed  teeth  at  the  .extremity  of  the  lower  jaw. 
From  both  the  preceding  the  beaked-whales  (Mesoplodon)  are  readily  dis- 
tinguished by  the  production  of  the  anterior  portion  of  the  skull  into  a  long 
cylindrical  beak,  composed  of  massive,  ivory-like  bone ;  while  they  are  further 
characterised  by  the  pair  of  lower  teeth  being  generally  situated  near  the 
middle  of  the  jaw.  These  teeth  are  generally  of  large  size,  and  more  or  less 
compressed  latterly.  In  one  species  (M.  layardi)  they  are  enormously 
developed,  and  of  a  strap-like  form,  curving  over  the  beak  to  such  an  ex- 
tent as  in  some  cases  actually  to  prevent  the  mouth  from  being  fully  opened. 
The  beaked-whales  appear  to  be  solitary  creatures,  avoiding  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  coasts,  and  thus  but  seldom  stranded.  During  the  Pliocene  epoch 
they  must,  however,  have  been  abundant  in  the  English  seas,  as  their  solid 
fossilised  beaks  are  of  common  occurrence  in  the  so-called  crag  deposits  of  the 
East  Coast.  Arnux's  whale  (Berardius  arnuxi),  from  the  seas  of  New  Zealand, 
which  is  the  last  member  of  the  family,  differs  from  the  true  beaked-whales 
in  possessing  two  pairs  of  lower  teeth.  Whereas  the  beaked  whales  usually 
measure  about  15  or  16  ft.  in  length,  this  species  reaches  as  much  as  30  ft. 

A  small  family  of  the  Odontoceti  known  as  the  Platanistidce  is  represented 
solely  by  three  small  species,  two  of  which  are  exclusively  freshwater,  while 
the  third  is    an   estuarine    form.     While   resembling    the 
members  of  the  next  family  in  the  possession  of  a  numerous     Freshwater- 
series  of  teeth  in  both  the  upper  and  lower  jaw,  they  are       Dolphins, 
distinguished  by  the  length  of  the  bony  union  between  the 
two  branches  of  the  latter,  and  likewise  by  the  mode  of  articulation  of  the 
ribs  with  the  backbone.      None  of  the  vertebrae  of  the  neck   are  welded 
together.     The  typical  member  of  the  group  is  the  well-known  susu,  or 
Gangetic  dolphin  (Platanista  gangetica},  which  may  often  be  seen  sporting  in 
the  Ganges,  Indus,  or  Bramaputra.     This  species  usually  attains  a  length 
of   7  or  8  ft.,  and  is  characterised  by  the  long  and  compressed  beak,   in 
which  are  crowded  a  very  numerous  series  of   sharply-pointed   teeth,  the 
rudimental  back-fin,  the  fan-shaped  flippers,  the  slit-like  form  of  the  blow- 
hole, and  the  minute  size  of  the  eye,  which  is  perfectly  useless  as  an  organ 
of  vision.    The  skull  may  be  recognised  by  the  enormous  curving  longitudinal 
crests  arising  from  the  base  of  the  beak,  and  almost  meeting  above  it.     The 
food  of  the  susu  appears  to  consist  almost  exclusively  of  prawns  and  bottom- 

*  This  name— originally  applied  to  an  allied  fossil  form— is  used  by  Cope  to  replace 
,  on  account  of  the  pre-occupation  of  the  latter. 
13 


I78  MAMMALIA— ORDER   VIIL—CETACEA. 

haunting  fish,  which  are  raked  up  from  the  mud  by  the  long  beak.  The  other 
two  existing  members  of  the  family  are  South  American.  One  of  these  is 
the  inia  or  Amazonian  dolphin  (Inia  geoffroyensis),  inhabiting  the  upper 

portions  of  the  river-system  from 
which  it  derives  its  name,  and  being 
more  porpoise-like  in  form  than  the 
last.  The  long  cylindrical  beak  has 
a  number  of  sparse  bristly  hairs ; 
and  its  numerous  teeth  have  a 
tubercle  at  the  base.  Unlike  the 
susu,  the  eye  is  fairly  large,  and  the 
flippers  are  not  fan-shaped.  Seven 
feet  is  the  maximum  length  of  the 

Fia,  95.-GANQETIC  DOLPHIN  male  inia  >  and  fche  general  colour  is 

(Platanista  gangetica).  blackish  above  and  reddish  beneath. 

From  both  the  preceding  the  small 

La  Plata  dolphin  (Stenodelphis  blainvillei),  from  the  estuary  of  the  Rio  de  La 
Plata,  may  be  at  once  distinguished  by  its  uniformly  buff  coloration,  which  is 
admirably  suited  to  harmonize  with  the  colour  of  the  stained  water  of  the  Plate 
river,  and  at  once  proclaims  that  the  species  is  not  of  pelagic  habits.  In  size, 
this  dolphin  seldom,  if  ever,  exceeds  5  ft.,  and  is  often  considerably  less. 
Unlike  both  the  other  species,  it  has  a  well-developed  back-fin,  and  the  beak 
is  of  great  length,  and  furnished  on  each  side  with  from  fifty  to  sixty  teeth  ;  the 
number  in  the  other  genera  being  about  thirty.  Another  distinctive  feature 
is  to  be  found  in  the  form  of  the  blow -hole,  which  forms  a  transverse  crescent, 
instead  of  a  longitudinal  slit.  At  certain  seasons  of  the  year  enormous 
numbers  of  these  elegant  little  cetaceans  are  captured  in  the  Bay  of  Monte 
Video  by  the  fishermen,  who  detest  them  on  account  of  the  large  quantities 
of  fish  they  consume. 

The  whole  of  the  remaining  members  of  the  order  are  included  in  the 
single  family  Delphmidce.     The  majority  of  the  species  are  of  comparatively 

small  size  ;  and  while  most  are  found  in  the  neighbourhood 

Porpoises,       of  coasts  where  they  frequently  ascend  tidal  rivers,  a  few  are 

Dolphins,  etc,    of  exclusively  fluviatile   habits.     Many  of  the  genera  are 

very  closely  allied,  and  distinguished  mainly  by  the  structure 
of  the  skull,  so  that  in  a  popular  work  it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  indicate  their 
distinctive  peculiarities.  While  the  majority  resemble  the  Plitanistidce  in 
possessing  a  numerous  series  of  teeth  in  each  jaw,  in  two  species  this  is  not  the 
case.  From  that  family  they  maybe  distinguished  by  the  shorter  union  between 
the  two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  also  by  a  difference  in  the  mode  of 
articulation  of  the  ribs  to  the  backbone.  In  all  cases  the  blow  hole  is  in  the 
form  of  a  transverse  crescent,  with  the  two  horns  pointing  forwards  ;  and 
very  generally  from  two  to  four  of  the  anterior  vertebrae  of  the  neck  are 
welded  together  into  a  solid  mass.  One  of  the  most  aberrant,  and  at  the 
same  time  one  of  the  most  beautiful,  members  of  the  family  is  the  spotted- 
narwhal,  or  sea-unicorn  (Monodon  monoceros),  the  males  of  which  carry  the 
well-known  spirally-twisted  "horn,"  or  tusk,  from  which  several  of  the 
names  of  the  species  are  derived.  Exclusively  confined  to  the  Arctic  seas, 
where  it  associates  in  small  "schools,"  the  narwhal  belongs  to  a  group  of 
dolphins  characterised  by  the  blunt  and  rounded  form  of  the  head  and  the 
total  absence  of  a  beak.  There  is  no  back-fin  ;  the  wide  and  rounded 
flippers  are  short ;  and  the  colour  is  dusky,  with  dark-grey  mottlings.  The 


WHALES,  PORPOISES,  AND  DOLPHINS.  179 


single  tusk  of  the  males  is  always  the  left  one,  the  right  remaining,  as  a  rule, 
undeveloped  in  the  gum  ;  but  occasionally  specimens  are  found  with  two 
tusks.  Besides  these  tusks  there  are  no  other  functional  teeth  in  the  males, 
and  the  females  are  toothless.  The  length  of  the  head  and  body  varies  from 
12  to  16  fb.  and  that  of  the  tusk  between  7  and  8ft.  Allied  to  the  narwhal  is 
the  beautiful  white-whale  or  beluga  (Delphinapterus  leucas\  which  is  likewise 
a  northern  form,  and  also  the  sole  representative  of  its  genus.  It  may  be 
recognised  by  its  pure  glistening  white  skin,  the  absence  of  a  tusk,  and  the 
presence  of  numerous  teeth  in  the  front  of  the  jaws.  The  beluga,  which 
congregates  in  troops  of  considerable  s;ze,  is  regularly  hunted  for  the  sake  of 
its  hide,  blubber,  and  flesh  ;  the  latter  being  dried  and  eaten  by  the  Green- 
landers  and  Eskimos,  as  well  as  by  the  sledge-dogs  of  the  latter. 

In  ordinary  language  the  term  porpoise  is  applied  to  many  of  the  members 
of  the  present  family,  but  in  a  scientific  sense  it  is  confined  to  the  members 
of  the  small  genus  Phocoena,  all  of  which  are  comparatively  small-sized  ceta- 
ceans, characterised  by  possessing  from  sixteen  to  twenty-six  pairs  of  small, 
short,  somewhat  spade-shaped  teeth.  In  the  common  porpoise  (P.  communis) 
of  the  European  seas  the  back  is  furnished  with  a  well-developed  fin  ;  but  in 
the  Indian  species  (P.  phocoenoides)  this  appendage  is  wanting.  Porpoises 
are  the  most  common  and  familiar  of  all  cetaceans,  their  rolling  gambols 
being  well  known  not  only  to  all  those  who  have  made  a  voyage,  but  likewise 
to  visitors  to  the  sea-side.  The  allied  genus  Ceplialorliynchus  is  typified  by 
Heaviside's  dolphin  (C.  heavisidei),  and  includes  four  species  from  the  Southern 
seas.  They  have  a  conical  head,  without  any  distinct  beak,  and  from  twenty- 
five  to  thirty-one  pairs  of  small  and  sharp  teeth.  The  back-fin  is  triangular 
or  ovate  ;  and  in  three  out  of  the  four  species  the  nippers  have  a  characteristic 
elliptical  shape.  Externally  their  most  distinctive  feature  is  the  coloration, 
the  upper-parts  being  black,  and  the  under  surface  of  the  body  white,  with 
the  white  area  terminating  on  the  under  side  of  the  tail  in  a  trident,  the 
lateral  prongs  of  which  run  obliquely  upwards  on  the  flanks  a  little  behind  the 
back-fin.  The  Irawadi  dolphin  (Orcella  fluminalis),  of  which  a  variety,  or 
perhaps  an  allied  species,  occurs  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal  and  some  of  the 
neighbouring  seas,  represents  a  genus  distinguished  by  the  globose,  beakless 
head,  and  the  small  size  and  number  of  the  teeth,  the  latter  occupying  nearly 
the  entire  length  of  the  jaws,  and  including  from  thirteen  to  seventeen  pairs 
in  the  upper,  and  from  twelve  to  fifteen  in  the  lower  jaw.  They  are  set  close 
together,  and  are  conical  arid  pointed  in  shape,  those  in  the  front  of  the  jaws 
of  the  adult  males  being  inclined  outwards.  The  moderate-sized  flippers  are 
broad  at  the  base,  and  of  a  subovate  contour  ;  while  the  back-fin  is  small  and 
hooked.  From  7  to  7£  ft.  is  the  usual  length  of  these  dolphins,  which  are 
either  blackish  or  slaty  in  colour. 

From  all  the  preceding  the  large  and  strikingly-coloured  cetaceans  known 
as  killers,  or  grampuses  (Orca),  differ  by  the. large  size  of  their  powerful 
conical  teeth,  which  are  crowded  together,  and  usually  form  twelve  pairs  in 
each  jaw.  And  they  are  further  characterised  by  the  great  vertical  height  of 
the  back-fin.  As  regards  colour,  the  upper-parts  and  flippers  are  black  and 
the  lower  surface  whitish  ;  the  white  area  ending  on  the  under  side  of  the 
tail  in  a  trident,  very  nearly  the  same  as  in  the  above-mentioned  genus 
Cephalorhynchus.  Above  and  behind  the  eye  is  a  white  streak,  and  there 
is  a  purplish  band  across  the  back  behind  the  fin.  Killers,  of  which 
there  is  but  a  single  well-defined  species,  grow  to  a  length  of  at  least  20  ft., 
and  enjoy  an  almost  cosmopolitan  distribution,  They  derive  their  popular 


i8o 


MAMMALIA— ORDER   VII L — CE  TA  CEA. 


Fig.  96.^KiLLER  (Oreo,  gladiator). 


name  from  their  rapacious  habits,  and  are  the  only  cetaceans  which  prey  on 
other  members  of  their  own  order.  One  killer  has  been  known  to  swallow 
Several  entire  seals  one  after  the  other ;  and  not  unfrequently  several 

individuals  combine  forces  to 
attack  and  kill  one  of  the  larger 
whales,  hunting  with  the  per- 
severance of  a  pack  of  hounds. 
\\  hen  swimming  near  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  killers  may 
be  easily  recognised  by  the  great 
size  of  the  nearly  vertical  back- 
fin.  The  lesser  killer  (  Pseudorca 
crassidens),  which  is  also  cosmo- 
politan, and  attains  a  length  of 
about  14  ft.,  differs  from  its 
larger  relative  by  the  smaller 
size  of  the  back-fin,  the  pointed 
flippers,  and  the  cylindrical 
(instead  of  angulated)  roots  of 
the  teeth,  as  well  as  by  the 
uniformly  black  colour  of  the 
skin.  There  are  generally  eight  pairs  of  upper  and  ten  of  lower  teeth. 

Although  the  name  of  black-fish  would  apply  equally  well  to  the  foregoing, 
it  is  given  to  the  cetacean  known  scientifically  as  Globiocephalus  melas. 
The  black-fish  is  characterised  by  the  extremely  short  and  rounded  head,  the 
almost  uniformly  black  colour  of  the  skin,  and  the  presence  of  from  eight  to 
twelve  pairs  of  small  conical  teeth  in  the  front  portion  of  the  jaws.  The 
back-fin  is  long,  low,  and  thick,  and  the  flippers  are  relatively  long  and 
narrow.  Generally  there  is  a  lance-shaped  white  patch  on  the  throat.  In 
length,  the  black-fish,  or,  as  it  is  often  called,  pilot-whale,  grows  to  a  length 
of  20  ft.  Whether  there  is  more  than  one  species  is  somewhat  uncertain  ; 
but,  at  anyrate,  a  form  inhabiting  the  Bay  of  Bengal  is  distinguishable  by  the 
reduction  in  the  number  of  the  teeth.  As  regards  habits,  this  cetacean  is  the 
most  sociable  of  its  order,  and  since  all  the  members  of  a  herd  always  blindly 
follow  their  leader,  enormous  numbers  are  frequently  slaughtered  at  a  time. 
The  last  of  the  beakless  group  of  the  family  is  the  rare  Risso's  dolphin 
(Grampus  griseus),  which  differs  from  all  the  other  DelphinidcE,  save  the  female 
of  the  narwhal,  by  the  absence  of  upper  teeth,  while  the  lower  jaw  carries 
only  from  three  to  seven  small  teeth  towards  its  anterior  end.  In  general 
appearance  this  species  is  very  similar  to  the  black-fish,  although  the  head  is 
less  decidedly  globular,  and  the  flippers  are  rather  shorter.  It  is  easily 
recognised  by  the  peculiar  grey  striping  and  mottling  of  the  skin  ;  scarcely 
any  two  individuals  being  quite  alike  in  this  respect.  This  species  is  almost 
cosmopolitan,  specimens  being  stranded  from  time  to  time  on  the  British 
coasts. 

Intermediate,  between  the  beakless  and  beaked  members  of  the  family,  ia 
a  genus  known  as  Lagenorhynchus,  which  includes  the  various  species  of 
short-beaked  dolphins.  Noticeable  on  account  of  their  strongly-contrasted 
black  and  white  coloration,  the  short-beaked  dolphins  are  characterised  as  a 
whole  by  the  short,  ill-defined  and  somewhat  ploughshare-like  beak  of  the 
skull,  the  moderate  size  of  the  back-fin  and  flippers,  and  the  distinct  ridges 
on  the  tail.  The  teeth  vary  considerably  both  in  size  and  in  number ;  but, 


SLOTHS,  ANT-EATERS,  AND  ARMADILLOS.  181 


as  in  the  black-fish,  the  bony  union  between  the  two  branches  of  the  lower 
jaw  is  short.  The  sides  of  the  body  are  always  marked  by  two  light- coloured 
areas,  between  which  is  a  band,  or  a  series  of  streaks  of  black. 

The  second  group  of  the  family  includes  the  true  dolphins  and  their  allies, 
in  all  of  which  there  is  a  distinctly  defined  beak,  generally  exceeding  the 
brain-cavity  in  length,  and  marked  off  from  the  hinder  portion  of  the  head  by 
a  V-shaped  groove.  By  sailors  dolphins  are  indifferently  spoken  of  either  as 
porpoises  or  bottle-noses,  which  frequently  leads  to  a  confusion  between  them 
and  either  true  porpoises  or  the  bottle-nosed  whales.  They  are  divided  into 
numerous  genera,  according  to  the  number  of  the  teeth,  the  relative  length 
of  the  beak,  and  the  conformation  of  the  bones  of  the  palate.  They  are  all 
comparatively  small  animals,  but  few  exceeding  a  length  of  about  10  ft.; 
and  while  most  of  them  are  marine,  some  ascend  the  larger  rivers  temporarily, 
and  others  are  permanent  inhabitants  of  fresh- waters.  Fish  of  various  kinds 
constitute  the  usual  prey  of  dolphins,  but  it  is  believed  that  one  species  of 
the  genus  Sotalia  from  the  Cameruns  district  subsists  on  sea-weed.  In  the 
true  dolphins  (Delphinus),  of  which  there  are  several  species,  the  beak  is  of 
considerable  length ;  the  flippers  and  back-fin  are  long  and  slightly  hooked ; 
there  are  from  about  forty  to  sixty-five  pairs  of  sharp  teeth  in  each  jaw, 
which  have  an  oval  section  at  the  base;  and  the  union  between  the  two 
branches  of  the  lower  jaw  is  short.  In  the  bottle-nosed  dolphins  (Tursiops) 
the  beak  is  shorter  and  more  tapering,  and  the  number  of  teeth  less,  there 
being  generally  from  twenty-two  to  twenty-six  pairs.  A  third  genus  is 
typified  by  the  rough-toothed  dolphin  (Steno  frontatas),  from  the  Atlantic 
and  Indian  Oceans.  Here  the  beak  is  greatly  elongated,  and  the  bony  union 
between  the  two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw  very  long  ;  the  rather  large  teeth 
varying  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  pairs,  and  being  often  marked  by  rough 
groovings.  Nearly  allied  are  the  long-beaked  river-dolphins  forming  the 
genus  Sotalia,  which  may  be  distinguished  by  their  fluviatile  or  estuarine 
habits,  and  the  smaller  number  of  vertebrae  in  the  backbone  :  the  teeth  being 
always  smooth,  and  the  base  of  the  flippers  very  wide.  Several  of  the 
species  inhabit  the  Amazon-system,  while  one  is  found  in  some  of  the  Chinese 
rivers,  and  another  in  the  estuaries  and  rivers  of  the  Cameruns  district. 


ORDER  IX.— EDENTATA. 

SLOTHS,  ANT-EATERS,  AND  ARMADILLOS. 

THE  three  families  of  mammals  named  above,  all  of  which  are  practically 
confined  to  South  and  Central  America,  although  one  or  two  wander  as  far 
north  as  Texas,  are  the  representatives  of  an  order  in  which  all  the  existing 
forms  are  devoid  of  front  teeth,  while  the  cheek-teeth  have  no  external 
coating  of  enamel,  but  consist  solely  of  ivory,  or  of  ivory  with  a  layer  of 
cement.  In  consequence  of  this  poor  development  of  the  teeth,  the  group  is 
known  by  the  name  of  Edentata.  To  the  same  group  have  been  commonly 
referred  the  pangolins  of  the  warmer  parts  of  the  Old  World  and  the  aard- 
varks  of  Africa,  but  it  is  nearly  certain  that  these  cannot  rightly  be  included 
in  the  same  order,  and  they  are  accordingly  referred  here  to  a  group  by 
themselves.  It  is  rather  difficult  to  give  many  other  characters  in  addition 


1 82  MAMMALIA— ORDER  IX.— EDENTATA* 


to  the  absence  of  front  teeth  common  to  all  members  of  the  order,  but  fir  may 
be  stated  that  the  cheek-teeth  grow  throughout  life  and  thus  never  develop 
roots;  while  it  is  but  very  rarely  that  milk-teeth  are  present,  and  in  only  a 
single  instance  do  these  cut  the  gum.  With  the  exception  of  the  sloths,  in 
which  they  have  probably  been  lost,  the  hinder  vertebra)  of  the  trunk  have 
additional  articular  surfaces.  In  their  whole  organisation  the  edentates 
display  a  low  type,  as  is  exemplified  by  the  generally  small  size  of  their 
brains,  in  which  there  are  usually  but  few  convolutions  on  the  surface. 

The  sloths,  or  Bradypodidce,  form  a  small  family  of   edentates  specially 
characterised  by  their  adaptation  to  an  arboreal  life,  and  differing  from  nearly 

all  other  mammals  by  their  habit  of  hanging  back-downwards 
Sloths.          from  the  branches  of  the  trees  on  which  they  dwell.     They 

are  comparatively  small,  slenderly-built  animals,  with  a 
peculiarly  rough,  shaggy  coat,  a  short,  rounded,  and  almost  sperical  head, 
and  inordinately  long  and  slender  limbs — especially  the  fronfc  pair — 
terminating  in  huge,  hook-like  claws.  The  small  ears  are  completely  buried 
among  the  long  fur  covering  the  head ;  and  the  tail  is  rudimental.  The 
cheek-teeth,  which  comprise  five  pairs  in  the  upper  and  four  in  the  lower 
jaw,  form  short  cylinders,  of  which  the  external  layer  is  harder  than  the 
central  core,  so  that  by  use  their  grinding  surfaces  become  slightly  cupped. 
\Vhereas,  however,  in  the  three-toed  sloths  the  whole  of  the  teeth  are  of 
this  simple  type,  in  the  two-toed  species  the  first  pair  in  each  jaw  are  taller 
than  the  rest  and  assume  a  somewhat  tusk-like  form,  with  their  summits 
obliquely  bevelled  by  mutual  wear.  In  the  limbs  the  narrow  and  curved 
feet  are  reduced  to  the  condition  of  little  more  than  hooks  ;  the  three-toed 
forms  having  three  claws  on  each  foot,  whereas  in  the  other  group 
the  number  of  claws  in  the  fore  feet  is  reduced  to  two.  Although 
admirably  adapted  for  suspending  the  animal  back  downwards  from  a 
branch,  the  feet  of  the  sloth  are  but  poor  instruments  for  progression  on  the 
ground,  and  when  walking,  a  sloth  advances  awkwardly  and  slowly,  with  the 
soles  turned  inwards.  Externally  the  fur  of  the  sloth  is  of  a  dull  brownish 
or  ashy  colour,  the  individual  hairs  having  a  fluted  outer  surface.  The  most 
extraordinary  feature  about  the  fur  is,  however,  the  growth  of  a  vegetable 
substance  on  the  surface  of  the  hairs,  thus  increasing  the  resemblance  of  the 
animal,  when  hanging  at  rest  from  a  bough,  to  a  rough  lichen-clad  knot. 
Beneath  the  outer  coat  of  long  grey  hairs  is  a  finer  under-fur  marked  by 
longitudinal  stripes  of  chocolate-brown  and  orange  ;  a  patch  of  this  under-fur 
being  frequently  exposed  in  the  middle  of  the  back  by  the  habit  these 
creatures  have  of  rubbing  or  resting  this  part  of  their  bodies  against  the 
trees.  In  conformity  with  the  shape  of  the  skull,  the  soft  tongue  is  very 
short.  The  female  has  the  single  pair  of  teats  situated  on  the  breast. 
Internally  sloths  are  specially  characterised  by  the  complexity  of  their 
stomachs,  and  a  peculiar  folding  of  the  windpipe.  Sloths  are  divided  into 
two  distinct  generic  groups.  Of  these,  the  three-toed  sloths  (Bradypus)  are 
characterised  by  having  three  toes  to  each  foot,  and  all  the  teeth  short  and 
cupped,  whereas  in  the  two-toed  sloths  (Cholcepus),  there  are  only  two  toes  on 
the  fore  feet,  and  the  front  pair  of  teeth  in  each  jaw  are  taller  than  the 
others  and  obliquely  bevelled  at  the  summits.  Very  exceptional  among 
mammals  are  the  sloths  in  regard  to  the  number  of  vertebrte  in  the  neck. 
Thus,  whereas  in  one  of  the  two-toed  kinds  there  are  the  normal  seven,  in  a 
second  the  number  is  reduced  to  six ;  while  in  the  three-toed  group  there  are 
invariably  nine  of  these  segments. 


SLOTHS,  ANT-EATERS   AND  ARMADILLOS.  183 


By  the  natives  of  the  tropical  forest-regions  of  South  and  Central  America, 
where  sloths  are  alone  found,  the  three-toed  kinds  are  spoken  of  as  ai',  while 
the  name  of  unau  is  applied  to  the  mem- 
bers of  the  two-toed  group.  Mainly 
nocturnal  in  their  habits,  sloths  appear 
to  be  sluggish  creatures,  passing  the 
daylight  hours  curled  up  with  the  head 
safely  tucked  between  the  fore-limbs, 
and  at  night  wandering  about  slowly 
in  search  of  food,  which  consists  solely 
of  leaves  and  other  vegetable  sub- 
stances. Caution  is  a  great  character- 
istic of  their  movements,  a  fresh  branch 
being  firmly  seized  before  hold  is 
relaxed  of  the  one  they  are  about  to  Fig.  97  —THREE-TOED  SLOTH 

leave.     They  are  usually  found  either  (Dradypus  tridactylus). 

singly  or  in  small  family  parties  ;  and 

the  females  produce  but.  a  single  offspring  at  a  birth,  which  is  fully 
developed,  except  in  the  matter  of  size,  when  it  makes  its  appearance  in  the 
world. 

The  second  family  of  the  edentates  is  formed  by  the  South  American  or 
true  ant-eaters  (Myrmecophagidce),  of  which  there  are  three  species,  referable 
to  as  many  genera  ;  one  of  these  being  strictly  terrestrial, 
while  the  other  two  are  more  or  less  arboreal  in  their  habits.  Ant-Eaters, 
So  unlike  are  these  creatures,  both  as  regards  external 
character  and  the  structure  of  their  skeleton,  to  the  sloths,  that  it  is  at  first 
sight  difficult  to  believe  that  there  is  any  very  intimate  relationship  between 
the  two  groups.  And,  indeed,  were  it  not  that  in  the  superficial  deposits  of 
South  America  there  occur  remains  of  certain  extinct  edentates  known  as 
ground-sloths  (of  which  the  gigantic  Megalotherium  is  a  familiar  example  in 
our  museums),  forming  to  a  great  extent  a  group  intermediate  between  the 
sloths  and  the  ant-eaters,  it  would  be  difficult  even  for  zoologists  to  fully 
realise  how  intimate  this  relationship  really  is.  Taking  the  existence  of 
these  extinct  connecting  links  for  granted,  it  may  be  noticed  that  in  place  of 
the  short  and  rounded  head  of  the  sloths,  the  ant-eaters  have  the  head  and 
skull  more  or  less  elongated  and  narrow,  while  the  slender  jaws  are  entirely 
toothless,  and  the  tongue  is  long,  cylindrical,  and  capable  of  being  protruded 
far  in  advance  of  the  lips.  The  degree  of  elongation  of  the  skull  is,  however, 
by  no  means  the  same  in  all  the  members  of  the  group,  the  maximum 
development  in  this  respect  being  exhibited  in  the  case  of  the  great  ant- 
eater.  Still  more  striking  is  the  difference  in  the  structure  of  the  feet  in  the 
two  groups.  In  the  great  ant-eater,  for  instance,  the  fore-foot  is  furnished 
with  five  complete  toes,  the  middle  one  of  which  is  much  larger  and  more 
powerful  than  the  rest  ;  and  all  but  the  fifth,  or  outermost,  are  furnished 
with  strong  claws.  In  this  genus  there  are  also  five  toes  to  the  hind-feet  ; 
but  in  the  third  representative  of  the  family  there  are  only  four  claws  to  each 
foot.  When  the  great  ant-eater  is  walking,  only  the  extreme  outer  side  and 
part  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  fore-foot  is  applied  to  the  ground ;  but 
in  the  hind-foot,  which  has  the  fourth  toe  the  largest,  and  claws  to  all 
five,  the  whole  of  the  short  and  wide  sole  touches  the  ground  in 
the  ordinary  manner.  An  important  point  of  distinction  from  the  sloths 
is  that  the  bones  of  the  terminal  joints  of  the  fore-feet  have  a  longi- 


184 


MAMMALIA— ORDER  IX.—EDENTA  TA. 


tudinal  slit  in  the  middle  of  the  upper  surface  ;  and  in  all  cases  the 
limbs  are  relatively  short  and  stout.  Unlike  the  sloths,  the  ant-eaters 
have  a  very  long  and  powerful  tail,  which  in  two  of  the  species  is  endowed 
with  the  power  of  prehension,  as  indeed  is  the  case  with  so  many  of  the 
animals  inhabiting  the  dense  forest  -  regions  of  tropical  America.  In 
correlation  with  their  insectivorous  habits,  the  stomach  of  the  ant-eaters  is 
perfectly  simple  in  structure,  and  the  brain  is  more  convoluted  than  in  the 
sloths.  Two  out  of  the  three  species  have  the  fur  of  the  body  marked  by 
dark  and  light  longitudinal  bands  or  patches,  and  it  is  noteworthy  that 
this  type  of  coloration  approximates  to  that  obtaining  in  the  under-fur  of 
the  sloths.  In  order  to  procure  their  insect-food,  which  mostly  comprises 
ants  and  termites,  the  long  worm-like  tongue,  which  can  be  protruded  with 
great  rapidity  from  the  tubular  mouth,  is  provided  with  a  viscid  secretion. 

The  largest  and  most  specialised  member  of  the  family  is  the  great  ant- 
eater,  or  tamahoa  (Myrmecophaga  jubata),  which  is  terrestrial  in  its  habits, 

and  is  easily  recognised  by  the 
exceedingly  long  and  slender 
head,  passing  almost  imper- 
ceptibly into  the  neck,  the 
minute  ears,  the  fringe  of  long 
hair  clothing  the  fore-limbs  and 
flanks,  and  the  huge  mass  of 
still  more  elongated  hairs  cover- 
ing the  tail.  This  ant-eater, 
which  attains  a  length  of  about 
4  ft.  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  is 
distributed  over  the  whole  of 
the  tropical  districts  of  South 
and  Central  America,  fre- 
quenting either  damp  swampy 
forests  or  the  margins  of 
rivers.  Like  the  other  species,  it  is  strictly  nocturnal  in  its  habits,  and  but 
a  single  offspring,  which  is  carried  for  some  time  on  the  back  of  its  parent, 
is  produced  at  a  birth.  Next  in  point  of  size  is  the  lesser  ant-eater,  or 
tamandua  (Tamandua  tetradactyla),  which  scarcely  attains  half  the  dimen- 
sions of  its  larger  cousin,  and  is  distinguished  by  the  uniformly  short  fur, 
shorter  head,  the  much  longer  ears,  and  the  cylindrical  prehensile  tail, 
which  is  naked  both  at  the  tip  and  along  the  whole  of  the  lower  aspect.  In 
the  fore-feet  the  claw  of  the  fifth  digit  is  rudimental  and  concealed 
beneath  the  skin,  while  that  of  the  third  is  much  larger  than  either 
of  the  others,  the  hind-foot  being  generally  similar  to  that  of  the 
larger  species.  The  tamandua  has  approximately  the  same  geographi- 
cal distribution  as  the  latter,  from  which  it  differs  in  being  mainly 
arboreal  in  its  habits.  The  most  sloth-like,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
most  diminutive  member  of  the  group  is  the  two-clawed  ant-eater  (Cydoturus 
didactylus),  which  does  not  exceed  a  rat  in  size,  and  has  the  sloth-like  habit 
of  hanging  back  downwards  from  the  boughs  of  trees,  to  which  it  clings  by 
its  long,  hook-like  claws.  In  the  shortness  of  the  head  this  species  likewise 
presents  a  decided  approximation  to  the  sloths.  While  the  front  paws  have 
four  toes,  only  the  first  and  second  of  these — that  is  to  say,  those  correspond- 
ing to  the  index  and  middle  fingers  of  the  human  hand — are  furnished  with 
claws ;  but  the  four  toes  of  the  hind- foot  are  all  clawed,  and  as  they  are 


Fig.  98. — GREAT  ANT-EATER  (Myrmecophaga 
jubata). 


SLOTHS,  ANT-EATERS,  AND  ARMADILLOS.  185 


placed  close  together  and  the  claws  are  of  nearly  equal  length,  they 
collectively  form  a  hook-like  organ  not  unlike  the  foot  of  a  sloth.  Prom  the 
other  ant-eaters  this  species  differs  in  the  uniformly  foxy-red  hue  of  the  short 
silky  fur.  In  its  skeleton  it  differs  from  the  other  two  members  of  the  group 
in  possessing  collar-bones,  in  which  respect  this  species  once  again 
approximates  to  the  sloths.  In  other  ant-eaters  the  ribs  are  unusually 
broad,  but  in  the  present  species  this  character  is  so  exaggerated  that  they 
almost  come  into  contact  with  one  another,  and  thus  nearly  enclose  the 
body  in  a  solid  bony  casque.  Thoroughly  arboreal  in  its  mode  of  life,  and 
furnished  with  a  highly  prehensile  tail,  the  two-clawed  ant-eater  is  restricted 
to  the  hottest  regions  of  America,  ranging  from  Northern  Brazil  through 
Peru  and  the  Guianas  to  Central  America. 

The  development  of  a  bony  shield  composed  of  isolated  plates  welded 
together  by  their  edges,  or  overlapping  like  tiles  on  a  roof  over  moro  or  less 
of  the  upper  surface  of  the  body,  serves  to  differentiate  the 
armadillos  and  their  tiny  relative  the  pichiago  not  only  Armadillos, 
from  all  other  existing  edentates,  but  likewise  from  other 
mammals.  All  these  animals  collectively  constitute  the  family  Dasypodidce, 
which  is  sufficiently  distinguished  by  the  aforesaid  bony  armour.  In  ordinary 
armadillos  the  armour  is  divided  into  two  solid  shields,  one  of  which  pro.- 
tects  the  shoulders,  and  the  other  the  haunches,  while  between  these  are  a 
variable  number  of  movable  transverse  bands,  permitting  the  animal  to  bend 
its  back  to  a  smaller  or  greater  extent,  and  in  one  case  even  allowing  the 
assumption  of  a  completely  ball-like  form.  Both  in  the  front  and  hind 
shield  the  constituent  plates  are  polygonal  in  form,  and  articulate  with  one 
another  immovably  by  their  edges ;  but  in  the  movable  bands  they  are  tile- 
like  and  overlapping.  The  fixed  shields  and  movable  bands  collectively 
constitute  the  carapace.  The  component  plates  are  marked  by  a  characteristic 
sculpture,  which  varies  much  in  the  different  genera,  and  may  consist  either 
of  raised  pustules  or  minute  punctures ;  and  each  plate  is  overlaid  by  a  thin 
horny  shield.  More  or  less  abundant  hairs  grow  from  the  skin  at  the  junction 
of  the  plates  of  the  carapace ;  and  occasionally  these  are  so  abundant  and 
luxuriant  as  practically  to  conceal  the  latter  from  view.  A  small  shield 
of  polygonal  bony  plates,  with  their  edges  in  apposition,  serves  to 
protect  the  upper  surface  of  the  head  ;  while  the  tail  is  usually 
defended  by  a  similar  type  of  armour,  which  may  either  take  the  form  of 
oblique  rows  of  plates  or  tubercles,  or  of  a  series  of  rings  of  gradually 
decreasing  diameter,  severally  composed  of  the  same  plates.  Irregular  bony 
plates  likewise  protect  the  short  and  powerful  limbs,  of  which  the  front  pair 
are  provided  with  strong  claws  adapted  for  digging.  In  the  fore-limbs  the 
claws  may  vary  in  number  from  three  to  five,  whereas  the  much  smaller  and 
weaker  ones  of  the  hind-foot  are  always  the  latter  number.  Armadillos 
have  moderately  long  and  more  or  less  depressed  heads,  sharply  pointed 
in  front,  and  armed  with  a  rather  small  number  of  simple  peg-like  teeth. 
They  have  long  tails,  fully  developed  collar-bones  ;  and  the  bones  of  the 
arm  and  fore-arm  are  specially  expanded  and  modified  for  the  purpose 
of  digging.  Their  tongues,  although  relatively  long,  have  not  the  extreme 
elongation  characterising  the  ant-eaters.  Armadillos  have  a  much  more 
extensive  geographical  range  than  either  of  the  preceding  families  of  edentates, 
ranging  from  Patagonia  to  Central  America,  and  one  species  at  least  reaching 
as  far  northwards  as  Texas.  Although  different  species  or  genera  are  confined 
to  different  localities  and  situations,  members  of  the  group  are  to-  be  met  with 


i86  MAMMALIA-ORDER  IX.— EDENTATA. 


alike  on  the  grassy  pampas  of  Buenos  Aires,  the  sandy  plains  of  Mendoza, 
and  the  tropical  forests  of  Brazil.  While  a  few  are  diurnal,  the  majority  are 
nocturnal  in  their  habits,  and  all  are  burrowers.  In  many  districts  the  Argen- 
tine pampas  is  perfectly  honeycombed  with  the  long  burrows  of  various  kinds 
of  armadillos.  Armadillos  live  chiefly  upon  insects,  worms,  and  molluscs,  but 
one  species  at  least  feeds  largely  upon  carrion,  although  this  is  probably  an 
acquired  habit,  due  to  the  large  number  of  carcases  of  horses  and  cattle  which 
nowadays  strew  the  pampas.  In  their  movements  they  are  extremely  swift, 
starting  off  with  a  tremendous  rush  when  disturbed  while  feeding  at  night, 
and  requiring  a  good  dog  to  keep  pace  with  them.  Whereas  some  species 
run  on  the  tips  of  their  claws,  with  the  body  raised  high  above  the  ground, 
others  carry  the  carapace  lower.  The  rapidity  with  which  an  armadillo  will 
bury  itself  in  the  soft  ground  of  the  Argentine  pampas  must  be  witnessed  to 
be  credited.  Most  of  the  true  armadillos  have  medium-sized  or  rather  large 
ears,  placed  far  apart  from  one  another  ;  the  first  and  second  claws  of  the 
fore-foot  are,  if  present  at  all,  slender  ;  and  the  breast  of  the  female  bears  a 
single  pair  of  teats. 

The  first  genus  (Dasypus)  includes  the  typical  armadillos,  of  which  the  six- 
banded  species  (D.  sexcinctus)  of  Brazil,  and  the  Argentine  peludo,  or  hairy 

armadillo  (D.  mllosus),  are  well-known 
examples.  These  animals  have  from 
six  to  eight  movable  bands  in  the 
carapace,  which  is  more  or  less 
depressed  with  strongly  serrated 
margins.  The  ears  are  small  or 
moderate,  and  the  head  is  very  broad 
and  much  depressed,  with  the  muzzle 
comparatively  blunt.  The  tail,  which 


Fig.  *>,-  . 

viliosus).  is  plated  with  distinct  rings  near  the 

root.     In  the  fore-foot  the  first  toe  is 

the  slenderest  of  all,  and  the  second  the  longest.  The  teeth,  which 
are  relatively  large,  are  generally  nine  above  and  ten  below,  the  first 
upper  pair  being  usually  implanted  in  the  premaxillary  or  anterior  jaw- 
bones. Some  of  the  species  are  of  considerable  size,  the  head  and  body  in 
the  typical  one  measuring  as  much  as  16  inches.  In  the  Argentine  the  peludo 
is  now  mainly  nocturnal,  and  feeds  largely  upon  the  carcases  of  cattle, 
beneath  which  its  burrows  are  frequently  formed.  The  much  smaller  pichi 
(D.  minutus)  of  the  same  districts  is,  however,  chiefly  a  diurnal  animal.  In 
spite  of  having  but  two  teats,  the  female  produces  from  two  to  four 
young,  which  are  born  blind,  with  the  armour  already  developed,  but  in  a 
soft  and  flexible  condition.  The  second  genus,  of  which  the  broad  armadillo 
or  tatouay  (Lysiurus  unicinctus)  of  Brazil,  Paraguay,  and  Surinam  is  the 
typical  representative,  differs  from  the  last  by  the  greater  number  of 
movable  bands  in  the  carapace,  which  are  either  twelve  or  thirteen.  The 
teeth,  of  which  there  are  either  eight  or  nine  pairs  in  each  jaw,  are  relatively 
smaller  than  in  the  first  genus,  and  in  the  upper  jaw  do  not  extend  so  far 
backwards  on  the  sides  of  the  palate.  The  tail,  also,  is  almost  devoid  of 
bony  plates,  of  which  it  has  only  a  few  on  the  under  side  and  near  the  tip. 
The  chief  characteristic  of  the  fore-foot  is  the  great  size  of  the  curved  claw 
borne  by  the  third  toe  ;  the  fourth  and  fifth  toes  having  similar  but  smaller 
claws,  while  those  of  the  first  and  second  are  long  and  slender.  In  the  hind-foot 


SLOTHS,  ANT-EATERS,  AND  ARMADILLOS.  187 


the  claws  take  the  form  of  short  and  blunt  nails.  The  plates  of  the  carapace 
are  ornamented  by  an  indistinct  granular  sculpture.  In  size  the  tatouay  is 
intermediate  between  the  six-banded  armadillo  and  the  next  species. 
The  great  number  of  the  teeth — of  which  there  are  from  twenty 
to  twenty-five  pairs— at  once  serves  to  distinguish  the  giant  armadillo 
(Priodon  giyas)  of  Brazil  and  Surinam  from  all  its  relatives.  It  is 
also  the  largest  living  member  of  the  family,  the  head  and  body  measuring 
about  3  ft.  in  length.  The  number  of  movable  bands  in  the  carapace  is 
thirteen  ;  and  in  the  anterior  and  posterior  shields  of  the  carapace  the  plates 
are  arranged  in  rows  very  similar  to  those  of  the  movable  bands  which  they 
resemble  in  sculpture.  Structurally  the  feet  are  very  similar  to  those  of 
Lysiurus,  but  the  claw  of  the  third  toe  in  the  front  foot  is  relatively  larger, 
while  that  of  the  fifth  is  very  small.  The  tail,  which  is  nearly  equal  in 
length  to  the  carapace,  is,  however,  of  a  totally  different  type,  being 
completely  invested  with  large  plates  arranged  in  spiral  rows.  Very 
different  are  the  three  small  species  of  three-banded  armadillos  (Tolypeutes), 
in  which  the  fore  and  aft  shields  of  the  carapace  are  very  greatly  developed 
and  the  movable  bands  reduced  to  three.  The  plates  on  the  carapace  are 
small  and  tuberculated,  the  shield  on  the  head  is  very  large  and  flat,  and  the 
extremely  short  tail  is  covered  with  prominent  tubercles.  As  the  borders  of 
the  carapace,  which  are  smooth,  are  much  produced  on  either  side  of  the  fore 
and  hind  limbs,  these  animals  are  enabled  to  roll  themselves  up  into  a 
complete  although  somewhat  flattened  ball ;  the  shield  of  the  head,  by  one 
side  of  which  lies  the  tail,  almost  completely  filling  up  the  front  and  hinder 
notches  in  the  carapace.  The  head  is  long  and  narrow,  with  the  rather  large 
ovate  ears  placed  somewhat  low  down ;  while  the  jaws  carry  eight  or  nine 
pairs  of  upper  and  nine  of  lower  teeth,  which  are  of  relatively  small  size  and 
reach  backwards  to  the  hinder  end  of  the  palate.  In  the  fore-foot  the  third 
claw  is  more  developed  than  in  any  other  species,  the  claws  of  the  first  and 
fifth  toes  being  either  rudimental  or  absent.  The  common  species  grows 
to  a  length  of  about  fifteen  inches,  and  is  found  in  the  pampas  of  Argentina, 
where,  however,  it  now  seems  extremely  rare.  Trusting  to  their  impassive 
power  of  defence,  all  the  armadillos  of  this  genus  are  diurnal  and  non- 
burrowing  animals,  generally  lurking  in  the  large  tussocks  of  pampas-grass. 
When  running  they  go  on  the  extreme  tips  of  their  claws,  and  scuttle  along 
at  a  great  pace.  The  last  genus  of  the  true  armadillos  is  represented  on  the 
Argentine  pampas  by  the  mulita  (Tatusia  hybrida),  and  there  are  other 
species  in  different  parts  of  the  continent,  one  of  which  ranges  into  Texas, 
while  another  from  Peru  is  remarkable  for  the  thick  coat  of  fur  which 
entirely  conceals  the  carapace.  These  pretty  little  armadillos  differ  from  the 
whole  of  the  foregoing  by  the  close  approximation  of  the  long  mule-like  ears 
(whence  the  name  of  mulita  for  the  Argentine  species),  as  well  as  by  the 
presence  of  an  additional  pair  of  teats  on  the  abdomen  of  the  females,  and 
also  by  the  development  of  a  set  of  milk-teeth.  The  seven  or  eight  pairs  of 
permanent  teeth  are  very  minute,  and  do  not  make  their  appearance  till 
comparatively  late  in  life.  The  long  and  narrow  head  is  produced  into  a 
cylindrical  and  obliquely-truncated,  somewhat  pig-like  snout.  Extreme 
elongation  and  compression  is  the  leading  characteristic  of  the  carapace, 
which  has  from  seven  to  nine  movable  bands  ;  the  plates  of  the  latter  being 
marked  by  a  V-shaped  line  of  punctures,  while  the  smaller  ones  of  the  solid 
shields  have  an  elevated  oval  central  area  surrounded  by  an  incomplete  ring 
of  small  tubercles.  The  tail  is  surrounded  by  a  series  of  bony  rings, 


1 88  MAMMALIA— ORDER  X.—EFFODIENTIA. 


decreasing  in  size  from  root  to  tip,  and  thus  recalls  a  partially  opened 
telescope.  In  the  fore-feet  there  are  four  long  claws,  of  which  the  innermost 
are  the  largest ;  while  in  the  five-clawed  hind-feet  the  third  is  the  longest 
and  the  fourth  and  fifth  the  shortest.  About  11  in.  is  the  average 
length  of  the  head  and  body  of  the  mulita,  but  another  species  is  somewhat 
larger.  The  mulita  may  be  often  found  skulking  among  the  tussocks  of 
pampas-grass  during  the  daytime,  when,  with  the  aid  of  a  dog,  it  can 
generally  be  captured  before  it  has  time  to  make  good  its  escape  into  its 
burrow.  Not  unfrequently  when  a  Gaucho  captures  a  mulita  he  crops  its 
ears  and  turns  it  loose,  such  crop-eared  specimens  being  at  first  rather  a 
puzzle  to  the  naturalist.  In  spite  of  the  circumstance  that  carrion  forms  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  diet  of  these  animals,  roasted  mulita  is  a  favourite 
dish  in  the  Argentine. 

Quite  different  from  the  true  armadillos  are  the  beautiful  little  pichiciagos, 
or  fairy  pink  armadillos,  of  which  one  species  (Cklamydophorus  truncatus)  is 
locally  distributed  over  the  sandy  districts  of  Western  Argentina,  while  the 
second  (G.  retusa)  is  from  the  Bolivian  highlands.  From  the  armadillos 
these  tiny  little  creatures  differ  by  having  the  upper  surface  of  the  head  and 
body  covered  by  a  continuous  mantle,  formed  of  quadrangular  horny  shields 
underlain  by  thin  bony  plates,  and  gradually  widening  from  the  front  of  the 
head  to  the  hinder  end  of  the  body,  where  it  is  abruptly  truncated.  In  the 
Argentine  species  this  mantle  is  attached  to  the  body  only  along  the  line  of 
the  backbone,  its  under  surface  being  hairy ;  but  in  the  Bolivian  form  (which 
is  referred  by  some  writers  to  a  separate  genus,  under  the.  name  of  Bur- 
meisteria)  it  is  joined  to  the  skin  throughout  its  whole  extent.  The 
truncated  hinder  end  of  the  body  is  protected  by  a  solid  bony  shield  with 
overlying  horny  scales ;  the  short  tail  protruding  through  a  notch  in  its 
lower  border.  The  whole  of  the  rest  of  the  body  is  covered  with  long  silky 
hair,  which  in  the  Argentine  species  is  pure  glistening  white,  while  the 
mantle  is  pinkish.  The  minute  ears  are  completely  concealed  "by  this  fur  ; 
and  both  fore  and  hind  feet  have  five  claws,  the  front  toes  being  connected 
to  the  J>ase  of  the  latter,  while  those  of  the  hinder  pair  are  free.  In  length 
the  Argentine  species  measures  only  about  5  in.,  but  the  Bolivian  form 
is  somewhat  larger.  Pichiciagos  inhabit  sandy  districts,  where  they  excavate 
burrows  with  marvellous  rapidity  ;  and  it  is  believed  that  the  hinder  shield 
is  used  as  a  rammer  to  close  the  burrow  when  tenanted,  the  creatures 
apparently  making  their  exit  by  digging  a  fresh  passage. 


ORDER    X.—EFFODIENTIA. 

AARD-VAKKS  AND  PANGOLINS. 

ALTHOUGH,  as  stated  above,  the  animals  known  as  aard-varks  and  pangolins 
are  generally  included  among  the  Edentata,  they  have  little  in  common  with  the 
typical  representatives  of  that  order.  Hence  they  are  assigned  to  a  distinct 
ordinal  group  termed  the  Effodientia.  That  group  is  typified  by  the  aard- 
varks,  and  is  only  provisionally  regarded  as  comprising  the  pangolins, 
which  are  perhaps  entitled  to  constitute  an  order  by  themselves.  The 
Effodientia  resemble  the  Edentata  in  never  having  front  teeth ;  but  differ 


AARD-  VARKS  AND  PANGOLINS.  189 


from  all  the  latter  in  the  absence  of  additional  articular  facets  to  the  hindei 
trunk-vertebrae.  More  definitely  they  may  be  distinguished  from  the 
edentates  as  follows.  When  teeth  are  present  these  are  of  a  totally  different 
type  to  those  of  the  latter,  and  when  teeth  are  absent  the  hinder  trunk- 
vertebrse  lack  the  aforesaid  additional  articulations  which  are  present  in  the 
toothless  edentates. 

Theaard-varks,  or  ant-bears  (Orycteropodidce),  forming  the  typical  members 
of  the  order,  are  now  represented  by  two  closely  allied  species  of  the  genus 
Ory  .teropus,  both  of  which  are  confined  to  the  Ethiopian 
region.      There    is,    however,    evidence    that    during    the     Aard-Varks. 
Tertiary  period  aard-varks  existed  in  the  south  of  Europe. 
The  existing  forms  are  uncouth  and  strange-looking  animals  of  large  size, 
with  the  skin    nearly  naked,    or 
sparsely  covered  with  bristly  hairs. 
The  long  and  narrow  head  is  fur- 
nished   with    greatly    elongated, 
slender,   and    pointed    ears,    and 
terminates  in  a  somewhat  pig-like 
Bnout,  in  which  are  perforated  the 
circular  nostrils,  while  the  mouth 
is  tubular.     The  neck  is  short,  the 
fore-quarters     are     comparatively 
short,  the  back  is  much  arched, 
and  the  tail,  which  is  nearly  as 

long  as  the  body,  is  thick,  cylin-  . .^^_ 

drical,  and  tapering.  In  the  short  Jfy.ioo— Aj&v-V±inL(Orycteropuscapensis). 
but  powerful  fore-limbs,  £he  four 
toes  are  furnished  with  medium-sized  strong  nails  ;  while  the  hind- feet  have 
five  nearly  equal  toes,  each  bearing  a  nail.  When  walking,  the  entire  soles 
are  applied  to  the  ground.  Adulb  aard-varks  usually  have  five  pairs  of 
cheek-teeth  in  each  jaw,  although  from  eight  to  ten  pairs  of  upper  teeth,  and 
eisrht  of  lower  ones  are  developed.  Of  these  all  but  the  last  three  have  milk- 
predecessors,  which  never  cut  the  gum.  These  teeth  have  no  enamel,  and 
are  composed  of  a  number  of  adherent  polygonal  denticules,  traversed  by  a 
series  of  radiating  tubes  ;  such  a  structure  being  quite  unparalleled  in  the 
mammalian  class.  The  tongue  is  cylindrical  and  extensile.  In  total  length 
these  animals  may  measure  as  much  as  5  ft.  In  habits,  aard-varks  are 
nocturnal,  burrowing,  and  insectivorous,  feeding  chiefly  on  ants  and  termites. 
Their  powers  of  digging  are  very  great,  and  in  South  Africa  their  burrows 
are  generally  constructed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  termite  hills. 

Very  different  both  in  external  appearance  and  internal  structure  are  the 
pangolins,  or  scaly  ant-eaters,  of  the  warmer  parts  of  the  Old  World,  constituting 
the  family  Manidce,  and  all  included  in  the  single  genus  Manis. 
The  most  peculiar  and  striking  feature  of  the  animals  is  the      Pangolins, 
investiture  of  the  head,  body,  tail,  and  limbs  in  a  complete 
coab  of  overlapping  horny  scales,  so  that  the  general  appearance  is  much 
like  the  cone  of  a  spruce-fir.      Teeth  are  wanting  ;  and  the  skull  is  long, 
conical,  and  devoid  of  a  zygqmatic  or  cheek- arch,  with  a  very  slender  lower 
jaw.     The  eyes  are  minute,  and  the  external  conchs  of  the  ears  rudimental. 
A  few  bristly  hairs  often  occur  between  the  scales,  and  the  latter  do  not 
extend  on  to  the  under  surface  of  the  body,  or  the  inner  sides  of  the  limbs. 
The  long  and  worm-like  tongue  can  be  protruded  a  great  distance  in  front 


MAMMALIA— ORDER  XL—MARSUPIALIA. 


of  the  tubular  mouth.  Each  of  the  limbs  is  furnished  with  five  toes, 
terminating  in  long  powerful  claws,  of  which  the  supporting  bones  are 
longitudinally  split  at  their  extremities  ;  the  front  claws  being  much 
larger  than  the  hinder  ones,  and  the  third  toe  in  each  foot  superior  in  size  to 
the  rest.  In  walking,  the  front  claws  are  bent  beneath  the  soles,  so  that  the 
weight  of  the  body  is  mainly  borne  on  the  upper  and  outer  sides  of  the  third 

and  fourth  digits  ;  but  in  the  hind-limbs 
the  whole  sole  of  the  foot  is  applied 
to  the  ground  in  the  ordinary  manner. 
The  tail  may  be  either  long  or  medium. 
Collar-bones  are  wanting  in  the  skeleton. 
Pangolins  are  confined  to  south-eastern 
Asia,  and  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara  ; 
the  largest  species,  which  measures  up- 
wards of  6  ft.  in  total  length,  being  an 

._. _.  ^         inhabitant  of  West  Africa.  They  resemble 

""**  the  aard-varks  in  feeding  on  ants  and 

Fig.  101.— A.  PANGOLIN-  (Manis).  termites,    which   are   licked   up   by  the 

extensile  tongue,  after  their  hillocks  have 

been  laid  open  by  the  powerful  claws  of  these  animals.  They  are  likewise 
nocturnal,  and  have  the  power  of  rolling  themselves  up  into  a  ball,  when 
they  are  completely  secure  from  most  enemies.  Some  of  the  African  forms 
are  more  or  less  arboreal,  but  all  the  rest  are  purely  terrestrial. 
Apparently  only  a  single  young  is  produced  at  a  birth,  for  the  nourish- 
ment of  which  the  breast  of  the  female  carries  a  pair  of  teats. 


ORDER  XL— MARSUPIALIA. 
POUCHED  MAMMALS. 

THE  whole  of  the  ten  mammalian  orders  treated  of  above  are  collectively 
characterised  by  the  circumstance  that,  during  intra-uterine  life,  the  blood- 
vessels of  the  foetus  are  connected  with  those  of  the  parent  by  means  of  a 
vascular  organ  known  as  the  placenta.  And  it  is  due  to  this  communication 
between  the  foetal  and  maternal  circulations  that  the  young  are  born  in  the 
more  or  less  highly- developed  state  characteristic  of  the  whole  assemblage. 
Collectively,  the  whole  ten  orders  form  a  sub-class,  known  indifferently  as 
the  Eutheria  or  Placentalia.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  mammals  forming 
the  subject  of  the  present  section,  a  placenta  is  never  developed,  and  there 
is  consequently  no  direct  connection  between  the  circulatory  systems  of  the 
parent  and  offspring,  so  that  the  young  are  produced  in  an  exceedingly 
imperfect  state  of  development.  To  this  group,  which  forms  a  second  sub- 
class, the  name  of  Metatheria,  or  Implacentalia,  is  applied,  while  it  is 
sometimes  known  as  the  Didelphia,  on  account  of  the  completely  double 
uterus  or  womb,  and  thereby  contrasts  with  the  Eutheria,  in  which  the 
uterus  is  either  single,  or  its  two  branches  are  united  at  their  outlet. 
Hence  the  name  Monodelphia  is  not  unfrequently  given  to  the  first  of  the 
two  sub-classes. 
Whereas  the  Placentals,  as  already  indicated,  are  split  up  into  the  ten 


POUCHED  MAMMALS.  191 


orders  described  above,  no  such  division  seems  practicable  in  the  case  of  the 
Implacentals.  Consequently  the  whole  of  them  may  be  included  in  the  single 
order  Marsupialia,  which  may  be  popularly  known  either  as  Marsupials  or 
Pouched  Mammals. 

Both  the  technical  and  popular  names  of  the  group  are  derived  from  the 
very  general  presence  of  a  more  or  less  fully-developed  pouch  on  the 
abdominal  surface  of  the  body  of  the  female,  into  which  the  imperfectly- 
developed  young  are  transferred  at  birth,  and  where  they  remain  until 
sufficiently  advanced  to  take  care  of  themselves.  This  pouch  is,  however, 
by  no  means  universally  present  in  the  order,  and  cannot,  therefore,  be 
taken  as  its  distinctive  character.  The  imperfect  state  of  development  of  the 
young  at  birth  is,  howevej,  absolutely  distinctive  of  all  Marsupials ;  and  when 
born  the  foetuses  resemble  helpless  and  nearly  motionless  sacs  of  flesh,  which 
are  extremely  small  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  parent,  those  of  the  large 
kangaroos  being  no  larger  than  a  man's  thumb.  These  helpless  little  abortions 
are  transferred  by  their  parent  immediately  after  birth  to  her  teats,  which 
are  always  situated  within  the  pouch  whenever  that  appendage  is  developed. 
Of  course  such  ill-developed  creatures  can  do  nothing  in  the  way  of  sucking 
by  themselves,  and  Nature  has  accordingly  provided  a  special  arrangement 
by  means  of  which  their  wants  can  be  supplied.  This  arrangement  takes  the 
form  of  special  muscles  surrounding  the  milk  glands  of  the  female,  which  by  a 
spontaneous  contraction  compress  the  glands,  and  thus  force  the  nourishing 
fluid  down  the  throats  of  the  immovable,  naked  young.  In  order  to  prevent 
the  helpless  young  from  being  choked  as  they  hang  to  the  teats  of  the  mother, 
the  upper  part  of  the  larynx,  or  superior  extremity  of  the  windpipe,  is  so  elon- 
gated as  to  project  through  the  fauces,  or  hinder  apertures  of  the  mouth,  and 
thus  reach  the  internal  nostrils.  In  consequence  of  this  arrangement  a  closed 
passage  is  formed  from  the  nostrils  to  the  lungs,  so  that  the  foetus  can 
breathe  while  the  milk  flows  down  its  throat.  The  young  Marsupials  thus 
nourished  hang  on  to  the  nipples  of  the  mother  until  their  bodies  and  limbs 
are  sufficiently  developed  to  enable  them  to  move  about  by  themselves ;  but, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  kangaroos,  they  frequently  resort  to  the  pouch  as  a  haven 
of  refuge  from  danger  for  a  long  time  after  they  have  made  their  appearance 
in  the  outer  world,  and  it  is  by  no  means  uncommon  for  the  pouch  to  be 
tenanted  by  helpless  foetuses  and  half-grown  young.  Except  in  the  thylacine, 
where  they  are  reduced  to  a  rudimental  condition,  the  pouch  is  supported  by 
a  pair  of  marsupial  or  epipubic  bones  attached  to  the  front  edge  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  pelvis  ;  these  bones  being  also  present  in  the  male. 

In  all  the  Pouched  Mammals  the  brain  is  characterised  by  its  propor- 
tionately small  size,  and  the  slight  development  of  the  convolutions  on  its 
surface.  As  already  mentioned,  the  womb  or  uterus  is  double  throughout 
its  entire  length  ;  and  in  most  cases  the  lower  border  of  the  angle,  or  hinder 
extremity  of  the  inferior  margin  of  each  branch  of  the  lower  jaw  is  more  or 
less  strongly  bent  inwards.  Although  there  is  great  variation,  both  numeri- 
cally and  structurally,  in  the  dentition,  yet  there  is  one  feature  in  regard  to 
the  teeth  characteristic  of  the  order  generally.  This  relates  to  the  mode  of 
succession  and  replacement  of  the  teeth.  Whereas  in  the  great  majority  of 
terrestrial  Placentals  the  whole  or  the  greater  number  of  the  teeth 
in  advance  of  the  true  molars  (which  in  that  group  are  typically  three  in 
number  on  each  side  of  each  jaw)  are  preceded  by  milk  or  baby-teeth,  in  the 
Pouched  Mammals  only  one  tooth  on  each  side  of  the  jaws  has  such  deciduous 
predecessor,  and  even  this  is  not  invariably  developed.  Regarding  the 


192  MAMMALIA— ORDER  XL—MARSUPIALIA. 


dental  succession  in  the  order,  the  writer  may  quote  the  following  passage 
from  a^work  he  has  devoted  to  the  group  : — "The  tooth  thus  replaced  has 
been  hitherto  generally  regarded  as  corresponding  to  the  last  or  fourth  milk- 
molar  of  the  higher  mammals,  while  the  apparently  replacing  tooth  has  con- 
sequently been  identified  with  the  last  or  fourth  pre-molar  of  the  same. 
Recent  researches  have,  however,  tended  to  show  that  this  is  not  a  case  of 
true  replacement  at  all,  and  that  the  tooth,  which  makes  its  appearance  late 
in  life,  is  really  a  retarded  pre-molar,  which  will  consequently  be  the  fourth 
of  the  full  series,  while  the  apparently  replaced  tooth  is  really  the  fifth.  Be 
this  as  it  may,  the  mode  of  succession  is  peculiar  and  unique  ;  and  it  may  be 
still  convenient  to  speak  of  the  replacing  tooth  as  the  fourth  pre-molar,  and 
the  one  it  replaces  as  the  fourth  milk-molar."  It  should  be  added  that  some 
authorities  consider  the  whole  of  the  teeth  of  a  Marsupial  in  advance  of  the 
molars  as  corresponding  to  the  milk-series  of  the  Placentals  ;  and  also  that, 
when  the  full  series  is  developed,  there  are  four  pairs  of  molars  in  each  jaw 
in  the  present  order. 

That  the  Pouched  Mammals  are  inferior  in  their  organisation  to  the 
Placentals,  is  admitted  by  all;  and  they  are  also,  as  shown  by  their  history 
in  past  times,  among  the  oldest,  if  not  actually  the  oldest,  representatives 
of  the  entire  class.  Tnere  is,  however,  some  difference  of  opinion  among 
zoologists  as  to  whether  this  group  includes  the  ancestors  from  which  the 
higher  mammals  have  originated. 

In  regard  to  their  geographical  distribution,  the  Marsupials  present  some 
very  curious  features.  At  this  present  day  their  head-quarters  are  the 
Notogfeic  realm,  comprising  Australia,  Papua,  Celebes,  and  the  other  islands 
lying  to  the  eastward  of  Wallace's  line.  And  it  is  here  that  they  attain  their 
maximum  development.  Whereas,  however,  they  form  the  great  bulk  of  the 
mammalian  population  of  Australia  and  Papua,  in  Celebes  and  the  adjacent 
islands  they  constitute  only  a  small  minority  of  the  fauna.  Elsewhere, 
Pouched  Mammals  are  found  only  in  America,  where  they  are  represented  by 
the  opossums  and  selvas  ;  and  here  they  are  chiefly  restricted  to  South  and 
Central  America,  constituting  the  Neogreic  realm,  only  a  single  species,  which 
is  evidently  an  immigrant  from  the  south,  inhabiting  the  northern  half  of 
the  continent.  During  the  Secondary  epoch  of  geological  history,  Marsupials 
of  extinct  generic  types  were  abundant  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  while  in 
the  succeeding  Tertiary  epoch  opossums  flourished  in  Europe  and  North 
America.  It  is  thus  evident  that  the  ancestral  Marsupials  were  driven  from 
the  northern  hemisphere  by  the  incoming  of  the  higher  forms  of  mammalian 
life  to  find  a  secure  refuge  in  southern  islands.  And  it  further  appears  that 
while  in  South  America  they  have  had  to  compete  with  numerous  types  of 
Eutherians,  in  Australasia  they  have  had  the  land  pretty  much  to  them- 
selves, and  have  there  been  enabled  to  attain  the  wonderful  development  so 
especially  characteristic  of  that  region. 

The     kangaroos    and     their    immediate     allies     form    a    large     family 

(Macropodidce)  belonging  to  the  first  of  the  two  great  subordinal  divisions 

of     the    Pouched    Mammals,    technically    known     as    the 

Kangaroo       Diprotodontia.      This   division,    which   is  mainly   confined 

Tribe.  to   the   Notogseic   realm,  is   specially  characterised  by  the 

number  of  the  front  or  incisor  teeth,  of  which  there  are 

never  more  than  three  pairs  ;  the  usual  complement  being  three  pairs  in  the 

upper  jaw  and  one  in  the  lower.     The  innermost,  which  are  in  some  cases 

the  only  pair  of  incisors  in  both  jaws,  are  always  large,  with  sharp,  cutting 


POUCHED  MAMMALS.  193 


edges,  while  generally  the  upper  canines,  if  present  at  all,  are  small,  and 
the  lower  ones  are  absent.  Among  the  cheek-teeth,  the  four  pairs  of 
molar-teeth  have  .broad,  quadrangular  crowns,  generally  surmounted  either 
by  a  pair  of  transverse  ridges  or  by  four  blunt  and  rounded  tubercles. 
Such  a  type  of  dentition  is  adapted  for  a  vegetable  diet,  which  is  charac- 
teristic of  the  diprotodonts  generally. 

From  the  allied  families  the  kangaroo  tribe  are  specially  distinguished  by 
possessing  rooted  teeth,  among  which  are  three  pairs  of  upper  and  one  of 
lower  incisors,  the  upper  incisors  being  nearly  vertical,  while  the  large  lower 
pair  project  nearly  horizontally  forwards,  and  in  some  cases  are  capable  of 
working  against  one  another  like  the  blades  of  a  pair  of  scissors.  A  small 
upper  canine  may  or  may  not  be  present.  The  five-toed  fore-limbs  are  in 
general  much  shorter  and  weaker  than  the  hinder  pair,  while  the  latter  are 
generally  four-toed,  and  have  the  digit  corresponding  to  the  fourth  of  the 
typical  series  of  five  greatly  developed  at  the  expense  of  the  other  three, 
and  forming  the  sole  axis  of  support  for  the  limb.  Of  the  smaller  toes,  the 
second  and  third,  or  those  on  the  inner  side  of  the  enlarged  digit,  are  enclosed 
in  a  common  skin,  from  which  feature  the  hind-foot  of  this  family  is  termed 
syndactylous.  The  great  relative  size  and  strength  of  the  hind- limbs  of  the 
more  typical  members  of  the  family  is  correlated  with  the  upright  position  of 
the  body,  and  the  mode  of  progression  is  by  enormous  leaps.  In  repose  the 
body  is  swung  on  a  kind  of  pivot  supported  by  the  thigh-bones,  the  feet 
resting  on  the  ground,  and  the  large  and  thick  tail  serving  to  form  the  third 
leg  of  a  tripod.  Among  the  smaller  forms  the  tail  may  be  prehensile  ;  and 
there  are  a  few  arboreal  types  in  which  the  disproportion  between  the  fore 
and  hind  limbs  is  very  much  less  strongly  marktd  than  is  the  case  with  the 
typical  kangaroos.  All  feed  entirely  on  grass  or  leaves  ;  and  the  stomach,  as 
is  so  frequently  the  case  with  vegetable  feeders,  is  of  a  somewhat  complex 
type.  In  the  females  the  opening  of  the  pouch  is  forwards,  so  that  when  it 
contains  young,  these  are  in  an  upright,  position.  The  members  of  the 
family  are  confined  to  Australia,  Tasmania,  and  New  Guinea,  with  some  of 
the  neighbouring  islands,  such  as  the  Aru  group  ;  the  true  kangaroos,  which 
generally  associate  in  large  herd,  or  "mobs,"  and  frequent  either  open 
grassy  plains  or  timbered  districts,  being  the  largest  existing  members  of  the 
order. 

The  true  kangaroos  and  wallabies,  constituting  the  genus  Macropus,  are 
the  typical  representatives  of  a  sub- family  (Macropodince)  characterised  by 
the  sub-equality  of  the  claws  of  the  fore-feet,  which  are  never  very  large, 
and  the  generally  elongated  and  pointed  ears.  In  the  dentition  the  last 
upper  pre-molar  is  placed  either  immediately  in  the  line  of  the  molars,  or  is 
at  most  but  slightly  everted  ;  and  the  molars,  which  increase  regularly  in 
size  from  the  first  to  the  fourth,  are  transversely  ridged.  As  a  rule,  the 
upper  canine  is  either  very  small  or  wanting,  and  the  central  pair  of  upper 
incisors  are  but  slightly  larger  than  the  other  two.  From  the  other  members 
of  the  sub-family  the  numerous  species  contained  in  the  genus  Macropus 
have  the  nose  naked,  the  ears  large,  and  the  fur  on  the  nape  of  the  neck 
nearly  always  directed  downwards.  The  disproportion  between  the  length 
of  the  fore  and  hind  limbs  is  very  strongly  marked  ;  and  the  large  claw  of 
the  hind-foot  is  always  larger  than  the  naked  terminal  pad  on  the  sole  of 
the  same.  The  tail  is  thick,  tapering,  and  evenly  haired  throughout ; 
and  there  are  four  teats  in  the  pouch  of  the  females.  There  are  upwards  of 
twenty-three  species  included  in  the  genus,  which  may  be  arranged  under 
14 


194 


MAMMALIA— ORDER  XI.—MARSUP1ALIA. 


the  heading  of  kangaroos  proper,  and  larger  and  lesser  wallabies.  While 
the  great  grey  kangaroo  (M.  giganteus)  has  the  stature  of  a  man,  some  of  the 
smaller  wallabies  are  no  bigger  than  a  rabbit.  The  great  majority  of  the 

species  are  confined  to  Australia  and  Tas- 
mania, but  the  agile  wallaby  (M.  agilis)  is 
common  to  Australia  and  New  Guinea, 
while  the  Aru  Island  wallaby  (M.  brnnii)  is 
restricted  to  the  Aru  and  Kei  Islands,  and 
the  sombre  wallaby  (M.  browui)  is  common 
to  New  Guinea  and  the  New  Britain  group. 
From  the  true  kangaroos  the  larger  wal- 
labies differ  by  their  more  brilliant  coloration, 
and  the  presence  of  a  longitudinal  external 
bridge  connecting  the  anterior  ledge  of  the 
molars  with  the  first  of  the  two  transverse 
ridges,  coupled  with  the  absence  of  a  median 
longitudinal  bridge  between  the  same  ledge 
and  ridge.  The  habits  of  kangaroos  and 
wallabies  have  been  so  often  described  as 
to  render  a  repetition  unnecessary. 

From  the  preceding  genus  the  six  species 
of  rock -wallabies  (Petrogale)  are  distin- 
guished by  the  shortness  of  the  large  claw 
of  the  hind-foot,  which  only  slightly  exceeds 
the  naked  pads  on  the  sole  in  length,  and 
by  the  long  cylindrical  tail  being  thinner, 
more  thickly  haired,  and  tufted  at  the  tip. 
These  wallabies  are  restricted  to  the  Australian  mainland,  and  differ  from  the 
true  wallabies  by  inhabiting  rocky  districts  instead  of  open  plains.  Their 
climbing  and  leaping  powers  are  highly  developed  ;  but  the  tail  is  employed 
solely  as  a  balancing  organ,  and  never  as  a  support  to  the  body.  The 
presence  of  a  horny  spur  or  nail  of  unknown  function  at  the  tip  of  the  long, 
tapering,  and  short-haired  tail  is  a  sufficiently  distinctive  feature  of  the  three 
nail-tailed  wallabies  constituting  the  genus  OnychogaU.  In  addition  to  this, 
these  animals  have  the  nose  hairy  (with  the  exception  in  some  cases  of  the 
base  of  the  partition  between  the  two  nostrils)  ;  while  the  large  claw  of 
the  hind-foot  is  long,  narrow,  compressed,  and  sharply  pointed.  There  is 
also  a  difference  in  the  form  of  the  upper  incisor  teeth.  Like  the  rock- 
wallabies,  the  members  of  this  genus  are  restricted  to  continental  Australia. 
The  same  is  the  case  with  the  three  species  of  hare-wallabies  (Lagorchestes),  in 
which  the  nose  is  entirely  or  partially  covered  with  hair,  the  large  claw  of  the 
hind-foot  is  long,  stout,  and  not  concealed  by  hair,  while  the  rather  short  tail 
is  evenly  haired  throughout  its  length.  In  some  respects  forming  a  con- 
necting link  between  the  genus  Macropus  and  the  under- mentioned  tree- 
kangaroos,  the  three  species  of  dorca  kangaroos  (Dorcopsis)  are  confined  to 
New  Guinea,  and  present  the  following  distinctive  features.  The  excess  in 
the  length  of  the  hind  over  the  fore-limbs  is  much  less  strongly  marked  than 
in  the  true  kangaroo  and  wallabies  ;  there  is  a  large  and  broad  portion 
of  the  nose  completely  naked  ;  the  head  is  long  and  narrow,  with  small  ears ; 
the  fur  on  the  nape  of  the  neck  is  entirely  or  partially  reversed,  so  as  to 
be  directed  forwards  towards  the  head.  In  both  jaws  the  fourth  pre-molar 
is  a  compressed  cutting  tooth,  greatly  elongated,  from  before  backwards,  and 


Fig.  10 2. -BENNETT'S  WALLABY 
(Macropus  ualabatus). 


POUCHED  MAMMALS. 


195 


having  its  surfaces  marked  by  upright  grooves,  and  a  distinct  ledge  on  the 
base  of  the  inner  side.  The  direction  of  the  two  series  of  cheek-teeth  is 
nearly  parallel.  Although  it  is  known  that  they  are  not  arboreil,  nothing 
definite  has  been  ascertained  in  regard  to  the  habits  of  these  rather  small 
kangaroos. 

More  remarkable  than  all  are  the  tree-kangaroos  (Dendrolagus\  of  which 
three  species  are  known  from  New  Guinea,  and  two  from  Queensland. 
In  general  build  these  animals  are  of  fairly 
normal  proportions,  and  quite  unlike  ordinary 
kangaroos,  the  fore-limbs  being  strong,  stout, 
and  nearly  equal  in  length  to  the  hinder  pair. 
The  naked  portion  of  the  nose  is  broad  and 
covered  with  sparse  hairs  ;  and  the  fur  on  the 
nape  of  the  neck  is  reversed,  as  is  sometimes 
also  that  of  the  back.  In  the  broad  hind-foot  the 
two  united  inner  toes  are  not  very  markedly 
smaller  than  the  other  two ;  while  the  stoub 
and  strong  claws  of  the  latter  are  nearly  as 
curved  as  those  of  the  fore  foot.  The  elon- 
gated tail  is  thickly  and  evenly  haired.  One 
of  the  species  measures  26  in.  to  the  root 
of  the  tail.  Regarding  the  habits  of  one  of 
the  Queensland  species,  Mr.  E.  R.  Waite, 
writing  in  the  "Proceedings  of  the  Linnsean 
Society  of  New  South  Wales,"  observes  that 
"the  native  name  is  mapi,  and  the  animals 
are  difficult  to  procure,  as  the  blacks  esteem 
them  as  a  delicacy,  and  only  surrender  their 
captures  when  compelled.  When  a  mapi  is 
discovered,  a  fence  5  or  6  ft.  in  height  and  several  feet  in  diameter  is 
built  of  rattan  and  bushes  round  the  tree.  Some  of  the  blacks  enter  the 
enclosure,  ascend  the  tree,  and  drive  the  animal  down.  It  usually  jumps  to 
the  ground,  often  from  a  height  of  20  ft.  Should  it  elect  to  descend 
ths  trunk,  it  does  so  tail- foremost.  On  reaching  the  ground  the  animal 
is  eventually  caught  by  the  men  surrounding  the  enclosure,  generally 
by  the  tail,  which  member  is  dragged  through  the  fence,  the  unfortunate 
mapi  being  despatched  with  blows  from  a  nulla-nulla.  The  blacks  will  not 
venture  within  the  fence  on  account  of  the  dread  in  which  they  hold  the 
powerful  claws  of  the  animal.  The  natives  who  hunted  for  Dr.  Lumholtz 
[the  discoverer  of  the  first  example  of  this  species  made  known  to  science] 
called  the  animal  bungary,  and  adopted  a  somewhat  different  method  of 
capture."  Regarding  the  second  Queensland  species  of  the  genus  (Z>. 
bennettianus),  a  correspondent  wrote  to  Mr.  Waite  as  follows  : — "The 
native  name  of  the  climbing  kangaroo  is  charibeena.  The  blacks  hunt  them 
with  dogs  and  are  very  fond  of  the  flesh.  I  had  often  heard  the  blacks 
talking  about  them,  but  though  I  have  been  here  nearly  ten  years  it  was 
only  about  three  years  ago  that  I  succeeded  in  obtaining  one.  In  the 
daytime  they  are  found  among  the  top  branches  of  the  trees  and  come  down 
in  the  evening  to  feed  upon  creepers,  ferns,  and  fruit.  I  have  found  several 
down  on  the  flat  land,  but  as  a  rule  they  seem  to  be  most  numerous  on  or 
near  the  top  of  the  hill  ridges  here,  which  are  about  1500  to  2500  ft.  high. 
When  found  in  the  daytime,  the  animals  generally  sleep  with  the  heads 


Fig.  103.  -TREE  KANGAROO 
(Dendrolagus). 


196  MAMMALIA— ORDER  XI.—MARSUPIALIA. 


hanging  on  the  breasts  between  the  fore-limbs,  and  the  tail  is  used  as  a 
balancing  pole.  At  first  I  could  not  induce  the  blacks  to  catch  any  of  the 
charibeenas,  as  they  said  that  a  full-grown  one  would  show  fight,  but  when 
I  went  with  them  and  caught  the  first  one  myself  with  a  lasso  they  saw  how 
easy  it  was,  and  have  since  always  caught  them  in  this  manner,  except  when 
o'ut  of  reach  ;  in  this  case  they  make  the  animal  jump;  as  soon  as  it  reaches 
the  ground  one  boy  holds  its  head  down  with  a  forked  stick  while  another 
passes  a  bag  over  its  hind-quarters  and  slips  it  over  its  head.  The  best  time 
to  hunt  them  is  early  in  the  morning  while  the  scent  is  fresh.  A  dingo,  or 
mongrel — the  former  preferred — is  used,  and  follows  the  scent  to  the  foot  of 
the  tree  which  the  kangaroo  has  climbed  to  camp  for  the  day.  If  the 
tree  be  a  low  one,  it  is  tolerably  easy  to  find  the  animal,  but  it  often 
happens  that  they  go  from  one  tree  to  another  before  they  find  a  suitable 
'camp,'  and  then  it  becomes  necessary  for  a  native  to  ascend  a  high  tree  in 
the  vicinity  so  as  to  be  able  to  look  down  on  the  surrounding  trees,  as  the 
kangaroo  sits  right  out  in  the  sun  and  is  more  easily  seen  from  above  than 
from  below.  If  one  approaches  quietly,  it  is  quite  easy  to  catch  the  animal 
by  the  tail  and  slip  it  into  a  bag  while  up  the  tree  ;  but  the  least  noise  rouses 
them,  and  it  is  surprising  how  quickly  they  can  travel,  jumping  sometimes 
20  to  30  ft.  from  one  tree  to  another,  and  I  have  seen  one  jump 
fully  60  ft,  from  a  high  tree  to  the  ground  and  not  hurt  itself  at  all. 
When  jumping  it  seems  always  to  land  on  its  fore-feet,  and  though  I  have 
repeatedly  shaken  them  down  from  great  heights,  I  have  never  seen  one 
injured,  as  they  always,  like  a  cat,  fall  on  their  feet.  The  tail  is  never  used 
to  hang  by,  only  to  balance  with,  though  I  have  often  seen  one  bend  its  tail 
over  a  branch  while  it  reached  down  below  the  branch  upon  which  it  was 
sitting  to  secure  some  berries.  These  kangaroos  can  stiffen  the  tail  so  that  it 
stands  straight  out  like  a  rod.  When  caught  and  kept  in  captivity  they  soon 
become  quiet  and  take  readily  to  eating  bread,  sweet  potatoes,  apples, 
oranges,  mangoes,  and  the  rinds  of  sweet  potatoes  and  yams  ;  also  the  leaves 
of  several  of  the  eucalypti,  white  cedar,  and  many  other  trees,  the  names  of 
which  I  do  not  know.  In  the  scrub  they  seem  to  have  a  partiality  for  the 
bird's-nest  fern,  the  moustera,  and  a  small  climber  like  the  pepper-plant,  and 
eat  almost  any  of  the  wild  fruits  which  are  so  plentiful  here.  The  males  are 
very  pugnacious,  and  if  two  of  them  be  put  into  an  enclosure  together  will 
often  fight  until  one  is  killed.  They  spar  with  the  fore-paws  in  quite  a 
scientific  manner,  uttering  grunts  all  the  time,  till  one  sees  an  opportunity  of 
closing  with  the  other,  when  -he  makes  straight  for  the  back  of  the  neck,  and 
if  he  succeeds  in  getting  a  grip  with  his  teeth,  he  shakes  the  other  like  a  dog 
does  a  rat.  Some  of  the  old  males  have  quite  a  harem,  and  keep  their  wives 
from  straying  apart,  and  do  not  let  any  other  males  go  near  them.  I  have 
found  several  of  these  families  numbering  from  three  to  five  females  and  one 
male.  The  young  males,  and  also  the  very  old  ones,  are  generally  found  by 
themselves,  or  two  or  three  of  them  together  without  any  females.  I  think 
they  breed  twice  a  year,  and  have  only  one  young  one  at  birth.  The 
kangaroos  are  most  plentiful  among  rocky  hills,  where  the  scrub  is  thick  and 
stunted,  and  though  they  feed  both  on  the  ground  and  in  the  trees  and 
among  rocks,  I  fancy  that  they  feed  mostly  in  the  two  latter  places."  With 
the  single  species  of  banded-wallaby  (Lagostrophus  fasciatus)  from  Western 
Australia,  we  again  come  to  a  genus  in  which  the  general  build  is  the  same 
as  in  Macropus;  the  nose  being  naked,  the  hind-feet  covered  with  long 
bristly  hairs  by  which  the  claws  are  completely  hidden,  and  the  back  marked 


POUCHED  MAMMALS.  197 


by  dark  cross-bands.  The  banded-wallaby  is  a  comparatively  small  species, 
measuring  only  about  18  in.  to  the  root  of  the  tail. 

Still  smaller  are  the  rat-kangaroos,  of  Australia  and  Tasmania,  of  which 
there  are  several  distinct  generic  types,  collectively  constituting  the  sub- 
family Potoroince.  Of  this  group  the  distinctive  characteristics  are  as 
follows : — In  size  all  the  forms  are  small,  and  may  be  compared  to  hares  or 
rabbits,  the  ears  being  usually  small  and  rounded.  In  the  fore-feet  the 
claws  are  greatly  elongated,  those  of  the  three  middle  toes  being  dispro- 
portionately larger  than  those  of  the  other  two  ;  as  in  the  MacropodincR, 
there  are  only  four  toes  to  the  hind-foot ;  and  the  long  tail  is  hairy.  In  the 
dentition  the  upper  canines  are  invariably  present  and  generally  well- 
developed  ;  the  central  pair  of  upper  incisors  have  taller  crowns  than  either 
of  the  other  two  ;  the  fourth  pre-molar,  which  is  a  compressed  and  trenchant 
tooth  of  great  antero-posterior  length,  may  either  be  set  in  the  same  line  as 
the  molars,  or  somewhat  bent  outwards  in  front  ;  and  the  molars,  which 
decrease  in  size  from  the  first  to  the  fourth,  have  tuberculated  crowns.  The 
three  species  of  typical  rat-kangaroos  forming  the  genus  Potorous  vary 
somewhat  in  size,  and  have  the  nose  naked,  the  ears  very  short  and  rounded, 
the  front  claws  long  and  somewhat  slender,  the  hind-limbs  nob  very  much 
larger  than  the  front  ones,  the  hind-feet  very  short,  with  naked  and  coarsely- 
granulated  soles,  and  the  tapering  hairy  tail  devoid  of  a  crest.  In  the 
dentition  the  fourth  pre-molar  has  from  two  to  four  vertical  grooves.  These 
rat-kangaroos,  which  generally  inhabit  scrub-jungle,  have  their  leaping 
powers  much  less  strongly  developed  than  in  the  allied  genera.  In  running, 
both  fore  and  hind  limbs  are  brought  into  action.  Nearly  allied  in  external 
character  is  the  South  Australian  plain  rat- kangaroo  (Caloprymnus  campestris), 
which  is  an  animal  of  comparatively  large  size,  with  the  nose  and  ears  as  in 
the  typical  genus,  the  front  claws  long  and  strong,  the  hind-feet  relatively 
long,  with  coarsely-granular  soles,  and  the  tail  thin,  cylindrical,  and  covered 
evenly  with  short  hair.  While  the  last  pre-molar  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
preceding  genus,  the  skull  is  generally  like  that  of  the  next.  The  four  species 
of  prehensile-tailed  rat-kangaroos  (Bettongia)  are  sufficiently  distinguished 
by  the  feature  from  which  they  take  their  popular  name.  The  hair  on 
the  tail  is  long,  and  forms  a  more  or  less  distinct  crest ;  the  last  pre-molar 
is  much  elongated,  with  from  seven  to  fifteen  distinctly-marked,  oblique 
grooves  on  the  sides  ;  and  the  squared  molars,  of  which  the  fourth  is  much 
the  smallest,  carry  four  tubercles.  These  little  animals  are  completely 
terrestrial  and  nocturnal,  using  their  prehensile  tails  solely  for  the  purpose 
of  carrying  bundles  of  grass  and  twigs  to  their  nest ;  such  bundles  being  held 
by  the  tail  being  bent  down  over  and  round  them.  Three  of  the  species  are 
Australian,  and  the  fourth  Tasmanian.  The  last  member  of  the  sub-family 
is  the  rufous  rat-kangaroo  (dEpyprymnus  rufescens)  of  New  South  Wales,  in 
which  the  nose  is  partially  hairy,  the  ears  are  somewhat  elongated,  the  hind- 
feet  long,  with  narrow,  granulated  soles,  and  the  tail  evenly-haired.  The 
long  and  narrow  last  pre-molar  has  from  seven  to  eight  vertical  grooves,  but 
no  inner  ledge  ;  and  the  molars  are  oblong,  with  the  tubercles  less  distinct 
and  tending  more  to  form  ridges  than  in  the  other  genera,  while  the  decrease 
in  size  from  the  first  to  the  last  is  less  marked.  Like  the  other  members  of 
the  group,  this  animal  is  nocturnal,  but  it  is  remarkable  for  its  speed  and 
the  great  length  of  its  leaps  when  disturbed. 

Of  especial  interest  is  the  tiny  musk-kangaroo  (Hypsiprymnodon  moschatus) 
of  Northern  Queensland,  since  it  forms  a  connecting  link  between  the 


198  MAMMALIA— ORDER  XI.—MARSUriALIA. 


kangaroo  tribe  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  phalangers  on  the  other.  Indeed, 
it  is  chiefly  owing  to  the  presence  of  a  pocket  like  pit  on  the  outer  side  of 
the  hinder  part  of  the  bone  of  the  lower  jaw  that  it  is  referred  to  the 
present  rather  than  to  the  following  family.  It  is  regarded  as  representing 
a  distinct  sub-family  (Hypsiprymnodontince)  of  the  Macropodidce,  characterised 
by  the  small,  weak,  and  nearly  equal-sized  claws,  the  presence  of  five  toes  in 
the  hind  foot  (the  first  of  which  can  be  opposed  to  the  rest),  the  naked  and 
scaly  tail,  and  the  oblique  position  of  the  short  last  pre-molar  tooth.  In  size 
this  creature  is  very  small,  with  a  rat- like  bodily  form,  a  completely  bare  nose, 
large,  thin,  and  naked  ears,  the  hind  and  fore  limbs  of  nearly  equal  length, 
and  adapted  for  walking,  the  first  toe  of  the  hind-foot  elongated  and  without 
a  claw,  the  fourth  toe  of  the  same  not  abnormally  large,  and  the  tail  cylin- 
drical and  tapering,  with  some  hair  at  the  root.  The  musk-kangaroo  is  a 
partially  arboreal  animal,  which  is  mainly  diurnal,  and  frequents  scrubs  on 
the  banks  of  rivers  and  in  the  coast-range.  Either  one  or  two  young  are 
produced  at  a  birth  ;  and  the  characteristic  musky  odour  is  more  pronounced 
in  the  female  than  in  her  partner. 

Owing  to  the  intermediate  characters  presented  by  the  musk-kangaroo, 
the  differentiation  of  the  phalanger  tribe  (Phalangeridce)  from  the  Macropodidce 

is  by  no  means  so   easy  as  would  be   the  case  were  that 

Phalanger       creature   non-existent.      There  are,  however,    two  leading 

Tribe.  features  which  may  be  regarded  as  absolutely  distinctive  of 

the  former  group.  In  the  first  place,  each  branch  of  the 
lower  jaw-bone  lacks  the  deep  pocket-like  pit  on  the  outer  side  of  its  hinder 
extremity  so  characteristic  of  the  kangaroo  tribe  ;  and,  secondly,  the 
aperture  of  the  pouch  of  the  female  is  directed  backwards  instead  of  forwards. 
Among  other  more  or  less  distinctive  features,  the  following  may  be 
enumerated  : — Five  toes  are  present  in  both  the  hind  and  fore  feet,  those  of 
the  latter  being  usually  of  nearly  equal  size  ;  while  in  those  of  the  former  the 
second  and  third  are  syndactylous,  the  fourth  is  the  largest,  the  fifth  but 
little  smaller,  and  the  first  large,  opposable  to  the  rest,  and  terminating  in  a 
broad,  clawless  pad.  With  the  exception  of  the  koala,  the  tail  is  long  and 
generally  prehensile  ;  and  the  stomach  is  simple.  The  dentition  is  extremely 
variable,  owing  to  the  frequent  presence  of  a  number  of  small  functionless 
teeth  in  the  front  portion  of  the  jaws.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that,  as  a 
general  rule,  there  are  three  pairs  of  upper,  and  one  of  functional  lower 
incisors,  and  that  the  latter  never  have  the  scissor-like  action  characteristic 
of  the  kangaroos.  The  last  of  the  two  or  three  pre-molars  usually  present  is 
generally  furnished  with  a  rather  sharp-cutting  edge,  and  is  placed  obliquely 
to  the  line  of  t.he  molars,  with  its  front  edge  everted  ;  and  the  molars,  of 
which  there  are  usually  four  pairs,  have  either  blunt  tubercles,  or  sharp- 
cutting  crests.  The  family  includes  not  only  the  animals  properly  known  as 
cuscuses  and  phalangers  (the  mis-called  opossums  of  the  Australian  colonists), 
but  likewise  the  flying-phalangers,  the  koala  or  native  bear,  and  the  long- 
snouted  pouched  mouse.  The  geographical  range  of  this  extensive  family 
includes  not  only  Australia,  Tasmania,  and  Papua,  but  likewise  Celebes,  and 
some  of  the  other  Austro-Malayan  islands.  The  koala  and  long-snouted 
pouched  mouse  are,  however,  exclusively  Australian.  All  are  essentially 
arboreal  and  nocturnal  in  their  mode  of  life,  most  using  their  prehensile  tails 
to  assist  in  climbing,  while  a  few  are  enabled  to  take  (like  the  flying  squirrels) 
long  flying  leaps  by  the  aid  of  parachute-like  expansions  of  skin  from  the 
sides  of  the  body.  The  great  majority  of  the  phalanger  tribe  are  vegetable 


rOUC HE D  MAMMALS. 


199 


feeders,  subsisting  mainly  on  fruits  and  leaves  ;  but  a  few  consume  insects, 
which  form  either  the  whole  or  a  portion  of  their  diet,  and  some  are 
carnivorous. 

The  peculiar  animal  known  as  the  koala  (Phascolarctus  cinereus),  which 
presents  some  external  resemblance  to  a  small  bear,  is  the  sole  representative 
of  a  sub- family  (PhascolarctinoR)  characterised 
by  the  following  distinctive  features: — The  tail 
is  absent,  the  muzzle  fhort  and  broad,  the 
tongue  non-extensile,  the  cheeks  furnished 
with  pouches  for  the  storage  of  food,  the 
intestine  provided  with  a  ccecum,  or  blind 
appendage,  the  teeth  relatively  large,  and  only 
a  single  pair  of  pre-molars  in  the  upper  jaw. 
In  size  the  koala  is  a  rather  large  animal, 
measuring  about  32  in.  in  length.  Its  build  is 
stout  and  clumsy,  and  the  thick  woolly  fur  is 
generally  greyish  above  and  whitish  below.  The 
large  ears  are  thickly  haired  and  ragged  at  the 
edges  ;  the  front  toes  are  sub-equal  in  length, 
the  fourth  being  the  longest  and  the  first  the 
shortest,  while  both  the  first  and  second  can  be 
opposed  to  the  other  two.  The  strong  claws 
are  thick  and  sharp,  and  in  both  the  fore  and 
hind  limbs  the  soles  of  the  feet  are  simply 
granulated,  and  have  no  striated  pads.  The 
female  has  a  single  pair  of  teats.  In  the 
skeleton  there  are  eleven  pairs  of  ribs,  and  the 
upper  molar  teeth  have  short,  broad,  and  squared  crowns,  bearing  curved 
longitudinal  crests,  of  which  the  convexity  is  directed  outwards.  The 
koala,  which  is  confined  to  Eastern  Australia,  is  a  dull,  sluggish  creature, 
addicted  to  crawling  on  the  stems  and  branches  of  gum-trees  in  a  deliberate 
lazy  manner,  and  feeding  mainly  on  leaves  and  flowers.  During  the  day- 
time it  generally  lies  asleep  in  the  hollow  of  some  forest  giant,  but  at  night 
prowls  among  the  topmost  branches  in  search  of  food,  the  females  carrying 
their  offspring  securely  perched  on  their  backs,  where  the  woolly  fur  affords 
them  a  secure  foothold.  Only  a  single  young  one  is  produced  at  a  birth, 
and  the  adults  seem  to  be  more  or  less  completely  solitary  animals. 

The  second  sub-family  (Phalangerince),  which  includes  all  the  other 
members  of  the  family  save  one,  may  be  defined  as  follows: — The  tail, 
which  is  always  well-developed,  is  generally  prehensile,  the  muzzle  is  short 
and  broad,  the  tongue  is  incapable  of  extension,  there  are  no  cheek-pouches, 
the  intestine  has  a  csecum,  the  stomach  is  simple,  and  the  teeth  are  compara- 
tively large.  The  first  and  typical  genus  (Phalanger)  is  represented  by  the  cus- 
cuses,  of  which  there  are  five  species,  ranging  from  Celebes  and  the  Moluccas 
to  Australia  and  New  Guinea.  They  are  rather  large,  or  medium-sized, 
somewhat  cat-like  animals,  of  stout  build,  with  thick  and  woolly  fur,  which 
may  be  either  coarse  and  wiry,  or  fine  and  silky,  and  moderate-sized  or  small 
ears.  In  the  fore-feet  the  toes  are  nearly  equal  in  length,  their  relative 
lengths  being  in  the  order  4,  3,  5,  2,  1.  The  long  claws  of  all  the  feet  are 
stout  and  curved,  and  the  naked  soles  are  striated,  with  large  and  ill-defined 
cushion-like  pads.  The  prehensile  tail  is  stout  and  strong,  with  its  ter- 
minal portion  naked,  and  either  smooth  or  granulated.  Two  pairs  of 


Fig.  104.— KOALA  (Phascolarctus 
cinereus). 


200 


MAMMALIA— ORDER  XL  —MARSUriALIA. 


teats  are  borne  by  the  female.  Cuscuses  are  slow  and  sleepy  animals, 
completely  arboreal  and  mainly  herbivorous  in  their  habits,  passing  the 
day  curled  up  asleep  among  the  densest  foliage  of  forest  trees,  and  only  be- 
coming active  as  the  shades  of  evening 
approach.  A  great  amount  of  varia- 
tion obtains  in  the  coloration  of  the 
different  sexes  and  individuals  of  the 
same  species,  while  there  is  frequently 
some  difference  in  the  teeth.  \\  hereas 
in  the  black  cuscus  of  Celebes  (P. 
ursinus)  both  sexes  are  of  a  uniformly 
dark  blackish  brown  colour  ;  in  the 
widely  distributed  spotted  cuscus  (P. 
maculatus)  the  sexes  are  generally 
different,  and  the  coloration  takes  the 
Fig.  105. -SPOTTED  Ccscus  (Phalanger  form  of  various  combinations  of  white, 

maculatua).  rufous,  and  black,  the  females  being 

generally   grey  and   black,   while  the 

smaller  males  are  usually  spotted,  although  occasionally  they  resemble  an 
ordinary  grey  female,  save  for  a  few  indistinct  whitish  spots  on  the  flanks  and 
back.  Nearly  allied  to  the  cuscuses  are  the  true  phalangers  (Trichosurus) — 
the  opossums  of  the  colonists — of  which  the  two  species  are  restricted  to  the 
Australian  mainland  and  Tasmania.  These  also  are  large,  stoutly-built  cat- 
like animals,  with  thick,  woolly  fur,  and  short  or  medium  ears.  The  front 
toes  may  be -distinguished  from  those  of  the  cuscuses  in  that  relative  lengths 
follow  the  order  4,  3,  2,  5,  1 ;  the  claws  being  large  and  strong,  and  the  soles 
of  the  hind-feet  densely  haired  beneath  the  heel,  but  elsewhere  naked,  and 
furnished  with  low,  rounded,  ill-defined  pads.  In  the  powerful  pre- 
hensile tail  the  terminal  third  or  half  ia  bare  infcriorly,  and  the 
extreme  tip  devoid  of  hair  all  round.  A  peculiar  gland  is  situated 
in  the  centre  of  the  chest.  Among  the  teeth,  the  molars  have  four 
cusps,  tending  to  unite  into  a  pair  of  transverse  ridges  ;  and  the  last 
pre-molar,  which  closely  approximates  to  the  corresponding  tooth  of 
Hypsiprymnodon,  is  large,  placed  obliquely,  and  marked  by  vertical  groov- 
ings.  The  common  phalanger  (T.  vulpinus)  takes  up  its  habitation  in  the 
branches  of  the  tallest  red  and  blue 
gum-trees  of  the  Australian  and  Tas- 
manian  forests,  passing  the  day  in 
slumber,  and  wandering  forth  at  night 
to  brouse  on  their  leaves,  bulbs,  and 
seeds.  In  climbing,  they  are  much 
aided  by  their  highly  prehensile  tails  ; 
and  on  the  rare  occasions  when  they 
descend  to  the  ground,  it  is  probably 
for  the  purpose  of  drinking.  In  the 
breeding  season,  and  less  commonly  at 
other  times,  phalangers  utter  a  loud 
cry  ;  and,  as  a  rule,  but  one  offspring 
is  produced  at  a  birth,  although  there 
may  occasionally  be  a  pair.  More  numerous,  and  at  the  same  time  more 
widely  distributed  than  the  preceding,  are  the  ring-tailed-phalangers 
(Pseudochirus),  of  which  there  are  eleven  specific  representatives,  whose 


Fig.  106.— COMMON  PHALANGER  (Trichosurus 
vul^inus). 


POUCHED  MAMMALS.  201 


geographical  range  includes  New  Guinea,  as  well  as  Australia  and  Tasmania. 
While  some  are  as  large  as  the  true  phalangers,  others  are  considerably 
smaller  ;  but  all  possess  short  and  rather  woolly  fur,  and  stout  and  medium 
sized  ears,  which  are  well  haired  on  the  hind  aspect.  The  relative  lengths  of  the 
toes  of  the  fore-foot  hold  the  same  order  as  in  the  cuscuses  ;  but  the  first  and 
second  toes  resemble  those  of  the  koala  in  being  markedly  opposable  to  the 
other  three.  In  both  feet  the  claws  are  of  moderate  length,  and  the  bare 
soles  are  provided  with  large  striated  pads.  The  long  and  tapering  tail  has 
the  lower  surface  of  the  extremity  devoid  of  hair  for  a  variable  distance, 
and  is  highly  prehensile.  Four  teats  are  present  in  the  female.  The  upper 
molars  are  large  and  oblong,  with  the  tubercles  modified  into  sharp  cusps, 
from  which  proceed  crescentic  ridges  ;  the  corresponding  lower  teeth  having 
a  nearly  similar  structure.  In  habits  the  common  ring-tailed-phalanger 
differs  from  the  true  phalangers  in  that  it  prefers  the  so-called  tea-scrub  to 
the  gum-trees  ;  and  also  in  that  it  generally  associates  in  small  colonies. 
These  animals  construct  small  nests,  not  unlike  the  drey  of  a  squirrel ;  and 
whereas  usually  but  a  single  young  one  is  produced  at  a  birth,  occasionally  as 
many  as  three  may  be  found  in  the  pouch.  Nearly  allied  in  the  structure  of 
its  skull  and  teeth  to  the  preceding  genus  is  the  taguan  flying-phalanger 
(Petauroides  volans\  which  is  the  first  of  three  genera  provided  with  a  para- 
chute for  the  purpose  of  taking  flying  leaps  from  tree  to  tree.  This  species 
is  of  comparatively  large  size,  measuring  about  17  in.  to  the  root  of  the  tail, 
while  the  latter  is  about  20  in.  in  length.  The  fur  of  the  body  is  remarkable 
for  its  long,  soft,  and  silky  character  ;  the  unusually  large  ears  are  oval  in 
form,  and  bare  internally,  but  hairy  on  the  outside  ;  and  the  skin  of  the 
flanks  is  expanded  to  form  a  parachute.  The  long  claws  are  much  curved 
and  sharply  pointed  ;  and  the  tail  is  long,  cylindrical,  and  evenly  covered 
with  bushy  hair,  its  extreme  tip  being  prehensile  and  destitute  of  hair  on 
the  lower  surface.  The  habits  of  this  and  the  other  flying-phalangers  are 
very  similar  to  those  of  the  flying-squirrels  ;  and  in  Australia  these  animals 
are  commonly  known  by  the  latter  name.  The  present  species  is  confined  to 
Eastern  Australia. 

Two  species  of  rather  small  phalangers,  ranging  from  Northern  Australia  to 
New  Guinea  and  the  Aru  Islands,  constitute  a  genus  (Dactylopsila)  distinguished 
by  the  great  elongation  of  the  fourth  digit  of  the  front  paws,  and  the  conspicuous 
black  and  white  longitudinal  striping  of  the  fur  of  the  body.  In  these  striped- 
phalangers,  which  are  devoid  of  a  parachute,  the  oval  ears  have  nearly  naked 
tips.  In  the  front  paws  the  length  of  the  digits  follows  the  order  4,  3,  5,  2,  1, 
the  inequality  in  their  lengths,  as  in  the  hind-feet — where  the  fourth  and  fifth 
a-re  much  elongated — being  very  marked.  A  prominent  soft  pad  is  situated 
on  the  wrist ;  and  the  claws  are  long.  The  long  and  cylindrical  tail  is  evenly 
bushy  throughout,  except  the  under  surface  of  the  tip,  which  is  bare.  The 
oblong  molars  bear  four  simple  tubercles.  Some  degree  of  doubt  exists  as 
to  the  reason  for  the  elongation  of  the  fourth  digit  of  the  fore-paws.  The 
suggestion  has,  indeed,  been  made  that  the  elongation  is  for  the  purpose  of 
extracting  insects  and  grubs  from  beneath  the  bark  and  from  crevices  in 
trees,  and  consequently  that  these  phalangers  are  largely,  if  not  exclusively 
insectivorous  ;  but  other  writers  consider  that  they  subsist  on  leaves.  From 
the  striped-phalangers  the  little  Leadbeater's-phalanger  (Gymnobelideus  lead- 
beateri)  of  Victoria,  which  measures  only  5£  in.  to  the  root  of  the  long  tail, 
differs  by  the  normal  proportions  of  the  toes  ;  the  length  of  those  of  the 
fore-feet  following  the  order  4,  3,  5,  2,  1.  The  claws  are  rather  short ;  the 


2O2 


MAMMALIA— ORDER  AY.  —MARSUPIALIA. 


Fig.  107.—  FliYINO-PHALANQBR 

(Petaurus  breoiceps). 


large  ears  entirely  naked  and  untufted  ;  and  the  tail,  which  exceeds  the 
head  and  body  in  length  by  about  an  inch,  is  cylindrical  and  bushy.  With 
the  exception  of  the  last,  which  is  triangular,  the  upper  molars  are  square, 
with  rounded  corners,  and  carry  four  tubercles. 
Several  peculiarities  cnaracte-rise  the  skull. 
From  their  similarity  in  cranial  and  dental 
characters  to  the  last,  it  is  believed  that 
the  three  species  of  flying  -  phalangers  form- 
ing the  genus  Petaurus  have  been  evolved 
either  from  an  ancestral  form  of  G ymnolelideus, 
or  some  nearly  allied  type.  Ihese  animals, 
which  are  of  small  or  medium  size,  have  a 
soft  and  silky  fur,  rather  large,  oval,  and  almost 
naked  ears,  and  a  broad  parachute-like  expansion 
of  the  skin  of  the  flanks.  In  the  fore-foot  the 
toes  gradually  increase  in  length  from  the  first, 
the  fifth  attaining  the  maximum  elongation  in 
the  largest  species,  and  the  fourth  in  the  two 
smaller  ones.  The  claws,  which  are  longer  than 
in  the  preceding  genus,  are  strong,  sharp,  and 
highly  curved ;  and  the  long  tail  is  evenly 
bushy  throughout.  Both  the  chest  and  the 
crown  of  the  head  bear  a  gland.  The  range  of  the  genus  includes  New- 
Guinea  and  part  of  Australia,  extending  from  Victoria  to  the  islands  of  the 
Halmahera  group.  All  the  three  species  are  inhabitants  of  Australia  ;  a 
variety  of  one  (P.  breviceps)  being  peculiar  to  New  Guinea,  New  Britain,  the 
Halmahera  group,  and  certain  other  islands.  Writing  cf  one  of  the  species, 
Bennett  observes  that  "  it  retires  either  between  the  forked  branches  or  in 
the  hollow  cavities  of  the  trees  during  the  day  to  sleep,  and  at  night  passes 
from  one  to  another  by  flying  leaps,  aided  by  its  parachute-like  membrane, 
descending  to  the  ground  only  from  unavoidable  necessity,  such  as  when  the 
trees  are  so  far  apart  as  to  render  it  impossible  to  traverse  the  space  by 
leaping. " 

With  the  pretty  little  dormouse-phalangers  (Dromicia),  of  which  there  are 
four  species,  ranging  over  New  Guinea,  Western  Australia,  and  Australia,  we 
revert  to  a  genus  unprovided  with  a  parachute.  In  addition  to  this  feature 
and  their  small  dimensions,  the  dormouse-phalangers  are  characterised  by 
their  large,  thin,  and  almost  naked  ears  ;  the  normal  proportions  of  the  toes, 
which  in  the  fore-limb  follow  the  order  3,  4,  2,  5,  1,  as  regards  relative 
length  ;  and  the  short  and  rudimental  fore-claws.  The  cylindrical  tail  is 
well  furred  only  near  the  root,  being  elsewhere  scaly  and  sparsely  covered 
with  short  hairs,  except  at  the  extremity,  where  it  is  roughened  and  completely 
naked  beneath,  and  endowed  with  the  power  of  prehension.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  last,  which  may  be  wanting,  the  molars  have  regularly  rounded 
crowns,  carrying  four  tubercles  each.  These  little  animals,  one  of  which  is 
rather  smaller  than  the  British  dormouse,  are  purely  nocturnal  creatures, 
living  on  fruits,  honey,  and  insects,  and  hiding  during  the  daytime  in  the 
hollows,  or  beneath  the  dead  strips  of  bark  which  han-g  down  from  the  stems 
of  gum-trees.  One  species  undergoes  a  partial  hibernation  during  the  colder 
months  of  the  year.  A  curious  resemblance  is  presented  by  the  pretty  little 
pen-tailed-phalanger  of  New  Guinea  (Distcechurus  pennatus)  to  the  pen-tailed 
tree-shrew  (Ptilocercus)  among  the  lasectivora  described  on  page  44,  in  that 


POUCHED  MAMMALS.  203 

both  have  the  long  hairs  of  the  elongated  tail  arranged  in  two  opposite 
lateral  rows  like  the  vanes  of  a  feather.  Whereas,  however,  in  the  shrew 
these  vanes  occupy  only  the  terminal  portion  of  the  tail,  in  the  phalanger 
they  extend  uninterruptedly  throughout  its  length.  In  addition  to  this  very 
important  feature  and  the  absence  of  a  parachute,  the  pen-tniled-phalanger  is 
characterised  by  its  rather  short  and  thinly-haired  ears,  which  have  several 
tufts  near  the  base,  the  normal  length  of  the  toes,  and  the  sharp  and  curved 
claws.  The  molars,  of  which  there  are  invariably  but  three  pairs,  are  small 
and  rounded,  with  smooth,  unridged  cusps,  and  the  last  pre-molar  is  very 
small  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  wanting  in  the  lower.  Only  a  single  pair  of  teats 
is  present  in  the  female.  The  third  genus  in  which  a  parachute  is  developed 
is  Acrobates,  comprising  the  two  species  of  pigmy-flying-phalangers,  one  of 
which  is  Australian  and  the  other  Papuan.  And  since  these  beautiful  little 
animals,  although  considerably  smaller,  resemble  the  pen-tailed-phalanger, 
not  only  in  the  structure  of  their  skulls  and  teeth,  but  likewise  in  their 
vaned  tails,  it  is  pretty  evident  that  they  are  derived  from  the  same  ancestral 
stock.  The  pigmy-phalangers  have  moderate-sized  ears,  a  narrow  para- 
chute-like expansion  of  skin  along  the  flanks,  and  the  toes — which  are  of 
normal  proportions — terminating  in  a  broad  striated  pad.  In  the  fore-foot 
the  length  of  the  digits  follows  the  general  order  of  4,  3,  5,  2,  1,  and  the 
claws,  although  not  very  prominent,  are  sharp  and  well  developed. 
Additional  differences  from  Distcechurus  are  to  be  found  in  the  larger  size  of 
the  upper  pre-molar,  and  the  presence  of  the  corresponding  tooth  in  the 
lower  jaw,  and  likewise  in  the  existence  of  two  pairs  of  teats  in  the  pouch 
of  the  female.  The  Australian  species,  which  measures  3  in.  to  the  root  of 
the  tail,  is  a  far  less  brilliantly-coloured  animal  than  its  Papuan  ally.  It  is 
commonly  known  as  the  flying-mouse,  and  was  formerly  abundant  about 
Port- Jackson,  but  nothing  very  definite  has  been  ascertained  in  regard  to  its 
mode  of  life. 

The  last  sub-family  (Tarsipedinoe)  of  the  tribe  under  consideration  is  repre- 
sented only  by  the  elegant  little  long-snouted  -phalanger  (Tarsipes  rostratiis)  of 
Western  Australia.  The  sub-family  is  characterised  by  the  elongation  of  the 
tail,  the  long  and  slender  muzzle,  the  extensile  tongue,  the  absence  of  a  caecum, 
or  blind  appendage  to  the  intestine,  and  the  minute  size  and  rudimental 
character  of  the  cheek-teeth.  As  a  genus,  the  animal,  which  measures  about 
3  in.  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  may  be  characterised  as  follows  : — The  size  is 
small  and  the  form  light  and  graceful  ;  while  the  long  and  narrow  head  is 
furnished  with  ears  of  moderate  size,  which  are  but  thinly  covered  with  hair  ; 
and  the  soles  of  the  feet  are  naked  and  granulated.  With  the  exception  of 
those  of  the  united  second  and  third  toes  of  the  hind-foot,  the  claws  are 
rudimental  ;  and  the  tail,  which  exceeds  the  head  and  body  in  length  by 
about  an  inch,  is  thinly  haired  and  prehensile.  Four  teats  are  present  in  the 
pouch  of  the  female.  Although  the  upper  canine  and  the  lower  incisor  teeth 
are  fairly  well  developed,  there  are  at  most  but  three  pairs  of  molars,  and  the 

E  re-molars  are  reduced  to  a  single  pair  in  the  upper  jaw.     A  remarkable 
mature  is  the  absence  of  any  inflection  of  the  angle  of  the  very  slender 
lower  jaw.     The  long-snouted-phalanger  appears  to  be  an  exceedingly  rare 
animal,  inhabiting  flowering  shrubs,  from  the  blossoms  of  which  it  extracts 
honey  by  the  insertion  of  its  highly  extensile  tongue. 

The  three  species  of  wombat,  all  of  which  are  confined  to  Tasmania 
and  Australia  south  of  the  tropics,  and  are  included  in  the  single  genus 
Phascolomysy  are  the  sole  representatives  of  the  third  and  last  family  of 


204  MAMMALIA— ORDER  XI.—MARSUPIALIA. 


Australian  diprotodont  marsupials  (Phascolomyidce).     They  are  clumsily-built 
animals,  differing  from  all  the  members  of  the  group  hitherto   mentioned 

by  their  burrowing  habits ;    and  they  may  be  regarded  as 
Wombats.       occupying  among  the  Australian  fauna  the  position  held  in 

other  regions  by  the  burrowing  rodents.  Curiously  enough, 
they  also  approximate  to  the  latter  order  in  the  nature  of  their  dentition, 
the  incisors  being  reduced  to  a  single  cutting  pair  in  each  jaw,  behind  which 
comes  a  long  gap,  without  any  canines,  till  the  cheek-teeth  are  reached. 
Stout  and  clumsy  in  form,  the  wombats  have  a  short  and  broad  muzzle  ; 
thick,  short,  and  strong  limbs  of  nearly  equal  length  in  front  and  behind  ; 
the  fore-feet  with  five  nearly  sub-equal  and  powerfully-clawed  toes  ;  the  first 
hind-toe  short  and  clawless,  the  remaining  toes  of  the  same  foot  having  strong 
and  curved  claws,  and  the  second  and  third  imperfectly  united  by  a  common 
skin  ;  and  the  tail  rudimental.  Internally,  the  stomach  is  simple,  and  the 
intestine  is  furnished  with  a  caecum.  The  teeth  are  rootless  throughout  life ; 
the  large,  curved,  and  chisel-like  incisors  having  enamel  only  on  the  front 
and  sides  ;  and  the  five  pairs  of  cheek-teeth  are  strongly  curved,  the  molars 
consisting  of  two  lobes,  but  the  pre- molars  with  only  one.  As  regards  their 
habits,  it  will  suffice  to  say  that  wombats  are  harmless,  inoffensive  animals, 
burrowing  deeply  in  the  ground,  and  subsisting  on  the  roots  which  they  thus 
disinter.  They  are  entirely  nocturnal,  never  issuing  from  their  holes  till 
evening,  and  returning  to  them  with  the  first  rays  of  morning. 

A  distinct  family  (Epanorthidce)  is  now  represented  solely  by  two  small  rat- 
like  South  American  animals,  which,  from  the  estate  where  the  second 

example  was  obtained,  may  be  known  as  the  selvas.     One  was 
Selvas.          originally  described  and  referred  to  the  present  order  under 

the  name  of  Hyracodon  fidiginosus,  in  the  year  1863,  upon 
the  evidence  of  a  specimen  obtained  in  Ecuador  ;  but  the  description  was 
so  insufficient  that  naturalists  had  no  clue  to  its  affinities.  In  the  autumn 
of  1895  a  second  example  was  obtained  from  Colombia,  which  showed  that  it 
indicated  a  type  of  marsupial  hitherto  known  only  from  fossil  forms  occurring 
in  the  Tertiary  rocks  of  Patagonia,  which  have  been  described  under  the 
names  of  Epanorthus,  Abderites,  etc.  As  the  name  Hyracodon  had  been 
previously  employed  for  an  extinct  genus  of  mammals,  the  selvas  were  at 
the  same  time  re-christened  Ccenolcstes. 

The  selvas  have  an  elongated  skull  somewhat  like  that  of  the  Australian- 
bandicoots,  with  four  pairs  of  upper  incisor  teeth  and  a  large  pair  of  canines, 
and  thus  resemble  the  Polyprotodont  type.  In  the  lower  jaw  there  is, 
however,  a  single  pair  of  horizontally- projecting  lower  incisors,  not  unlike 
those  of  the  kangaroo,  behind  which  are  several  pairs  of  small  functionless 
teeth  representing  the  other  incisors,  canine,  and  earlier  pre-molars.  In 
both  jaws  the  four  pairs  of  molars  are  oblong  teeth,  with  four  blunt  cusps, 
and  thus  totally  unlike  the  corresponding  teeth  of  the  opossums  and  other 
members  of  the  Polyprotodont  sub-order.  The  feet  are  of  normal  type,  with 
five  toes  each,  of  which  the  first  appears  to  be  opposable  in  a  limited  degree 
to  the  others  ;  and  the  rat-like  tail  is  partially  prehensile  towards  the 
extremity.  Externally,  the  selvas  look  very  like  small,  blackish  rats,  with 
a  sharp  nose. 

In  all  probability,  these  animals  and  their  extinct  allies  are  descendants  from 
a  group  of  Polyprotodont  Marsupials  whose  remains  are  found  in  the  Tertiary 
deposits  of  Patagonia,  and  whose  ancestors  reached  South  America  by  means 
of  a  land  connection — perhaps  by  way  of  the  Antarctic  continent — with 


POUCHED  MAMMALS.  205 


Australia.  Unlike  the  opossums,  which  are  comparatively  recent  immigrants 
from  the  North,  the  selvas,  like  the  edentates,  belong  to  the  original  primitive 
fauna  of  South  America,  which  was  first  developed  when  that  country  was 
completely  cut  off  from  North  America  by  a  sea  occupying  the  site  of  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama  and  Mexico. 

The  bandicoots  (Peramelidce)  are  the  first  representatives  of  the  secotid 
great  subordinal  division  of  the  pouched  mammals,  technically  known  as  the 
Polyprotodontia.     This  name  is  assigned  from  the  circum- 
stance that  these  animals  differ  from  the  preceding  group       Bandicoot 
by  the  larger  number  of  incisor  teeth,  of  which  there  are  Tribe, 

never  less  than  three  pairs  in  each  jaw,  while  more  generally 
there  are  four  or  five  pairs  of  these  teeth  in  the  upper,  and  three  or  four  in  the 
lower  jaw.  These  incisors  are  always  relatively  small  and  of  subequal  size, 
and  they  are  flanked  by  large,  tusk-like  canines,  close  behind  which  are  the 
anterior  cheek-teeth.  Nearly  always  the  cusps  of  the  molars  are  numerous 
and  sharp  ;  and  the  whole  dentition  is  of  a  markedly  carnivorous  type.  In 
all  their  characters,  the  Polyprotodonts  are  a  less  specialised  group  than  the 
Diprotodonts ;  and  they  have  at  the  present  day  a  wide  geographical 
distribution,  being  represented  not  only  in  the  Notogseic  realm,  but  likewise 
in  South  America,  and,  more  sparingly,  in  North  America.  They  were  also 
living  in  various  parts  of  the  world  during  the  Tertiary  and  Secondary  epochs. 
In  Australasia,  and  to  a  certain  extent  in  South  America,  the  members  of  the 
present  group — all  of  which  are  either  flesh  or  insect  eaters — take  the  place 
of  the  Carnivora  and  Insectivora  of  other  parts  of  the  world. 

From  the  other  three  families  included  in  the  sub-order  the  bandicoots  are 
broadly  distinguished  by  the  circumstance  that  the  second  and  third  toes  of 
the  hind-foot  are  reduced  in  size,  and  enclosed  in  a  common  skin  in  the  same 
manner  as  among  the  Diprotodonts.  In  addition  to  this  very  striking  and 
characteristic  feature,  the  members  of  the  present  family  have  the  hind-limbs 
markedly  longer  than  the  front  pair ;  in  the  fore-limbs  the  three  middle 
toes,  or  occasionally  only  two,  are  long  and  furnished  with  claws,  the  others 
being  rudimental  or  wanting  ;  and  the  hind-foot  has  either  four  or  five  toes 
of  very  unequal  lengths,  the  first  toe  being  rudimental  or  absent,  the  second 
and  third  small  and  united,  and  the  fourth,  the  stoutest.  As  in  the 
phalangers,  the  opening  of  the  pouch  of  the  female  is  directed  backwards. 
Internally,  there  is  a  caecum  to  the  intestine ;  and  in  the  skeleton  collar- 
bones are  lacking.  In  the  upper  jaw  there  may  be  either  four  or  five  pairs 
of  incisor  teeth,  whereas  in  the  lower  jaw  there  are  invariably  three.  The 
tail,  which  is  always  relatively  long,  is  never  prehensile.  Bandicoots  are 
restricted  to  Australia,  Tasmania,  New  Guinea,  and  certain  of  the  adjacent 
islands,  such  as  the  Aru,  Kei,  and  Duke  of  York  group.  In  habits  they  are 
mainly  fossorial  and  insectivorous,  although  a  few  are  more  or  less  completely 
omnivorous.  Among  the  more  aberrant  forms  are  the  rabbit-bandicoots 
(Peragale\  of  which  there  appear  to  be  two  species,  both  restricted  to  the 
A  ustralian  mainland.  Their  most  distinctive  feature,  and  the  one  from  which 
they  derive  their  name,  is  the  great  length  of  the  ears.  In  form  these  animals 
are  light  and  delicate,  with  a  long  and  narrow  muzzle.  The  three  middle 
toes  of  the  fore-foot  are  long  and  furnished  with  stout,  curved  claws,  and  in 
the  hind-foot  all  trace  of  the  first  toe  is  wanting  externally.  The  hind-limbs 
greatly  exceed  the  front  ones  in  length  ;  the  soles  of  the  hind-feet  are  hairy  ; 
and  there  is  a  distinct  crest  of  hair  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  terminal  half 
of  the  tail.  The  upper  jaw  carries  five  pairs  of  incisor  teeth;  and  the 


206  MAMMALIA— ORDER  XI.—MARSUP1ALIA. 


molars  have  a  quadrangular  or  rounded  section.  In  size  and  habits,  these 
bandicoots,  which  are  omnivorous,  may  be  compared  to  a  rabbit,  which 
they  resemble  in  their  habit  of  constructing  burrows  in  places  where  the  soil 
is  suitable.  The  true  bandicoots  (Perameles),  of  which 
there  are  about  a  dozen  different  species,  are  com- 
paratively small  animals,  ranging  over  Australia, 
Tasmania,  Papua,  and  some  of  the  neighbouring 
islands.  While  some  are  heavy  and  ungainly,  and 
others  light  and  elegant  in  bodily  form,  all  have  long 
and  pig-like  snouts,  but  the  length  of  the  ears  is 
variable.  The  three  middle  toes  t>f  the  fore-foot  are 
nearly  equal  in  length,  and  furnished  with  strong, 
curved  claws ;  while  in  the  hind-foot  there  is  a 
clawless  first  toe,  the  second  and  third  digits  having 
flat  twisted  nails,  the  fourth  exceeding  all  the  rest  in 
length,  and  carrying  a  stout  pointed  claw,  and  the  fifth 
being  similar  but  smaller.  The  tapering  tail  may  be 
either  clothed  with  short  hair  or  almost  bare  ;  and 
there  are  three  pairs  of  teats  in  the  pouch  of  the 
Fig.  108.— A  BANDICOOT  female.  In  the  dentition  there  are  usually  five  pairs 
(Perameles).  of  upper  incisors  ;  and  the  upper  molars,  which  may  be 

either  squared  or  triangular  in  form,  carry  sharp  cusps. 

They  are  exclusively  terrestrial  and  nocturnal  in  their  habits ;  and  apparently 
feed  chiefly  on  earth-worms,  although  they  also  consume  insects,  grubs,  bulbs, 
roots,  and  fallen  berries  and  fruit.  Bandicoots  make  sleeping-nests  of  dried 
grass,  leaves,  and  sticks  ;  and,  in  spite  of  ridding  them  of  worms  and  insects, 
do  much  harm  to  gardens  and  corn-fields.  The  third  and  last  genus  of  the 
family  is  represented  only  by  the  pig  footed  bandicoot  (Chceropus  castanotis) 
of  Australia,  which,  although  allied  to  Gunn's  bandicoot  (Perameles  gnnni), 
is  clearly  distinguished  by  "the  very  peculiar  structure  of  the  feet.  In  the 
fore- foot,  the  first  and  fifth  toes  are  absent,  the  fourth  is  rudimental,  while  the 
second  and  third  are  alone  fully  developed  and  furnished  with  long,  slender 
claws.  Considerably  different  is  the  structure  of  the  hind-foot,  in  which  the 
first  toe  is  wanting,  and  the  fifth  rudimental,  the  fourth  being  very  large. 
Of  a  grizzled  grey  colour,  and  measuring  about  ten  inches  to  the  root  of  the 
tail,  the  pig-footed  bandicoot  is  an  animal  of  light  and  slender  build,  with  a 
short  and  narrow  muzzle,  long  and  slender  ears,  and  a  short,  cylindrical  tail, 
slightly  crested  on  its  upper  surface.  There  are  five  pairs  of  upper  incisors  ; 
and  the  pouch  of  the  females  contains  eight  teats.  In  its  habits  this  animal 
closely  resembles  the  other  members  of  the  family,  burrowing  holes  in  the 
ground,  and  being  omnivorous  in  diet,  although  feeding  chiefly  upon  insects. 
In  spite  of  the  number  of  its  teats,  the  female  only  produces  two  young  ones 
at  a  birth. 

The  second  of  the  four  families  of  the  Polyprotodonts  is  characterised  by 

having  a  simpler  type  of  foot-structure  than  obtains  in  the  PeramelidcK,  the 

second  and  third  digits  of   the  hind-foot  being  completely 

Dasyure  Tribe,   separate.     Hence,  it  is  probable  that  the  Dasyuridce  (as  the 

present  family  is  termed)  constitute  the  original  stock  from 

which  the  Peramelidce  have   branched   off.       In   addition   to   this   primary 

feature  in  the  structure  of  the  limbs,  it  may  be  noticed  that  there  are  five 

toes  to  the  fore-foot,  and  that  in  the  hind-foot  the  first  toe  is  either  small  or 

wanting,  while  the  other  four  are  pretty  equally  developed.     The  long  and 


POUCHED  MAMMALS. 


207 


Fig.  109— T  ASM  ANI  AN- WOLF 
(Thylacinus  cynocefhalus). 


hairy  tail  is  never  prehensile  ;  and  the  pouch,  "when  developed,  opens 
forwards  and  downwards.  Internally,  the  stomach  is  simple,  and  the 
intestine  devoid  of  a  blind  appendage.  There  are  four  pairs  of  incisor  teeth 
in  the  upper  jaw,  and  three  in  the  lower  ;  the  entire  dentition  being  of  an 
essentially  carnivorous  type,  the 
upper  molars  having  more  or  less 
distinctly  triangular  crowns  bear- 
ing a  number  of  sharp  cusps. 
Indeed,  although  a  few  of  the 
smaller  kinds  are  more  or  less  com- 
pletely insectivorous,  the  present 
family  includes  all  the  truly  flesh- 
eating  Australian  Marsupials,  as 
it  does  the  largest  members  of  the 
entire  sub-order.  Geographically, 
the  range  of  the  group  embraces 
Australia,  Tasmania,  and  New 
Guinea,  together  with  many  of 
the  adjacent  islands,  exclusive  of 
the  Austro-Malayan  group. 

Its  large  size,  generally  wolf-like  form,  and  striped  body  are  sufficient 
to  distinguish  at  a  glance  the  thylacine  or  Tasmanian-wolf  (Thylacinus 
cynocephalus)  from  all  its  kindred.  This  animal,  which  measures  about 
44  in.  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  has  a  large  wolf-like  head,  with  moderate-sized 
ears,  a  long  and  slender  muzzle,  and  the  elongated  jaws  armed  with  very 
powerful  teeth.  The  long  tail  is  covered  with  close,  short  hair.  All  the 
feet  are  markedly  digitigrade,  the  five  toes  of  the  front  pair  being  armed 
with  short,  thick,  conical  claws,  while  the  hind-feet  have  but  four 
toes  each.  The  back  is  marked  with  transverse  black  bands  on  a 
tawny  ground.  Only  four  teats  are  present  in  the  pouch  of  the 
female,  and  the  marsupial  bones  are  rudimental.  The  full  marsupial 
number  of  three  pairs  of  pre-molar  teeth  are  present.  Although  this 
ferocious  animal  appears  to  be  now  restricted  to  Tasmania,  the  genus  was 

represented  at  a  comparatively  recent 
epoch  on  the  Australian  mainland. 
It  is  a  nocturnal  creature,  inhabiting 
caves  and  hollows  among  rocky  fast- 
nesses ;  and,  if  seen  abroad  by  day- 
light, is  dull  and  sluggish.  It  never 
hunts  in  pack,  and  its  sole  cry  appears 
to  be  a  dull  guttural  growl.  At  the 
present  day  sheep  are  the  chief  prey 
of  the  thylacine,  as  these  are  both 
more  numerous  and  easier  to  capture 
than  the  diprotodont  marsupials  upon 
which  it  formerly  lived.  Four  is  the 
number  of  young  produced  in  a  litter. 
Although  but  little  more  than  half  its 
size,  the  Tasmanian  devil  (Sarcophilus 
ursinus)  is  an  even  more  sanguinary  and  destructive  creature,  killing  sheep 
and  fowls,  apparently  for  the  mere  pleasure  of  slaughter,  long  after  its 
appetite  is  satiated.  In  form  this  animal  is  very  stout  and  powerful,  having 


Fig.  110.— TASMANIAN-DKVIL 
(Sarcophilus  ursinus). 


208  MAMMALIA— ORDER  XL—MARSUPIALIA. 


a  short  and  broad  muzzle,  wide  and  rounded  ears,  an  evenly-haired  tail  of 
medium  length,  and  plantigrade  feet,  in  the  front  pair  of  which  the  toes  are 
armed  with  strong,  curved  claws  ;  while  in  the  hind  pair  the  first  digit  is 
absent,  and  the  naked  soles  lack  well-defined  pads.  In  colour  the  body  is 
blackish,  flecked  with  white.  As  regards  the  dentition,  this  differs  from 
that  of  the  thylacine  in  that  there  are  only  two  pairs  of  pre  molars  in  each 
jaw  ;  while  the  upper  molars,  with  the  exception  of  the  fourth  pair,  are 
strong,  triangular,  and  much  shorter  and  wider.  The  distribution  of  the 
Tasmanian  devil,  both  now  and  in  the  past,  is  precisely  similar  to  that  of  its 
cousin  the  thylacine. 

Under  the  common  title  of  native  cats  are  included,  in  Australia,  a  number 
of  considerably  smaller  predaceous  marsupials,  usually  showing  a  slender, 

weasel-like  form  of  body,  although  a 
few  are  more  stoutly  built.  These 
constitute  the  genus  Dasyurus  of  zoolo- 
gists, of  which  the  leading  character- 
istics are  as  follows : — The  ears  are 
elongated  and  narrow  ;  the  bare  nose 
is  marked  by  a  deep,  vertical  groove 
running  down  to  the  upper  lip  ;  the 
long  tail  is  uniformly  and  thickly 
haired  throughout  its  length  ;  the  feet 
are  plantigrade,  with  sharp,  curved 
Fig.  Ill  — SPOTTED-DASTURB  claws,  the  first  toe  in  the  hinder  pair 

(Dasyurus  viverrinus).  being  either  rudimental  or  absent,  and 

the  partially  or  wholly  naked  soles  of 

the  hind-feet  are  granulated.  In  all  cases  the  body  is  marked  with  spots. 
The  pouch,  which  opens  vertically  downwards,  contains  either  six  or  eight  teats. 
The  teeth  are  numerically  the  same  as  in  Sarcophilus,  but  much  less  strongly 
developed.  Dasyures  are  found  alike  in  Australia,  Tasmania,  New  Guinea, 
and  some  of  the  neighbouring  islands.  They  differ  from  the  two  preceding 
genera,  in  that  the  majority  are  more  or  less  completely  arboreal  in  their 
habits  ;  and  they  feed  not  only  on  flesh,  but  likewise  on  insects,  being 
especially  destructive  to  birds  and  their  eggs.  The  largest  among  the  six 
species  is  the  spotted-tailed  dasyure  (D.  maculatus),  from  east  and  south-east 
Australia,  and  Tasmania,  which  may  be  compared  roughly  in  size  to  a  cat, 
and  differs  from  the  rest  by  having  the  tail,  as  well  as  the  body,  spotted.  It 
is  further  characterised  by  having  well-defined,  transversely  striated  pads 
on  the  soles  of  the  feet,  from  which  it  may  be  inferred  that  its  habits  are 
largely  arboreal.  The  pouched-mice  (Pkascologah),  of  which  no  less  than 
thirteen  species  are  recognised,  are  smaller  animals,  differing  from  the 
dasyures  in  the  absence  of  spots  on  the  fur,  and  the  practical  want  of  the 
pouch  in  the  female.  In  all,  the  form  is  slender  and  graceful  ;  the  ears 
are  rounded ;  the  tail  is  long,  but  may  be  either  bushy,  crested,  or 
nearly  bare,  and  the  broad  and  short  feet  terminate  in  sub-equal 
toes  furnished  with  sharp,  curved  claws.  In  the  hind-foot  the  first  toe 
is,  however,  short  and  clawless,  and  the  soles  of  the  feet  are  naked 
and  smooth,  with  five  transversely  striated  pads,  the  first  toe  frequently 
having  its  pad  divided.  Except  in  one  species,  where  the  first  lower  pair 
are  wanting,  there  are  three  pairs  of  pre-molars  in  each  jaw.  The  pouched- 
mice,  which  range  over  Australia,  Tasmania,  New  Guinea,  the  Aru  Islands, 
etc.,  are  thoroughly  arboreal  animals,  feeding  exclusively  on  insects,  and 


POUCHED  MAMMALS.  209 

thus  taking  the  place  of  the  tree-shrews  of  the  Oriental  region.  Whereas 
the  largest  is  not  bigger  than  an  ordinary  rat,  the  others  are  considerably 
smaller.  In  all  the  Australian  species  the  fur  of  the  back  is  uniformly 
coloured,  and  the  same  is  the  case  with  a  few  of  the  forms  inhabiting  Papua, 
although  the  majority  from  that  area  are  longitudinally  striped.  Four 
nearly  allied  animals,  which  may  be  known  as  the  narrow-footed  pouched- 
mice,  and  constitute  the  genus  Sminthopns^  are  easily  distinguished 
from  the  foregoing  by  the  narrow  feet  which  are  either  partially  haired 
or  naked,  with  the  bare  portion  granulated,  and  with  or  without  pads,  the 
latter,  when  present,  being  either  smooth  or  but  faintly  striated.  These 
pouched-mice  are  restricted  to  Australia  and  Tasmania,  and  differ  from 
the  members  of  the  preceding  genus  in  being  strictly  terrestrial,  so  that  in 
this  respect  they  are  comparable  to  ordinary  shrews.  More  markedly 
distinct  is  the  long-legsred  pouched-mouse  (Antezhinomys  laniger),  from  the 
interior  of  New  South  Wales  and  southern  Queensland,  which  is  a  mouse- 
like, leaping  animal  specially  characterised  by  the  great  elongation  of  the 
hind-limbs  and  the  loss  of  the  first  toe  in  the  hind-foot.  The  fur  is 
uniformly  coloured,  the  tail  is  long  and  tufted,  and  the  ears  are  of  large 
size.  These  little  creatures,  which  subsist  exclusively  on  insects,  inhabit 
open  sandy  districts.  As  the  members  of  the  two  preceding  genera 
respectively  represent  the  tree-shrews  and  ordinary  shrews,  so  the  present 
form  may  be  likened  to  the  African  jumping-shrews. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  all  the  pouched  mammals  is  the  banded 
ant-eater  (Myrmecobius  fasciatus)  of  south  and  west  Australia,  which  presents 
a  curious  approximation  in  the  number 
and  structure  of  its  teeth  to  some  of  the 
extinct  Secondary  marsupials  of  Europe. 
By  many  writers  it  is  regarded  as  the 
representative  of  a  distinct  family  by 
itself,  and  it  certainly  constitutes  a  sub- 
family (Myrmecobiince)  of  the  Dasyuridce, 
which  may  be  distinguished  from  the 
whole  of  the  foregoing  genera  (Dasy- 
urince)  by  the  following  features  : — In 

place  of  being  of  normal  proportions,  the  _BANDED  ANT.EATER 

tongue  is  long,  cylindrical,  and  extensile ;  ,  (Myrmecobius  fasciatus). 

the  nose  is  naked  and  grooved  below ; 
the  pointed  lower  lip  projects  in  advance  of  the  teeth;  and  there  is  a  gland 
on  the  chest  opening  on  the  exterior  by  means  of  several  apertures.  The 
cheek-teeth  are  small  and  delicate,  the  molars  forming  more  than  four  pairs, 
and  being  separated  from  one  another  by  intervals,  while  those  of  the  lower 
jaw  have  their  inner  cusps  larger  than  the  outer  ones.  In  general  appear- 
ance the  banded  ant-eater  is  a  graceful  squirrel-like  animal,  with  the  hinder 
part  of  the  back  marked  by  a  series  of  narrow  white  stripes  on  a  bright 
lufous  ground.  The  ears  are  rather  long  and  narrow,  and  the  tail  is  elon- 
gated and  bushy.  All  external  trace  of  the  first  toe  of  the  hind-foot  is 
wanting,  and  all  the  functional  toes  are  armed  with  claws  adapted  for  digging; 
the  soles  of  the  fore-feet  being  partially  naked,  while  those  of  the  hinder 
pair  are  completely  so,  their  pads  being  small  and  granulated.  The  pouch  is 
obsolete,  and  the  number  of  teats  appears  to  be  four.  The  cheek-teeth 
usually  comprise  three  pairs  of  pre-molars  and  five  of  molars  in  each  jaw, 
but  occasionally  there  is  a  sixth  pair  of  lower  molara.  As  a  rare  abnormality, 
15 


210  MAMMALIA— ORDER  XI.—MARSUPIALIA. 


four  pairs  of  lower  incisors  may  be  developed.  The  banded  ant-eater  feeds 
mainly  on  ants,  which  are  licked  up  by  the  tongue,  but  it  will  also  consume 
insects  of  other  kinds.  It  proceeds  in  a  series  of  hops,  with  the  tail  uplifted ; 
and  when  pursued,  or  for  sleeping,  retires  to  a  hollow  log  or  tree.  It  is 
stated  to  produce  from  seven  to  nine  young  at  a  birth,  although  it  is 
difficult  to  reconcile  this  with  the  alleged  presence  of  only  four  teats.  After 
birth,  the  young  are  protected  solely  by  the  long  hair  on  the  abdomen  of 
the  mother. 

A  separate   family  (Notoryctidce)  of  polyprotodont   marsupials   is   repre- 
sented solely  by  the  curious  marsupial  mole  (Notoryctes  typhlops),  from  the 
sandy   deserts   of    central   South   Australia.       Among    the 
Marsupial       essential  characteristics  of  the  family  the  following  are  the 
Mole.  most   important  :— There   are  only   three   pairs  of    incisor 

teeth  in  each  jaw,  and  there  are  neither  ear-conchs  or  eyes 
visible  externally.  The  limbs,  which  are  sub-equal  in  length,  are  stout,  strong, 
and  each  furnished  with  five  toes  ;  the  hind-foot  having  a  clawed  first  toe, 
not  opposable  to  the  other  digits  which  are  of  unequal  size.  Collar-bones 

are  present  ;  and  the  under  surface  of  the 
skeleton  of  the  tail  carries  the  so-called 
chevron- bones  so  commonly  present  in 
reptiles.  The  upper  molar  teeth  have 
triangular  crowns  bearing  three  cusps  only. 
Externally,  the  marsupial  mole  is  a  some- 
what peculiar-looking  animal,  of  a  pale 
golden -red  colour,  and  measuring  about 

J^~  fjjj&jj&££$j\  .    5    in.    to    the    root    of    the    stumpy    tail. 

s"~fc— — jVrZ          /       ^   har(^    horny    shield,   divided    into    two 
Fig.  113  —MARSUPIAL  HOLE  parts  by  a  transverse  ridge,  serves  to  protect 

(Notoryctes  typhlops).  the  upper  surface  of  the  blunt  muzzle  ;  and 

the    apertures    of    the    ears    are   well-nigh 

hidden  by  the  fur.  In  both  feet  the  four  inner  toes  are  clawed,  but  the 
fifth  carries  a  short,  broad  nail ;  the  claws  of  the  third  and  fourth  front  toes 
are  very  large  and  powerful,  while  those  of  the  corresponding  hind  toes 
curve  outwards  and  backwards,  the  toes  of  these  feet  decreasing  in  size  from 
the  second  to  the  fifth.  In  both  pairs  of  limbs  the  soles  of  the  feet  are 
naked  and  covered  with  a  tough  leathery  skin.  The  short,  stumpy  tail 
is  also  hard  and  leathery,  decreasing  rapidly  in  diameter  from  the  base,  and 
terminating  in  a  blunt,  knob-like  extremity.  The  pouch  opens  backwards, 
and  contains  only  two  teats.  The  creature  spends  most  of  its  time 
burrowing  in  the  sand  of  the  Australian  deserts  in  search  of  its  insect-food, 
occasionally  making  its  appearance  on  the  surface.  Its  enormously-powerful 
front  claws  enable  it  to  bury  itself  in  the  sand  with  extraordinary  rapidity. 

The  last  family  of  the  marsupials  is  an  American  one,  and  is  represented 

solely  by  the  opossums  (Didelphyidce).     In  spite  of  the  remoteness  of  their 

habitat,    these    animals     are     very    closely    allied    to    the 

Opossums.       Dasyuridce,  from  which  they  may  be  distinguished  by  having 

four  (instead  of  three)  pairs  of  lower  incisors,  and  by  the  first 

hind  toe  being  opposable  to  the  other  digits.      There  is  no  claw  to  the  first 

hind  toe  ;  and  the  number  of  pairs  of  upper  incisor  teeth  is  five,  or  the  same 

as  in  the  Dasyuridce.     As  a  rule,  the  tail  is  long,  scaly,  naked,  and  prehensile, 

although  rarely   it   may   be   short,   and   more   or  less   covered   with   hair. 

Internally,  the  stomach  is  simple,  and  the  intestine  has  a  blind  appendage. 


PO  UCHED  MAMMALS.  2 1 1 


In  most  species  the  pouch  is  wanting,  although  it  may  be  represented  by  two 
lateral  folds  of  skin,  while  more  rarely  it  is  complete.  There  are  three  pairs  of 
pre- molar  teeth  in  each  jaw.  The  females  have  from  five  to  twenty-five  teats. 
Opossums,  which  vary  in  size  from  that  of  a  cat  to  that  of  a  mouse,  include 
more  than  a  score  of  species,  all  but  two  of  which  are  restricted  to  the 
Neogseic  realm,  whence  the  northern  forms  are  probably  comparatively 
recent  wanderers.  With  the  exception  of  the  water-opossum,  the  members 
of  the  family  are  mainly  arboreal  animals,  although  some  of  the  smaller  kinds 
are  more  or  less  terrestrial.  Arboreal  species  have,  however,  extended 
their  range  to  the  open  Argentine  pampas.  Whereas  the  larger  kinds 
are  very  destructive  to  poultry,  the  smaller  species  subsist  exclusively  on 
insects.  In  those  opossums  in  which  the  female  has  no  pouch,  the  young 
are  borne  on  the  back  of  their  parent,  generally  curling  their  own  tails  round 
that  of  the  latter,  which  is  purposely  bent  forwards  over  the  back  and  head. 
Nearly  all  the  species  may  be  included 
in  the  typical  genus  Didelphys,  which 
may,  however,  be  split  up  into  several 
sub-generic  groups.  The  first  of  these 
is  represented  solely  by  the  common 
opossum  (D.  marsupialis),  with  its 
numerous  varieties,  which  is  four 
to  five  times  the  dimensions  of  any 
other  kind,  and  may  be  compared, 
in  this  respect,  to  a  cat.  Its  range 
extends*  from  the  United  States  to 
Chili,  South  Brazil,  Uruguay,  and 
Argentina,  and  it  is  the  only  species 
entering  North  America  above  Mexico. 
As  the  representative  of  a  sub-genus,  p;g.  114  -COMMON  OPOSSUM 

it  may  be  characterised  as  follows  : —  (Dideiphys  marsupial-is). 

The  very  long  tail  is  naked,  scaly,  and 

highly  prehensile  ;  elongated  bristle-like  hairs  are  mingled  with  the  fur ;  and 
the  fifth  hind  toe  is  much  shorter  than  the  fourth,  which  is  of  nearly  the 
same  length  as  the  first  and  second.  The  female  has  a  well-developed  pouch 
for  the  reception  of  the  young,  which  at  birth  are  extremely  minute.  They 
develop,  however,  very  rapidly,  and  soon  become  as  large  as  mice,  when 
they  leave  the  pouch,  although  returning  for  the  purpose  of  sucking,  or  in 
order  to  escape  from  impending  danger.  Of  the  habits  of  this  species  Mr. 
C.  Lincecum,  in  the  American  Naturalist  for  1872,  writes  as  follows  : — 
"They  dwell  in  hollow  logs,  stumps,  and  in  holes  at  the  roots  of  the  trees. 
They  do  not  burrow  or  prepare  dens  for  themselves,  but  find  such  as  are 
ready-made.  I  have  seen  them  carrying  into  their  holes,  at  the  approach  tf 
cold  weather,  considerable  bundles  of  dry  leaves  rolled  up  in  their  tail ;  they 
understand  the  signs  of  the  coming  spells  of  bad  weather,  and  they  prepare 
for  it  by  making  for  themselves  good  comfortable  beds.  They  do  not 
hibernate,  but  are  found  out  hunting  in  frosty  weather.  They  possess  but 
little  caution.  Hence  they  are  often  found  in  the  poultry-houses,  chicken- 
coops,  smoke-houses,  and  even  in  our  dining-rooms,  rustling  about  for 
something  to  eat.  I  have  often  seen  their  tracks  in  the  roads  and 
piths  where  they  had  travelled  three  or  four  miles  to  a  farmyard,  to 
which  they  had  no  doubt  been  attracted  by  the  crowing  of  the  roosters. 
They  will  catch  a  grown  hen  and  carry  her  off  squalling  at  the  top 


212  MAMMALIA— ORDER  Xl.—MARSUriALIA. 


of  her  voice,  and  will  not  abandon  her  till  the  dogs,  which  have  been 
aroused  by  the  uproar,  have  overtaken  them  and  commenced  cracking  their 
bones.  They  will  eat  bacon,  dry  beef,  can  ion,  any  kind  of  fowl,  rabbits,  any 
sort  of  small  game,  almost  all  the  insects,  and  fruits  of  every  variety.  They 
voraciously  devour  the  musk-melon,  and  several  species  of  mushrooms ; 
in  short,  they  are  nearly  omnivorous.  The  only  case  in  which  the  opossum 
manifests  any  respectable  degree  of  cautiousness  is  when  it  is  hunted  at 
night  in  the  forest ;  on  hearing  the  din  and  noise  of  the  hunters  it  with 
some  difficulty  makes  shift  to  climb  a  small  tree  or  sapling,  where,  wrapping 
the  naked,  rasp-like  tail  round  some  convenient  limb,  it  quietly  awaits  the 
approaching  dogs  and  hunters.  By  many  people  the  flesh  is  considered 
delicious.  Its  flavour  resembles  that  of  the  flesh  of  a  young  hog,  but  is 
sweeter,  less  gross,  and  is,  no  doubt,  a  more  healthy  food  for  man.  A  dog 
will  starve  sooner  than  eat  the  flesh  of  an  opossum  ;  negroes  and  many  other 
persons  are  exceedingly  fond  of  it.  During  their  breeding  season,  the  males 
are  very  ram  pant  ^nd  belligerent.  Numbers  will  collect  round  a  female  and 
fight  like  dogs.  Twenty  or  thirty  years  ago  I  witnessed  a  fight  myself  in 
the  forests  of  Mississippi.  The  female  was  present ;  there  were  three  males ; 
two  of  them  were  fighting,  while  the  third  one  was  sitting  a  little  distance 
off,  looking  as  though  he  felt  he  had  seen  enough.  They  were  fighting 
hard,  and  had  been,  from  the  signs  in  the  wallo wed-down  grass,  for  three 
or  four  days,  kicking  over  the  female,  who  immediately  went  into  a  spasm 
when  I  examined  the  pouch.  Opossums  are  exceedingly  tenacious  of  life.  I 
have  many  times  seen  the  dogs  catch  them  and  chew  and  crack,  seemingly, 
all  the  bones  in  their  skin,  leaving  them  to  all  appearance  entirely  lifeless  ; 
and,  going  out  the  next  morning  for  the  purpose  of  removing  the  dead 
thing,  would  find  that  it  had  left  its  death-bed,  and  putting  the  dogs  on  its 
track,  trail  him  a  mile  or  more  before  overtaking  him.  He  would,  to  be 
sure,  be  found  in  a  bad  fix,  but  at  the  same  time  he  lacked  two  or  three 
more  bone-crackings  of  being  dead.  They  cannot,  like  the  raccoon,  be  so  far 
domesticated  as  to  form  any  attachment  for  persons  or  their  houses,  though 
I  have  two  or  three  times  found  them  under  the  floors  of  dwelling-houses, 
where  they  had  been  for  some  time,  and  had  evidently  taken  up  winter- 
quarters,  but  they  did  not  remain  there  long."  Of  the  South  American 
variety  known  as  Azara's  opossum,  Mr.  Aplin,  in  the  "  Proceedings  of  the 
Zoological  Society  for  1894,"  observes  that  in  Uruguay,  "where  it  is  known 
by  the  name  of  Comadreja,  this  opossum  lives  in  a  nearly  treeless  country, 
the  river  monte  in  South  Soriano  being  the  only  natural  wood  (composed  of 
low  thorny  trees  and  big  willows),  and  the  Comadreja  preferring  to  live  on 
the  higher  camp,  where  it  lies  up  in  clefts  and  holes  among  the  granite 
boulder-rocks  ;  among  these  a  few  low  thorny  bushes  are  found  ia  some 
cases.  I  have  never  seen  a  Comadreja  in  the  monte  or  up  any  native  tree, 
but  have  no  doubt  they  often  climbed  the  trees  at  the  estancias,  which  they 
are  all  well  able  to  do.  Yet  this  animal  has  a  very  prehensile  till,  nakud 
and  scaly.  Having  hauled  one  out  of  a  cleft  by  the  tail,  I  found  that  it 
twined  the  latter  tightly  round  my  fingers,  the  muscular  power  being 
considerable.  They  run  up  the  boulder-rocks  with  great  agility.  At  bay, 
whether  in  rocky  holt  or  old  ants'-nest,  laid  up  in  a  soft  bed  of  dead  grass, 
or  drawn  and  facing  a  dog  with  arched  back  and  grinning  teeth,  they  make  a 
snarling,  grunting  growl  and  a  hiss.  It  is  necessary  to  kill  those  taking  up 
their  quarters  near  houses,  but  they  are  often  very  difficult  to  kill.  I  have 
hammered  one  with  a  stick  and  thrown  its  heavy  body  against  a  rock  time 


POUCHED  MAMMALS.  213 


after  time,  and  then,  after  carrying  it  by  the  tail  for  some  distance, 
discovered  that  it  was  still  alive.  Much  of  the  difficulty  arises  from  their 
habit  of  shamming.  Once  I  smoked  out  a  female  and  two  one-third  grown 
young  ones.  A  young  one  came  first  and  was  apparently  laid  out  with  a 
blow  from  my  stick  ;  I  had  to  run  round  the  rock  after  the  next,  and  when 
I  came  back  (in  less  than  half  a  minute)  the  first  had  come  to  life  again  and 
departed.  An  old  buck,  worried  by  a  dog  and  finished  off  with  a  shot  in  the 
head  from  a  collecting-gun  and  left  for  dead,  was  found  an  hour  or  so  after 
partly  recovered.  A  fema^  was  brought  in  with  ten  young,  naked,  pink, 
and  blind  ;  head  and  body  2  in.,  tail  1£  in.  long.  Inside  the  mother's  pouch 
were  nine  teats  only.'' 

As  a  representative  of  the  second  sub-genus  (Metachirus)  may  be  mentioned 
the  quica-opossum  (D.  opossum),  ranging  from  Mexico  to  the  Argentine. 
The  three  representatives  of  this  sub-genus  are  medium-  sized  species,  with  the 
relative  lengths  of  the  hind-toes  the  same  as  in  the  common-opossum  —  that 
is  to  say,  the  three  middle  toes  are  sub-equal  in  this  respect,  and  considerably 
exceed  the  outermost.  The  fur  is  short  and  straight,  without  any  admix- 
ture of  bristles  ;  and  the  pouch  may  be  either  well  developed  or  rudimental. 
Of  the  thick-tailed-opossum  (D.  crassicaudata)  from  Guiana,  South  Brazil, 
Uruguay,  and  Argentina,  which  is  another  member  of  the  same  sub-genus, 
Mr.  Aplin  writes  as  follows:  —  "The  Comadreja-colorada,  as  this  species  is 
called,  is  rare  in  the  part  of  Soriana  where  I  was  living,  only  one  having  been 
killed  there  during  my  stay  so  far  as  I  know.  It  is  said  by  the  residents  to 
be  excessively  savage  for  so  small  an  animal.  Responding  to  a  suggestion,  I 
inquired  whether  the  female  had  a  pouch  capable  of  carrying  her  young,  and 
one  rather  sharp  and  observant  puesteru's  boy  declared  that  it  had.  Although 
the  adults  are  so  savage,  a  lady  of  my  acquaintance  had  a  young  one,  taken 
from  the  body  of  its  dead  mother  in  the  camp  south  of  the  Rio  Negro  in 
February,  which  was  perfectly  tame.  It  unfortunately  shared  the  fate  of  so 
many  ladies'  pets  and  was  slain  by  a  large  cab  belonging  to  a  house  at  which 
she  was  staying  on  her  way  to  the  coast,  a  day  or  two  before  I  went  over 
there.  The  fur  of  this  animal  is  very  beautiful.  It  is  of  a  warm,  light  chest- 
nut, paler  and  yellower  on  the  sides  and  lower  parts.  The  upper-parts  have 
a  flush  on  them  of  what  can  only  be  described  as  crimson."  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  this  species  has  no  pouch,  which  in  a  fully  developed  condition  is 
present  only  in  the  common  and  quica-opossums.  The  third  sub-genus 
(Philander)  is  represented  by  two  South  American  species  of  medium  size, 
in  which  the  fourth  hind-toe  is  the  longest,  while  the  third  and  fifth 
are  about  equal  and  next  in  size,  and  the  second  is  somewhat  the 
shortest  of  the  four.  In  both  the  pouch  is  rudimental,  while  externally 
these  species  are  characterised  by  their  woolly  fur  arid  the  presence  of  a  dark 
longitudinal  stripe  down  the  middle  of  the  face.  A  considerable  number  of 
small-sized  opossums  from  Central  and  South  America  constitute  the  sub- 
genus  Micoureus,  in  which  the  form  is  slender,  the  fur  generally  straight, 
although  occasionally  slightly  woolly,  and  there  is  no  dark  face-stripe.  The 
relative  lengths  of  the  hind-toes  are  generally  the  same  as  in  the  last  group, 
but  in  some  cases  the  fifth  digit  is  not  longer  than  the  second.  A  pouch  is 
always  wanting,  and  the  tail  is  generally  longer  than  the  body,  and  highly 
prehensile.  In  the  velvety-opossum  (D.  velutina)  the  tail  is,  however,  much 
shorter,  and  thereby  serves  to  connect  this  group  with  the  following  one. 
In  the  last  group  (Peramys),  which  is  likewise  confined  to  South  and  Central 
America,  and  contains  about  eight  very  small  species,  the  tail  id  generally 


2i4  MAMMALIA— ORDER  XIL—MONOTREMATA. 


only  about  half  the  length  of  the  head  and  body,  and  more  or  less  covered 
with  short,  fine  hairs,  while  it  has  but  little  or  no  prehensile  power.  In  the 
hind-foot  the  fifth  toe  is  considerably  shorter  than  the  second,  and  the  third 

and  fourth  digits  are  equal,  and  but  little 
longer  than  the  latter.  From  the  absence 
of  prehensile  power  in  the  tail,  it  has  been 
inferred  that  these  tiny  little  opossums 
are  mainly  terrestrial  in  their  habits.  A 
small  opossum  recently  described  from 
Chiloe  Island,  off  the  coast  of  Central 
Chili,  is  regarded  as  representing  a 
separate  genus  under  the  name  of 
Dromiciops.  A  third  genus  contains  only 
the  water-opossum,  or  yapock  (Chironectes 
minimus),  ranging  from  Guatemala  to  the 
south  of  Brazil,  and  distinguished  by  its 
parti  -  coloured  fur  and  aquatic  habits. 
Fig.  115.  *-~YAFOCK (Chironectes minimus).  Structurally  it  is  characterised  by  the 

presence  of  a  projecting  tubercle  on  the 

inner  side  of  the  fore-foot,  giving  the  appearance  of  a  sixth  digit ;  and 
likewise  by  the  webbing  of  the  hind-toes  as  far  as  their  terminal  pads, 
whereby  the  first  digit  is  much  less  opposable  than  in  other  opossums.  In 
size  the  yapock  may  be  compared  to  the  common-opossum. 


ORDER    XII.  —  MONOTREMATA. 
EGG-LAYING  MAMMALS. 

THE  third  and  last  sub- class  of  mammals — variously  known  as  the  Proto- 
theria,  or  Ornithodelphia,  and  containing  only  the  single  order  Monotremata 
— differs  much  more  widely  from  the  other  two  than  do  the  latter  from  one 
another,  and  thereby  approximates  to  the  lower  vertebrates.  These  strange 
mammals,  which  are  confined  to  the  Notogseic  >realm,  are  especially 
characterised  by  laying  eggs,  after  the  manner  of  birds  and  reptiles ;  although 
the  young  subsequently  developed  from  sucn  eggs  are  nourished  by  milk  from 
the  mammary  glands  of  the  female  parent.  Instead,  however,  of  opening 
into  teats,  these  milk-glands  discharge  their  secretion  upon  the  porous  skin 
of  the  inside  of  a  more  or  less  developed  temporary  pouch  by  means  of 
numerous  small  apertures.  After  hatching,  the  head  of  the  young,  which 
develops  a  special  suctorial  mouth,  is  thrust  Into  the  pouch,  and  the  milk 
forced  into  its  mouth  by  the  contraction  of  special  muscles.  Structurally, 
the  milk-glands  of  the  Monotremes  correspond  to  the  ordinary  sweat  glands 
of  other  mammals,  and  not  to  their  milk-glands.  From  the  other  two  sub- 
classes of  mammals,  Monotremes  differ  in  that  the  hinder  extremity  of  the 
body  possesses  but  a  single  orifice,  from  which  are  discharged  both  the 
waste-products  and  the  reproductive  elements  ;  the  two  egg-passages,  or 
oviducts,  opening  into  the  extremity  of  this  cloaca,  as  the  single  excretory 
passage  is  termed.  In  these  respects  the  egg-laying  mammals  resemble 
biids  and  reptiles*  Similar  resemblances  are  presented  by  the  portion  of 


EGG- LAYING  MAMMALS.  215 

the  skeleton  known  as  the  shoulder-girdle,  or  that  serving  for  the  support  and 
articulation  of  the  bones  of  the  tore-limb.  In  all  the  higher  mammals,  with 
the  exception  of  some  of  the  Edentates  (where  the  coracoids  may  be  distinct), 
the  shoulder-girdle  comprises,  at  most,  only  a  pair  of  collar-bones  (clavicles)  and 
two  shoulder-blades  (scapulce),  of  which  the  latter  bear  a  so-called  coracoid 
process  at  the  lower  extremity.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  egg-laying  mammals, 
as  in  lizards,  an  unpaired  additional  T-shaped  bone  known  as  the  inter- 
clavicle  overlies  the  collar-bones  and  breast-bone  (sternum)]  while  the  coracoid 
processes  are  represented  by  a  pair  of  separate  coracoid  bones  situated  on  the 
lower  surface  of  the  chest,  and  connected  with  the  blade-bones  to  form  the 
articular  cavity  for  the  head  of  the  upper  arm  bone,  or  humerus.  Behind 
these,  on  the  same  aspect  of  the  body,  are  a  second  pair  of  bones  known  as 
the  meta-coracoids,  and  representing  the  bones  commonly  called  coracoids  in 
birds,  which  are  articulated  inferiorly  to  the  breast-bone.  The  brain  is  also 
of  a  lower  and  simpler  type  than  in  the  higher  mammals;  the  same  being 
also  the  case  with  the  small  bones  of  the  internal  ear.  Another  feature 
(which  at  present  appears  to  have  been  verified  only  in  the  first  of  the  two 
families)  indicative  of  inferior  organisation  is  the  low  temperature  of  the 
blood  as  compared  with  that  of  other  mammals, 

In  both  the  families  of  Monotremes  the  males  are  furnished  on  the 
inner  surface  of  the  heel  with  a  perforated  horny  spur,  connected  with  a 
gland  behind  the  thigh  ;  and  it  is  not  improbable*  that  during  the  breeding 
season  this  gland  may  secrete  a  poisonous  fluid  which  flows  into  any 
wound  inflicted  by  the  spur.  As  in  the  Pouched  Mammals,  the  Monotremes 
have  a  pair  of  marsupial  bones  affixed  to  the  front  edge  of  the  lower  part 
of  the  pelvis.  Both  families  have  the  skull  produced  into  a  beak,  which 
may  be  either  cylindrical  or  flattened ;  and  in  the  adult  state  at  least,  teeth 
are  wanting.  There  are  no  traces  of  external  ear-conchs ;  the  two  pairs  of 
limbs,  which  are  of  nearly  equal  length,  are  modified  for  burrowing  or 
digging ;  and  the  tail  is  either  rudimental  or  short  and  wide.  As  in  the  case 
of  the  Edentates,  there  is  no  clue  to  the  origin  of  the  Monotremes,  but  there, 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  existing  forms  are  highly  modified  and  specialised 
descendants  from  some  extremely  ancient  stock. 

The  strange  Australian  creature,  known  as  the  duck-bill  or  duck-mole 
(Ornithorliynchus  anatinus),  is  thesole  representative  of  the  firstfamily  (Ornilho- 
rhynchidce)  of  the  Monotremes.  As  distinctive  of  the  family, 
the  following  features  appear  the  most  important : — In  the  Duck-bill, 
head  the  muzzle  is  produced  and  expanded  to  form  a  broad, 
depressed  bej,k,  covered  with  a  delicate  sensitive  skin,  which,  in  the  dried 
state,  assumes  the  appearance  of  horn.  The  tongue  is  of  normal  proportions, 
and  non-extensile.  In  the  fur  there  is  no  mixture  of  spines ;  the  tail,  although 
short,  is  broad  and  flattened  ;  and  the  feet  are  large  and  wide,  with  the  toes 
webbed,  and  the  soles  bare  and  without  pad*.  In  the  young  and  adolescent 
condition,  each  jaw  bears  three  pairs  of  many-cusped  molars,  of  which  the 
first  is  the  smallest  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  the  last  in  the  lower  ;  but  in  the 
adult  these  teeth  are  shed,  and  their  functions  discharged  by  horny  plates 
growing  up  around  and  beneath  them.  In  the  male  the  horny  spur  on  the 
hind-foot  is  very  large  ;  while  in  the  female  the  pouch  is  rudimental.  The 
brain  has  smooth  hemispheres.  •  The  duck-bill  has  a  somewhat  elongated 
and  depressed  body,  covered  with  dark-coloured  fur  of  two  kinds.  In  both 
limbs  the  five-toed  feet  have  long  claws  to  all  the  digits,  although  those  on 
the  fore-feet  are  broad  and  blunt,  while  those  behind  are  compressed  and 


216 


MAMMALIA— ORDER  XII.— MONO TRE MA  TA. 


Fig.  116  »-DUCK-BILI. 
(  Orn  ithorhynchus  a  natinus). 


pointed.  The  beak  is  smooth,  short,  and  evenly-rounded  in  front,  with  a 
flap  of  skin  marking  its  junction  with  the  head  ;  and  the  cheeks  have 
pouches  for  the  storage  of  food.  In  length  the  adult  male  measures  about 

18  in.  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  which  is  one- 
third  the  length  of  the  head  and  body ;  but  the 
female  is  considerably  smaller.  The  duck-bill 
is  confined  to  the  fresh- waters  of  Tasmania 
and  Australia,  where  it  especially  frequents 
still  and  deep  pools  in  rivers  with  banks 
suitable  for  the  construction  of  its  long  and 
tortuous  burrows ;  these  burrows  generally 
having  two  entrances,  the  one  situated  above, 
and  the  other  below  the  level  of  the  surface  of 
the  water.  In  length  a  burrow  may  be  as 
much  as  20  ft.,  and  at  its  extremity  it  expands 
into  a  capacious  chamber,  which  is  lined  at  the 
breeding  season  for  the  reception  of  the  white 
eggs — usually  two  in  number.  Here  in  due 
course  they  are  hatched,  the  female  sitting 
upon  them  in  the  same  manner  as  a  bird,  since 
the  pouch  is  not  sufficiently  large  for  their 
reception.  When  first  hatched,  the  young 
are  completely  naked  and  helpless,  and  are  fed 
with  milk  in  the  manner  indicated  above.  As  soon  as  they  are  able  to  feed, 
they  are  supplied  with  fresh-water  snails  and  insects  such  as  form  the  chief 
nutriment  of  their  parents.  Duck-bills  are  mainly  nocturnal  animals, 
passing  the  day  rolled  up  asleep  in  their  burrows. 

Very  different,  both  in  appearance  and  their  mode  of  life,  to  duck-bills  are 
the  echidnas,  or  spiny  ant-eaters,  constituting  the  family  Echidnidce.  In 
place  of  being  aquatic,  these  Monotremes  are  terrestrial  and 
Echidnas.  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  while  the  sexes  lack  that  discrep- 
ancy in  size  which  forms  such  a  marked  feature  in  the 
preceding  group.  In  place  of  the  duck-like  beak  of  the  Ornithorhyiichus, 
the  muzzle  of  the  echidnas  forms  a  long,  slender  beak,  which  is  completely 
devoid  of  teeth  at  all  ages,  and  is  suited  to  the  long,  extensile,  worm-like 
tongue  characteristic  of  all  ant-eating  mammals.  The  fur  is  so  thickly  inter- 
mingled with  short  and  stout  spines,  not  unlike  those  of  the  hedgehogs,  that 
sometimes  little  more  than  the  latter  are  visible.  The  tail  is  quite  rudi- 
mental ;  the  short,  sub-equal  limbs  have  unwebbed  toes,  furnished  with 
broad,  powerful,  nail-like  claws,  and,  although  the  soles  of  the  feet  are 
provided  with  soft,  fleshy  cushions,  there  are  no  pads.  A  peculiar  feature 
connected  with  the  mouth  is  the  presence  of  spines  on  both  the  palate  and  the 
tongue.  During  the  breeding  season  the  pouch  of  the  female  is  much  more  de- 
veloped than  in  the  duck-bill ;  and  the  hemispheres  of  the  brain  differ  from 
those  of  the  latter  in  being  well  convoluted.  The  smooth  surface  and  bird-like 
form  of  the  skull  is  very  characteristic  of  the  family,  and  the  lower  jaw  is 
remarkable  for  its  extreme  slenderness.  These  animals  subsist  exclusively 
on  ants,  which  are  dug  out  by  the  powerful  claws  and  licked  up  by  the 
extensile  tongue.  The  large  size  of  the  pouch  enables  the  female  to  carry 
about  with  her  the  two  eggs,  which  in  due  course  are  hatched  by  the  heat  of 
her  body.  The  echidnas  have  a  wider  geographical  distribution  than  the 
duck-bill,  and  are  represented  by  two  genera,  one  of  which  ranges  from 


EGG-LAYING  MAMMALS.  217 

south-eastern  New  Guinea  to  Australia  and  Tasmania,  while  the  second  is 
exclusively  Papuan.  All  the  echidnas  have  stout  and  depressed  bodies, 
which  when  the  creatures  are  in  repose  rest  flat  on  the  ground,  although  in 
walking  the  legs  raise  the  body  some 
distance  above  the  surface.  In  the 
typical  genus  of  which  there  appears 
to  be  only  one  very  variable  specific 
representative  (Echidna  aculeata},  the 
whole  of  the  five  digits  of  each  foot  are 
furnished  with  claws,  which  in  the 
fore-feet  are  broad,  slightly  curved, 
and  directed  forwards,  while  in  the 
hinder  pair  they  are  more  slender,  and 
curved  outwards,  the  second,  or  the 
second  and  third,  considerably  exceed-  Fig.  117.— FIVE-TOED  ECHIDNA 

ing   the   fourth   and    fifth   in   length,  (Echidna  aculeata). 

and  that  of  the  first  toe  being  short, 

blunt,  and  rounded.  The  beak,  which  is  of  about  the  same  length  as  the 
rest  of  the  head,  may  be  either  straight  or  slightly  curved  upwards ;  and  the 
tongue  tapers  at  the  tip,  and  has  the  spines  confined  to  its  basal  portion. 
Of  this  species  there  are  three  well-marked  local  races  or  varieties.  The 
ordinary  or  typical  form,  which  is  confined  to  the  Australian  mainland,  is  of 
medium  size,  measuring  about  17  in.  to  the  root  of  the  tail.  Next  comes  the 
variety  from  south-eastern  New  Guinea,  measuring  only  about  14  in.  in 
length,  and  with  the  spines  of  the  back  shorter.  The  largest  and  most  dis- 
'tinct  of  all  is  the  Tasmanian  form,  which  grows  to  20  in.,  and  has  the  fur  so 
long  as  almost  to  conceal  the  spines,  while  the  claw  of  the  third  toe  of  the 
hind-foot  is  almost  as  much  elongated  as  that  of  the  second.  In  Australia 
the  common  echidna  is  generally  met  with  in  sandy  or  rocky  districts  and  is 
especially  abundant  in  the  mountains.  When  on  level  ground,  it  proceeds 
with  an  unsteady,  shuffling  gait,  the  short  and  broad  front  feet  being  turned 
outwards,  and  the  claws  of  the  hind-feet  bent  outwards  and  backwards  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  cause  the  inner  border  of  the  sole  to  rest  on  the  ground. 
These  animals  do  not  venture  abroad  till  evening,  but  during  the  night  they 
are  very  active,  burrowing  with  great  activity  in  search  of  their  favourite 
ants.  When  suddenly  attacked  or  surprised,  echidnas  roll  themselves  up  into 
a  ball-like  form,  but  if  time  be  allowed,  they  invariably  endeavour  to  make 
their  escape  by  burrowing. 

The  second  genus  of  the  family  (ProecJiidna  *)  is  distinguished  by  the  feet 
usually  carrying  only  three  claws  each,  although  the  first  and  fifth  toes  are 
represented  by  two  or  more  joints,  and  may  occasionally  be  clawed.  The 
length  of  the  claws  of  the  hind-foot  diminishes  regularly  from  the  second  to 
the  fourth  toe ;  and  the  beak,  which  is  markedly  curved  downwards,  is  much 
longer  than  in  the  typical  echidna,  being  nearly  as  long  as  twice  the  length  of 
the  remainder  of  the  head.  In  the  Arfak  mountains  of  north-western  New 
Guinea  the  genus  is  represented  by  Bruijn's  echidna  (P.  bruijni),  which  meas- 
ures about  19  to  20  in.  in  length,  and  has  dense  woolly  fur,  with  but  few 
spines.  In  western  New  Guinea  it  is  replaced  by  a  larger  form  with  stouter 
limbs,  shorter  claws,  and  longer,  more  sparsely  distributed,  and  more  hairy 
fur,  but  whether  it  is  anything  more  than  a  local  variety  may  be  doubtful. 

1  It  has  recently  been  proposed  to  substitute  the  name  Zaglossus,  which  is  stated  to 
be  earlier. 


SUB-KINGDOM  I.— VERTEBRATA. 

CLASS  IL—AVES. 
BY  R.  BOWDLER  SHARPE,  LL.D.,  F.L.S.,  &c. 

STRUCTURALLY  the  skeleton  of  a  bird  differs  very  remarkably  from  that  of  an 
ordinary  mammal,  although  it  is  considerably  less  unlike  that  of  the  egg-laying 
mammals.  In  all  the  features  in  which  the  bird's  bony  framework  departs 
from  the  mammalian  type,  it  approximates  to  the  reptilian  conformation  in 
general  features.  Still,  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  in  this  respect  birds 
are  exactly  like  any  living  reptiles.  Although  in  their  general  structural 
plan  their  skeletons  are  similar,  that  of  the  bird  has  become  modified  and 
specialised  from  the  original  type,  which  renders  it  markedly  different  from 
that  of  either  a  crocodile  or  a  lizard.  O$e  of  the  chief  points  in  which  the 
skeleton  of  a  bird  resembles  that  of  a  lizard,  and  thereby  departs  from  the 
mammalian  type,  is  the  mode  in  which  the  skull  is  articulated  to  the  first 
joint  of  the  backbone.  Whereas  in  a  mammal  the  articulation  takes  place  by 
means  of  a  pair  of  knobs  on  the  hinder  part  of  the  skull,  which  are  received 
into  corresponding  cups  in  the  first  joint  of  the  backbone,  in  the  bird  and 
reptile  there  is  but  a  single  knob,  or  condyle,  fitting  into  a  cup  in  the  first 
vertebra.  Then,  again,  while  in  the  mammal  the  lower  jaw  articulates 
directly  with  the  solid  wall  of  the  true  skull,  or  cranium,  in  the  bird  and 
reptile  there  is  on  each  side  an  intervening  separate  bone,  known  as  the 
quadrate.  A  third  feature  in  which  the  skulls  of  birds  and  reptiles  re- 
semble one  another,  and  differ  from  those  of  mammals,  is  the  complex 
structure  of  each  branch  of  the  lower  jaw — each  branch  consisting  in  the 
two  former  groups  of  several  distinct  bones,  whereas  in  the  latter  it  is 
formed  of  a  single  bone. 

In  order  to  give  strength  to  the  back  in  flying,  the  vertebrae  of  the  hinder 
part  of  the  backbone  are  fused  together  into  a  solid  mass,  forming  the  so- 
called  sacrum,  which  is  much  more  extensive  than  in  mammals.  To  either 
side  of  this  sacrum  are  firmly  attached  the  bones  of  the  pelvis,  all  of  which 
are  very  unlike  the  corresponding  bones  of  mammals,  and  of  which  the  upper 
elements,  or  ilia,  are  by  far  the  largest.  In  all  living  birds  the  bones  of  the 
tail  are  aborted,  and  terminate  in  a  triangular  piece  known  as  the  "plough- 
share bone."  In  ail  birds  the  ribs  are  few  in  number,  and  in  most  cases  these 
differ  from  the  mammalian  type  by  the  presence  of  an  oblique  process  on  the 
hinder  border.  These  uncinate  processes,  as  they  are  called,  are  met  with  in 
some  reptiles. 

Perhaps  the  most  extraordinary  feature  in  the  skeleton  of  an  ordinary 
flying  bird  is  the  excessive  development  of  the  bones  of  the  breast,  which 
in  some  cases  cover  almost  the  whole  of  the  under  surface  of  the  body.  By 
far  the  largest  of  these  elements  is  the  breast-bone,  or  sternum,  correspond- 
ing with  the  element  similarly  named  in  mammals.  Whereas  in  flying  birds 
this  sternum  is  strongly  keeled,  in  order  to  afford  a  firm  basis  of  origin 
for  the  pectoral  muscles,  in  the  ostrich  and  its  kindred  it  is  flattened.  At  the 
sides  the  sternum  is  attached  to  the  true  ribs  by  the  intervention  of  so-called 
sternal  ribs.  Superiorly  it  bears  a  pair  of  bones  commonly  known  as  cora- 

218 


BIRD-STRUCTURE  AND  DEVELOPMENT.  219 


coids,  but  more  properly  termed  metacoracoids.  Superiorly  these  metacora- 
coids  join  the  scimitar-like  scapulae,  or  shoulder-bones,  and  at  their  junction 
form  the  cavity  for  the  reception  of  the  head  of  the  upper  wing-bone,  or 
humerus.  Joining  the  upper  ends  of  the  metacoracoids,  and  extending 
downwards  towards  the  sternum,  is  the  well-known  merry-thought,  or 
furcula ;  although  in  this  modification  peculiar  to  birds,  the  furcula  really 
represents  the  united  collar-bones,  or  clavicles,  of  man.  In  ordinary 
mammals  there  are  no  separate  representatives  of  the  metacoracoids  ;  but 
such  occur  in  the  egg-laying  mammals,  although  differing  widely  from  those 
of  birds.  Before  leaving  this  region  of  a  bird's  skeleton,  it  is  important 
to  mention  that  in  the  backbone — at  least  in  the  neck — the  individual 
joints,  or  vertebrae,  are  articulated  together  by  saddle-shaped  surfaces, 
such  a  mode  of  articulation  being  unknown,  in  any  other  class  of  vertebrate 
animals. 

As  regards  the  structure  of  the  bones  of  the  wing,  very  few  words  will 
suffice.  The  two  upper  segments  of  this  part  of  the  skeleton  are  essentially 
similar  to  the  same  part  in  mammals.  The  bones  of  the  wrist,  or  carpus,  are, 
however,  reduced  to  two  in  number;  while  those  of  the  metacarpus  and 
fingers  are  flattened  and  otherwise  modified,  the  number  of  digits  never  ex- 
ceeding three.  The  three  digits  respectively  represent  the  thumb,  index,  and 
middle  fingers  of  the  human  hand.  Of  these,  the  thumb  has  either  one  or 
two  joints,  the  index  two,  and  the  third  digit  one.  The  metacarpals  of  the 
index  and  third  fingers  are  united  together  by  a  thin  plate  of  bone,  which 
may  be  perforated. 

In  a  bird's  leg  the  general  plan  of  structure  is  a  specialised  modification  of 
that  obtaining  in  reptiles.  The  grand  distinction  between  the  leg  of  a  reptile 
and  that  of  a  mammal,  lies  in  the  fact  that,  whereas  in  the  latter  the  ankle-joint 
occurs  at  the  top  of  the  two  rows  forming  the  ankle,  or  tarsus,  in  the  former 
the  joint  is  situated  between  the  two  rows.  A  bird's  leg  is  formed  on  the 
latter  plan,  but  has  undergone  the  further  modification  that  the  two  rows  of 
tarsal  bones  are  respectively  welded  to  the  bones  above  and  below  them.  We 
have  first  of  all  the  thigh-bone,  or  femur  ;  next  comes  the  tibia  (with  the 
aborted  fibula  at  its  upper  end),  to  the  lower  extremity  of  which  are  attached 
the  upper  row  of  tai-sal^ones,  thus  forming  a  tibio-tarsus.  Below  this  comes 
a  compound  bone,  formed  by  the  lower  row  of  tarsal  bones  and  the  three 
middle  metatarsal  bones  of  the  typical  five-toed  foot,  this  compound  bone 
being  termed  the  tarso-metatarsus.  Usually  this  bone  terminates  below  in 
three  pulley-like  surfaces,  to  which  are  attached  the  bones  of  the  toes  ;  but 
in  the  ostrich  there  are  only  two  of  these  pulleys,  and  likewise  only  two  toes. 
When  the  first  toe,  or  halhex,  is  present,  it  is  attached  to  the  hinder  surface 
of  the  lower  end  of  the  tarso-metatarsus.  No  trace  of  the  fifth  toe  ever  re- 
mains. Whereas  in  mammals  each  of  the  toes,  save  the  thumb,  has  three 
joints,  in  a  bird  (as  also  in  a  reptile)  the  number  of  these  joints  increase  from 
the  second  to  the  fourth  toe. 

The  chief  character  which  distinguishes  the  class  Aves  from  the  other 
classes  of  vertebrate  animals  is  the  possession  of  feathers.  The  production  of 
the  young  from  an  egg  is  not  confined  to  the  birds,  but  is  shared  by  some 
mammals  and  reptiles  ;  nor  is  the  power  of  flight  a  sole  prerogative  of  the 
birds,  but  their  feathery  covering  is  a  really  distinctive  characteristic. 

That  birds  existed  on  the  earth  in  very  remote  times  is  undoubted,  and 
that  they  were  very  different  in  form  and  structure  from  those  which  we 
have  around  us  now,  is  equally  certain.  As  the  special  character  of  the  class 


220  A  VES. 


Aves  is  the  possession  of  feathers,  the  earliest  creature  which  can  be 
determined  to  have  possessed  this  special  prerogative  of  the  birds  is  the 
Archceopteryx.  The  remains  of  this  curious  animal  were  first  discovered 
in  the  sand-stone  formation  of  Solenhofen  in  Bavaria,  whence  comes  the 
bulk  of  the  stone  used  for  lithographic  purposes  in  the  present  day.  The 
original  slab  containing  these  priceless  remains  is  now  in  the  British 
Museum,  and  with  it  we  commence  the  study  of  the  class  Aves.  The  head 
is,  unfortunately,  missing  in  this  specimen,  but  the  imprint  of  the  tail  is 
clear  enough,  and  shows  a  structure  quite  different  from  that  which  is  to 
be  seen  in  any  bird  of  modern  times.  It  is  longer  than  the  body  of  the  bird 
itself,  and,  instead  of  the  feathers  being  placed  side  by  side,  and  capable  of 
being  spread  like  a  fan,  we  find  in  the  Archceopteryx  the  tail  consisting  of  a 
series  of  vertebrae,  upon  which  the  feathers  were  disposed  laterally,  while 
there  must  evidently  have  been  quills  upon  the  wings.  The  digits  of  the 
latter  terminated  in  little  claws  or  hooks,  a  condition  which  exists  in  some  of 
our  present-day  birds,  though  the  exact  structure  is  modified.  A  second 
specimen  of  an  ArcJiceopteryx  was  afterwards  discovered  in  the  same  forma- 
tion at  Solenhofen,  and  has  passed  into  the  possession  of  the  Berlin  Museum. 
In  this  individual  the  head  has  been  preserved,  and  shows  ua  a  reptilian- 
looking  skull  with  actual  teeth.  Thus  we  know  that  ArchcKopteryx  possessed 
teeth  and  feathers,  but  of  a  kind  unlike  those  of  any  bird  of  modern  times. 
It  introduces  the  first  sub-class  of  birds,  viz.,  the  Saururce. 

Among  the  numerous  other  members  of  the  class  Aves,  which  we  shall 
have  to  pass  in  review,  will  also  occur  several  birds  with  teeth  ;  but  these  will 
all  be  found  to  belong  to  a  much  earlier  age  than  our  own,  so  that  we  may 
safely  say  that  at  the  present  day  no  really  toothed  bird  exists. 

At  the  same  time,  there  are  found  on  the  earth  to-day  many  types  of  birds 
which  must  be  considered  to  be  the  survivors  of  very  ancient  bird-life  ;  and  if 
these  do  not  belong  exclusively  to  one  type,  or  to  any  single  order  or  family 
of  existing  birds,  we  shall  yet  have  little  difficulty  in  assigning  to  most  of  them 
their  proper  position  in  the  natural  system.  The  idea  that  all  toothed  birds 
must  belong  to  one  group  is  now  held  to  be  erroneous,  and  the  notion  that 
the  diving  Hesperornis  of  the  New  World  was  allied  to  the  Archceopteryx  of 
the  Old  World,  simply  because  they  both  possessed  teeth,  is  not  admitted  at 
the  present  day. 

Granting,  however,  that  our  Passerine  birds  are  the  highest  development 
of  the  Avian  form  at  present  existing,  it  naturally  follows  that  we  must  look 
to  a  totally  different  type  if  we  desire  to  connect  the  bird-life  of  the  present 
day  with  that  of  the  past  ;  and  the  flightless  birds,  the  ostriches,  and  their 
kin,  are  admitted  by  all  ornithologists  to  be  the  modern  survivors  of  ancient 
forms.  Like  the  huge  mammals  and  reptiles,  which  were  the  fore-runners  of 
the  modern  representatives  of  these  classes,  the  birds  of  the  Struthioue  order 
of  Madagascar  (^Epyornis)  and  the  Moas  of  New  Zealand  were  enormous. 
A  singular  interest  attaches  to  the  ancient  Struthiones,  which  were  immensely 
larger  than  their  descendants  of  our  own  epoch.  Thus  the  moas  of  New 
Zealand  attained  a  huge  size,  and,  as  far  as  recent  researches  carry  us,  they 
must  have  been  alive  on  the  earth  not  so  very  long  ago.  The  moas  live  in 
the  traditional  history  of  the  Maories ;  specimens  have  been  unearthed  with 
the  skin  still  attached  to  the  bones  ;  moa-feathers  have  been  found  in  some 
number  ;  and  much  controversy  has  been  excited  as  to  whether  they  have 
become  extinct  within  the  last  hundred,  or  five  hundred,  years.  That  they 
were  living  within  historic  times  is  certain.  Of  the  <&pyemis  of  Madagascar 


SUB- CLASS  RATITE— ORDER  RHEIFORMES. 


we  know  less,  but  though  its  bones  are  not  so  often  discovered  as  those  of 
the  moa,  its  eggs,  unearthed  from  the  tombs  of  buried  chiefs,  are  not  un- 
frequently  found 

The  Ratite  Birds,  as  these  great  flightless  creatures  of  the  ostrich  tribe  are 
usually  called,  derive  their  name  from  the  fact  that  they  have  a  ' '  ratite  "  or 
"  raft  "-like  breast-bone.  On  the  latter  there  is  no  keel,  to  which  a  pectoral 
muscle  may  be  attached  for  the  purposes  of  flight,  and  they  have  now  no 
mechanism  by  which  they  can  propel  their  huge  bodies  through  the  air  like 
ordinary  birds.  That  ostriches  and  their  allies  will  ever  fly  is  simply  im- 
possible, as  their  numbers  are  being  annually  decreased,  and  the  necessary 
ages  requisite  for  them  to  develop  the  means  of  flight  as  an  escape  from  their 
enemies  will  never  be  allowed  to  them,  as  man,  with  his  spreading  civilisation 
and  his  deadly  rifle,  gradually  encircles  the  poor  birds  in  their  last  havens  of 
rest.  The  probability  is,  judging  from  the  well -developed  wings  of  the  early 
Archceopteryx,  that  ancient  birds  could  fly,  and  that  the  ostriches  and  moas 
are  the  descendants  of  birds  perfectly  capable  of  flight,  but  which  from  the 
lack  of  natural  enemies  in  ancient  times,  have  gradually  lost  their  power  of 
flying,  and  ultimately  developed  into  the  flightless  birds  of  the  present  day, 
wherein  safety  is  secured  by  their  excellent  power  of  running,  or  by  their 
nocturnal  habits,  where  concealment  and  swiftness  of  foot  play  the  most 
important  part  in  their  preservation. 

The  Struthious  or  Ratite  Birds  (Sub-class  Ratite}  may,  therefore,  be  divided 
into  six  Orders,  viz.  the  Rheas  (Rheiformes),  the  Ostriches  (Struthioniformes), 

the  Emus  and  Cas- 
sowaries (Casuarii-        Sub-class 
formes),  the  extinct          Jlatitce. 
Moas     (Dinornithi- 
formes  and  ^Epyornithiformes),  and 
the  Apteryges  (Apterygiformes).     Of 
these    the    moas    are    extinct,   but 
members  of  the  other  orders  still 
survive. 

The  ostriches  maybe  distinguished 
by  having  only  two  toes  instead  of 
three.  The  moas  had  three  toes, 
and,  therefore,  they  belonged  to  the 
great  group  of  three-toed  Struthious 
Birds,  of  which  so  many  have  per- 
ished. Of  those  that  survive,  the 
rheas  (Rheiformes)  are  distinguished 
by  the  following  characters :  the 
absence  of  any  keel  to  the  breast- 
bone, no  hind-toe,  and  three  toes  in 
front.  They  are  to  all  intents  and 
°'  (Ihealme™™)  purposes  ostriches,  and  generally  go 

by  the  name  of  the  "South  American 

Ostrich,"  as  they  are  entirely  confined  to  the  South  American  Continent.  Of 
the  rheas,  four  species  are  recognised.  One  of  these  may  be  considered  an 
unknown  species  as  yet,  as  Rhea  nana  (Lydekker)  has  only  been  character- 
ised from  its  egg,  which  is  remarkably  small,  and  on  this  evidence,  which  is 
certainly  self-evident,  Mr.  Lydekker  has  separated  the  small  Patagonian  species 
as  distinct.  The  common  rhea,~(Rhea  americana)  is  the  best-known  species, 


222      AVES— ORDER  STRUTHIONIFORMES—THE  OSTRICHES. 


and  the  most  widely  distributed,  being  found  from  Southern  Brazil  and 
Paraguay  to  the  province  of  Matagrosso,  westwards  to  Bolivia,  south  to  the 
Rio  Negro  in  Patagonia,  and  even  beyond.  In  the  provinces  of  Bahia  and 
Pernambuco  it  is  replaced  by  the  great-billed  rhea  (R.  macrorhyncha\  and 
in  Chili  and  Patagonia  by  Darwin's  rhea  (E.  darwini),  which  is  said  to  range 
north  of  the  Rio  Negro,  where  it  may  be  coterminous  with  the  range  of  JR. 
americana. 

The  nandu,  as  the  rhea  is  called  in  Argentina,  is,  according  to  Mr.  "W.  H. 
Hudson,  doomed  to  speedy  extinction,  the  republican  governments  of  South 
America  apparently  being  too  much  occupied  in  other  business  to  trouble 
their  heads  about  bird  protection,  which  appears  to  be  only  an  outcome  of 
extreme  civilisation.  Mr.  Hudson,  the  recorder  of  so  much  that  is  interest- 
ing in  the  habits  of  the  birds  of  Argentina,  has  given  the  results  of  his 
acquaintance  with  the  rhea,  and  we  regret  that  space  forbids  us 
to  quote  more  than  a  brief  extract.  It  seems  that  the  male  takes  upon  him- 
self the  duties  of  incubation,  and  Mr.  Hudson's  story  is  as  follows  : — "  In  the 
month  of  'July  the  love  season  begins,  and  it  is  then  that  the  curious 
ventriloquial  bellowing,  booming,  and  weird-like  sounds  are  emitted  by  the 
male.  The  young  males  in  the  flock  are  attacked  and  driven  off  by 
the  old  cock-bird  ;  and  when  there  are  two  old  males,  they  fight  for 
hens.  Their  battles  are  conducted  in  a  curious  manner,  the  com- 
batants twisting  their  long  necks  together  like  a  couple  of  serpents, 
and  then  viciously  biting  at  each  others'  heads  with  their  beaks  ;  mean- 
while, they  turn  round  and  round  in  a  circle,  pounding  the  earth  with 
their  feet,  so  that  where  the  soil  is  wet  or  soft,  they  make  a  circular 
trench  where  they  tread.  The  females  of  a  flock  all  lay  together  in  a  natural 
depression  of  the  ground,  with  nothing  to  shelter  it  from  sight,  each  hen 
laying  a  dozen,  or  more,  eggs.  It  is  common  to  find  from  thirty  to  sixty 
eggs  in  a  nest,  but  sometimes  a  larger  number,  and  I  have  heard  of  a  nest 
being  found  containing  one  hundred  and  twenty  eggs.  If  the  females  are 
many,  the  cock  usually  becomes  broody  before  they  finish  laying,  and  he 
then  drives  them  away  with  great  fury,  and  begins  to  incubate.  The  hens 
then  drop  their  eggs  about  the  plains  ;  and  from  the  large  number  of  wasted 
eggs  found,  it  seems  probable  that  more  are  dropped  out  of,  than  in,  the  nest. 
The  egg  when  fresh  is  of  a  fine  golden  yellow,  but  this  colour  grows  paler 
from  day  to  day,  and  finally  fades  to  a  parchment-white. 

"  After  hatching,  the  young  are  assiduously  tended  and  watched  over  by  the 
cock,  and  it  is  then  dangerous  to  approach  the  rhea  on  horseback,  as  the  bird, 
with  neck  outstretched  and  outspread  wings,  charges  suddenly,  making  so  huge 
and  grotesque  a  figure  that  the  tamest  horse  becomes  ungovernable  through 
terror.  Eagles  and  the  large  caracara  are  the  enemies  which  the  rhea  most 
fears  when  the  young  are  still  small  ;  and  at  the  sight  of  one  flying  overhead, 
he  crouches  down  and  utters  a  loud,  snorting  cry,  whereupon  the  scattered 
young  birds  run  in  the  greatest  terror  to  shelter  themselves  under  his 
wings." 

Although  at  present  only  to  be  found  in  Africa  and  Arabia,  there  is  no  doubt 

that  in  former  times  the  range  of  the  ostrich  was  much  more  extensive.     It 

is  now  practically  extinct  in  Mesopotamia  and  in  Syria,  but, 

The  Ostrich.  -  according  to  Mr.  Lydekker,  fossil  remains  of  an  ostrich  have 
been  found  in  North  Western  India,  while  an  egg,  supposed 
to  belong  to  one  of  these  birds,  has  been  described  from  Southern  Russia. 

Three  species  of  ostrich  are  recognised  in  Africa,  of  which  the  common  one, 


ORDER  CASUARIIFORMES—THE  EMUS—THE  CASSOWARIES.  223 


Struthio  camelus,  and  the  South  African  form,  S.  australis,  have  flesh-coloured 
thighs,  whereas  the  Somali-land  ostrich,  S.  molybdophanes,  has  black  thighs. 
It  is  not  a  little  vexatious  that  no  one  has  yet  determined  how  many  species 
of  ostrich  really  exist  at  the  present  day.  Their  plumes  are  classified  by 
dealers,  and  those  of  the  Barbary  form  are  supposed  to  be  different  from 
those  of  the  South  African  form,  but  at  present  no  museum  contains  a  series 
which  illustrates  the  life  history,  or  the 
number  of  species  existing  of  these  well- 
known  birds. 

The  ostriches  have  only  two  toes,  the 
first  and  second  being  absent.  The  quills 
and  tail-feathers  are  well-developed  for 
this  class  of  bird,  but  no  after-shaft  is 
present.  The  male  is  larger  than  the 
female,  and  he  undertakes  the  care  of 
bringing  up  the  family  after  he  has 
hatched  out  the  eggs.  He  especially  looks 
after  the  nest  at  night,  and  broods  over 
the  eggs,  though  in  many  tropical  countries 
the  latter  are  covered  over  with  sand, 
and  left  to  the  heat  of  the  sun  during 
the  day.  The  cock-bird  has  more  than 
one  wife,  generally  three  or  four,  who 
make  common  cause  in  the  laying  of  the 
eggs,  and  deposit  them  in  the  same  nest, 
sometimes  as  many  as  twenty  eggs  being 
found  together. 

These   birds  comprise   the   order    Casuariiformes,   with   two    sub-orders, 
Dromeos  (Emus)  and  Casuarii  (Cassowaries).     Both  are  inhabitants  of   the 
Australian  region,   the   cassowaries  being   confined   to  the 
Papuan  sub-region  of  the  latter.     Of  the  emus,  three  species        The  Emus, 
are  known,  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  a  fourth  existed 
within  recent  times,  as  the  Tasmanian  emu  was  apparently  distinct  from  the 
Australian  form,  but   is  now  quite  extinct.     The  small  black  emu  of  Kan- 
garoo Island  is  known  only  from  two  specimens  in  the  Paris  Museum,  and 
is  also  extinct.     Thus  we  have  but  the  common  emu  (D.  novce  hollandice)  and 
the   spotted  emu  (D.   irroratus),    the  former  inhabiting   Eastern  and  the 
latter  Western  Australia.     The  birds  of  this  sub-order  all  have  three  toes, 
and  are  further  distinguished  from  the  ostriches  by  their  rudimentary  wings 
and  apparent  absence  of  a  tail,  while  the  body  feathers  have  an  after-shaft, 
which  is  as  long  as  the  actual  plume  itself,  so  that  the  latter  appears  as  if  it 
were  a  double  feather. 

The  habits  of  the  emu  can  now  be  studied  in  parks  and  public  menageries 
in  this  country,  where  they  not  unfrequently  nest.  The  bird  is  said  by 
travellers  to  be  good  eating.  As  with  the  other  Struthious  Birds,  constant 
persecution  is  making  it  rarer  year  by  year,  and  it  has  now  entirely  disap- 
peared from  haunts  where  it  once  was  quite  numerous.  The  female  is  smaller 
than  the  male,  and  on  the  latter  devolves  the  principal  part  of  the  duties  of 
incubation.  It  has  a  curious  note,  which  Gould  has  described  as  follows  : — 
"  The  note  of  the  emu  is  a  low  booming  or  pumping  noise,  which  we  know  to 
be  produced  in  the  female  by  means  of  the  expansion  and  contraction  of  a 
large  membranous  bag,  surrounding  an  oblong  opening  through  the  rings  of 


Fig.  2.— THE  OSTRICH 
(Struthio  camelus). 


324  AVES—  ORDER  APTERYG1FORMES—  THE  KIWIS. 


the  trachea."  The  nestlings  are  beautifully  striped  little  creatures.  The  egg 
is  of  a  rich  dark  green,  but  this  colour  fades  in  course  of  time,  and  gives 
place  to  a  dull  black. 

These  are  curious  birds,  which  commence  their  life  in  a  mottled 
plumage,  with  no  visible  casque  on  the  skull,  and  grow  to  an  adult  black 
plumage  with  an  elevated  casque  of  varying  shape  and 
The  Cassowaries,  generally  some  highly  coloured  wattles  on  the  throat  and 
neck.  Eleven  species  are  known,  all  of  them  met  with  in 
the  Papuan  group  of  islands,  with  the  exception  of  one  species,  the 
Australian  cassowary,  which  occurs  in  the  Cape  York  Peninsula  and  extends 
as  far  south  as  Rockingham  Bay.  Most  of  our  information  regarding  these 
curious  flightless  members  of  the  class  Aves  is  derived  from  the  study  of 
specimens  sent  alive  to  Europe,  and  many  of  us  are  familiar  with  the  great 
turkey-like  heads  and  black  bodies  of  the  cassowaries,  with  their  five 
spiny  quills  in  lieu  of  wings,  their  helmets  and  ornamental  throat- wattles. 
LikQ  the  emus,  the  long  after-shaft  to  the  body-feathers  gives  these  the 
appearance  of  being  a  double  plume.  Some  of  the  New  Guinea  species 
apparently  inhabit  the  same  districts  of  that  great  island,  while  others  are 
peculiar  to  Ceram,  the  Arn  Islands,  and  New  Britain  respectively.  The 
colour  of  the  eggs  of  the  cassowaries  is  dark  green,  and  the  young  are  brown, 
when  full  grown,  and  have  no  casque.  As  in  the  case  of  the  other  Struthious 
Birds,  the  duties  of  incubation  fall  upon  the  male,  who  looks  after  the  young 
ones  when  they  are  hatched. 

Extinct  forms,  allied  to  the  emus  and  cassowaries,  have  been  found  in 
Australia  (Dromornis\  in  India  (Hypselornis) ;  while  the  moas  of  New  Zealand 
(Dinornithidce)  and  Madagascar  (^Epyornis)  belong  to  the  same  group. 

Although  the  kiwis  are  recognised  as  belonging  to  the  Struthious  Birds, 
they  are  decidedly  aberrant  members  of  the  sub-class,  and  are  very  like  gigantic 

rails  in  their  ways,  being  ex- 
The  Kiwis.  cellent  runners  and  chiefly  noc- 
turnal in  their  habits.  Like  the 
emus  and  their  kindred,  they  are  great  hands 
at  kicking,  and  at  a  meeting  of  the  British 
Ornithologists'  Club,  when  the  Hon.  Walter  Roths- 
child exhibited  living  specimens  of  every  known 
species  of  kiwi,  the  birds  made  known  their 
resentment  by  vigorous  and  lightning-like  kicks 
on  the  walls  of  their  cages,  some  assaulting  the 
wires  front- ways,  and  some  kicking  backwards. 

These  curious  birds  will,  doubtless,  become  ex- 
tinct within  a  short  period.  There  are  only  five 
species  of  kiwi  now  to  be  met  with  in  New 
Zealand,  though  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  genus 
Apteryx  was  more  widely  distributed  over  the 
southern  lands  in  past  times.  The  kiwis  have  four  Fig  3.— THE  APTERYX 

toes,  but  there  is  no  visible  wing,  and  the  nostrils  (Apteryx  australis). 

are  placed  near  the  tip  of  the  long  bill.     There  is 

no  tail  visible,  and  the  long  after-shaft  of  the  emus  and  cassowaries  is  absent. 
In  the  kiwis  the  hind  toe,  or  hallux,  is  present,  so  that  all  four  toes  are 
represented.  The  egg  is  white,  and  may  be  considered  enormous  for  the  size 
of  the  bird  which  lays  it.  There  is  no  marked  difference  in  the  size  of  the 
sexes,  but  the  female  appears  to  be  slightly  larger  than  the  male.  The 


CARINATE  BIRDS— ORDER  TINAMIFORMES—THE  T1NAMOUS.  225 


observations  on  the  ways  of  the  kiwis  in  a  state  of  nature  are  singularly 
deficient,  and  it  is  to  be  feared  that  the*  members  of  the  genus  Apteryx 
will  disappear  from  the  face  of  the  globe  without  their  life-history  being 
thoroughly  recorded.  The  eggs,  judging  from  those  laid  in  captivity, 
never  appear  to  exceed  two  in  number,  and  they  are  incubated  in  true 
Struthious  manner  by  the  male.  Those  which  have  been  kept  in  our 
zoological  gardens  in  this  country  have  been  seldom  seen  in  daylight,  as  they 
go  to  sleep  all  the  day  and  conceal  themselves  in  the  straw  of  their  dens. 
When  taken  out,  they  run  round  in  a  dazed  manner,  and  quickly  return  to 
their  concealment.  It  is  even  said  that  when  poked  with  sticks  they  will 
not  rouse  themselves,  and  quickly  go  to  sleep  again.  An  extinct  form  of 
Apteryx  has  been  discovered  in  New  Zealand  (Pseudapteryx,  Lydekker). 

All    the    rest    of    the    birds     belong  to    the    order    Carittatce,    or   birds 
with    a    keeled    sternum.       Thus    they   ought    to    be    all 
capable  of  flight,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  there  are  many    Carinate  Birds. 
exceptions,  and  there  are  not  a  few  which  have  lost  this 
power.     The  vast  majority,  however,  have  a  deep  keel  or  ridge  to  the 
breast-bone,  which  distinguishes  them  from  the  Ratitce,  of  which  we  have  just 
spoken.     The  nearest  allies  to  the  Apteryges,  in  a  natural  series,  would  be, 
in  our  opinion, the  rails  (Rallidce\V>\it  we  are  bound  to  take  notice  of  the  curious 
partridges  of  South  America,  the  tinamous,  because  they  possess  a  remarkable 
palate,  the  bones  of  which  are  very  like  those  of  the  Struthious  Birds,  and 
hence  we  commence  our  study  of  the  Aves  Carinatce  with  the  order  Tinami- 
formes.     In  general  appearance  they  resemble  partridges,  and 
they  have  much  the  habits  of  the  latter  birds,  excepting  the  The  T^amous.— 
fact,  that  many  of  them  are  inhabitants  of  the  forests,  where-    Tinamiformes 
as  the  partridges  are,  essentially   birds  of  the  open  country. 
Sixty-five  species  of  tinamous  are  enumerated  by  Count  Salvadori  in  his  recent 
treatise  on  the  order,  and  they  are  all  inhabitants  of  the  neo-tropical  region, 
i.e.  Central  America,  south  of  Mexico,  and  South 
America   generally.     Some  of  them  are  of  large 
size,    as   big  as  an   ordinary   hen,   but  with  the 
feathering  much  closer  set,  and  with  very  little  of 
the   tail   visible.     The   most  remarkable   feature 
of  the  tinamous  is,  perhaps,  the  colour  of  their 
eggs,  which  varies  from  a  purplish  brown  or   red 
to  a  bluish  green,  but  whatever  the  colour  may 
be,  the  eggs  are  always  remarkable  for  their  gloss. 
As  Count  Salvadori  observes,  they  are  "  curiously 
unlike  those  of  other  birds,  and  the  shell  looks 
like  highly  burnished  metal,  or  glazed  porcelain, 
presenting   also   various   colours,   which  seem   to 
be   constant  in    the   particular   species,    varying 

from     pale    primrose     to    sage    green      or    light     ^,.  4_THK  G,EAT  TmAMO 
indigo,    or    from    chocolate    brown     to     pinkish          (Rhynchotus  rufescens). 
orange." 

The  species  of  tinamou  vary  very  much  in  size,  some  being  no  larger 
than  an  ordinary  quail,  while  others  are  as  big  as  a  good-sized  fowl.  The 
plumage  of  many  of  them  is  mottled  and  barred,  and  none  exhibit  any 
decorative  ornament  beyond  the  occasional  presence  of  a  chestnut  breast. 
While  some  of  them  inhabit  the  open  pampas,  others  are  strictly  forest  birds, 
and  the  conclusion  forced  upon  us  is  that  tinamous  are  struthious  partridges, 
16 


226  AVES— ORDER  GALLIFORMES. 


Game-Birds  of  the  partridge  type, 'which  have  retained  some  of  the  osteo- 
logical  characters  of  their  s  truth ious  ancestors.  Of  the  great  tinamou 
(Rhyiichotus  rufescens)  of  Argentina,  Mr.  W.  H.  Hudson  writes  :—"  This 
species  is  solitary  in  its  habits,  conceals  itself  very  closely  in  the  grass,  and 
flies  with  the  greatest  reluctance.  I  doubfc  if  there  is  anywhere  a  bird  with 
such  a  sounding  flight  as  a  tinamou  ;  the  whirr  of  its  wings  can  only  be  com- 
pared to  the  rattling  of  a  vehicle  driven  at  great  speed  over  a  stony  road. 
From  the  moment  it  rises  until  it  alights  again,  there  is  no  cessation  in  the 
rapid  vibration  of  the  wings  ;  but,  like  a  ball  thrown  from  the  hand,  the 
bird  flies  straight  away  with  extraordinary  violence  until  the  impelling  force 
is  spent,  when  it  slopes  gradually  to  the  earth,  the  distance  it  is  able  to 
accomplish  at  a  flight  being  from  800  to  1,500  yards.  This  flight  it  can 
repeat  when  driven  up  again,  as  many  as  three  times,  after  which  the  bird 
can  rise  no  more." 

,  This  is  a  very  large  order  of  birds,  and  may  be  divided  into  four  big  sub- 
orders, viz.  the  Meyapodii,  or  mound-builders  ;  the  Graces,  or  curassows  ; 

the  Phasianiy  consisting  of  the  grouse,  pheasants,  partridges, 

The  Game-Birds.  guinea-fowls,  and  turkeys  ;  and,  lastly,  the  bustard-quails,  or 

—Order  Galli-     hemipodes  (Hemipodii).     Everyone  is  familiar  with  the  ap- 

formes.          pearance  of  an  ordinary  Game-Bird,  such  as  the  common  fowl, 

or  the,  turkey,  the  pheasant,  the  partridge,  or  the  grouse. 
The  mound-builder,  the  curassow,  and  the  bustard-quail  are  less  known, 
because  in  Great  Britain  we  have  no  representative  of  these  sub-orders, 
though  occasionally  examples  of  each  of  them  may  be  seen  in  captivity.  The 
palate  in  the  Game-Birds  is  cleft,  or,  as  it  is  usually  called,  "  schizngnathous," 
and  another  peculiar  character  is  the  perforation  of  the  episternal  process  of 
the  breast -bone,  or  sternum,  so  that  the  feet  of  the  coracoid-bones  meet 
through  the  opening  thus  afforded. 

These  curious  birds  have  a  somewhat  remarkable  distribution,  as  they 
extend  from  Australia  throughout  the  Malayan  Archipelago  to  the  Island  of 

Labuan    and   the  Philippine   Archipelago.      They  are    not 

The  found  in  Java  or  Sumatra,  but  have  recently  been  discovered 

Mound -Builders,  in  the  Kangean  group  of  islands;  and  a  species  is  also  known 

—Sub-Order      from  the  Nicobar  Islands  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal.     Thus  it  will 

Megapodiv.       be  seen  that  the  distribution  of  the  megapodes  is  restricted 

to  the  south-east  of  Asia  and  Australia. 

Professor  Huxley  separated  the  megapodes  of  the  Austro-Malayan  sub- 
region  and  the  curassows  of  the  neo-tropical  region  into  a  sub-order,  Perlstero- 
podes,  in  contrast  to  the  Alectoropodes,  or  true  Game-Birds,  because  they  have 
a  smaller  inner  notch  of  the  sternum,  this  inner  notch  being  less  than  half 
the  length  of  the  entire  sternum,  whereas  in  the  ordinary  Game-Birds  the 
inner  notch  of  the  sternum  is  more  than  half  the  length  of  the  entire  sternum. 
Again,  in  the  megapodes  and  curassows,  the  hallux,  or  hind-toe,  is  on  the 
same  level  as  the  other  toes,  whereas  in  the  Alectoropodes  the  hallux  is 
raised  above  the  level  of  the  other  toes.  Of  the  mound-builders  there 
are  seven  genera,  of  which  the  most  striking  types  are  the  true  mound- 
builders  (Megapodius],  the  brush-turkeys  (Talegallus),  and  the  maleo-bird 
(Meyacepha  lum) . 

The  maleo  is  confined  to  the  Island  of  Celebes,  and  is  the  only  one  of  this 
dull-coloured  group  of  Game-Birds  which  shows  any  pretension  to  colour.  Ib 
has  a  breast  of  a  delicate  pink,  and  an  ornamental  bare  knob  on  the  crown, 
but  is  otherwise  of  a  dusky  colour  like  the  rest  of  the  group.  Dr.  A.  R. 


THE  MO  UND-B  UILDERS—  THE  BR  USH~  TURKE  YS.  227 


Wallace,  during  his  celebrated  expedition  to  the  Malay  Archipelago,  found 
the  maleo  practising  all  the  usual  nesting  devices  of  the  mound-builders. 
The  female  lays  eggs  at  intervals,  and  he  says  that  the  size  of  the  latter 
precludes  the  female  bird  from  having  more  than  one  fully-developed  egg  at 
the  same  time.  The  eggs  are',  therefore,  laid  at  an  intervening  period  of  ten 
or  twelve  days,  and  are  deposited  in  a  mound  of  loose,  hot,  black  sand.  "In 
the  months  of  August  and  Septem- 
ber," he  writes,  "they come  down  in 
pairs  to  the  nesting-place,  and  scratch 
holes  three  or  four  feet  deep,  just 
above  high-water  mark,  where  the 
female  deposits  a  single  large  egg, 
which  she  covers  over  with  about  a 
foot  of  sand,  and  then  returns  to  the 
forest."  Each  female  is  supposed  to 
lay  six  or  eight  eggs  during  the 
season,  the  male  assisting  her  in 

making  the  hole,  coming  down  and  _^_^    

returning   with    her       Many   birds,  Fig  5  _THE  MALEQ  (Megacephalum 

according  to  Dr.  Wallace,  lay  in  the  maleo). 

same  hole,  as  a  dozen  eggs  are  often 
found  together. 

Some  of  these  birds  gain  their  name  of  brush-"  turkeys  "  from  the  wattle 
which  is  seen  on  the  base  of  the  neck  in  the  genera  Catheturus  and  dEpypodius. 
Though  devoid  of  these  fleshy  wattles,  which  are  turkey-like, 
the  remaining  genus,  Talegallus,  is  of  large  size,  and,  in  a  The 

country  which  possesses  no  real  Game-Bird  of  the  kind,  Brush-Turkeys, 
might  pass  for  a  near  approach  to  a  turkey  in  size  and 
general  appearance.  Of  the  habits  of  the  Australian  brush-turkey  (Catheturns 
lathami),  Gould  gives  the  following  account: — "At  the  commencement  of 
spring,  this  species  scratches  together  an  immense  heap  of  decaying  vegetable 
matter  as  a  depository  for  its  eggs,  and  trusts  to  the  heat  engendered  by  the 
process  of  fermentation  for  the  development  of  its  young.  The  heap  em- 
ployed for  this  purpose  is  collected  by  the  birds  during  several  weeks  previous 
to  the  period  of  laying  ;  it  varies  in  size  from  that  of  two  to  that  of  many 
cart-loads,  and  in  most  instances  is  of  a  pyramidal  form.  The  construction  of 
the  mound  is  either  the  work  of  one  pair  of  birds,  or,  as  some  suppose,  the 
united  labours  of  several  ;  the  same  site  appears  to  be  resorted  to  for  several 
years  in  succession,  the  birds  adding  a  fresh  supply  of  materials  each  succeeding 
season.  The  material  composing  these  mounds  is  accumulated  by  the  bird's 
grasping  a  quantity  of  earth  in  its  foot  and  throwing  it  backwards  to  one  com- 
mon centre,  the  surface  of  the  ground  being  so  completely  scratched  over,  that 
scarcely  a  leaf  or  a  blade  of  grass  is  left.  The  mound  being  completed,  arid 
time  allowed  for  a  sufficient  heat  to  be  engendered,  the  eggs  are  deposited  in 
a  circle  at  the  distance  of  nine  or  twelve  inches  from  each  other,  and  buried 
more  than  an  arm's  depth,  with  the  large  end  upwards  ;  they  are  covered  up 
as  they  are  laid,  and  allowed  to  remain  until  they  are  hatched.  I  have  been 
credibly  informed,  both  by  natives  and  by  settlers  living  near  their  haunts, 
that  it  is  not  an  unusual  event  to  obtain  half  a  bushel  of  eggs  at  one  time 
from  a  single  mound.  Some  of  the  natives  state  that  the  females  are  con- 
stantly in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  mound  about  the  time  when  the  young 
ones  are  liable  to  be  hatched,  and  that  they  frequently  uncover  and  cover 


228  AVES— ORDER  GALLIFORMES 


them  up  again,  apparently  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  those  that  may  have 
appeared  ;  while  others  have  informed  me  that  the  eggs  are  merely  deposited, 
and  the  young  allowed  to  force  their  way  out  unassisted.  One  point,  how- 
ever, has  been  clearly  ascertained,  viz.  that  the  young,  from  the  hour  they 
are  hatched,  are  clothed  with  feathers,  and  have  their  wings  sufficiently 
developed  to  enable  them  to  fly  on  to  the  branches  of  trees,  should  they  need 
to  do  so  to  escape  from  danger  ;  they  are  equally  nimble  on  their  legs.  In 
fact,  as  a  moth  emerges  from  its  chrysalis,  dries  its  wings,  and  flies  away,  so 
the  youthful  brush-turkey,  when  it  leaves  the  egg,  is  sufficiently  perfect  to  be 
able  to  act  independently  and  procure  its  own  food." 

Of  the  habits  of  the  Papuan  and  Moluccan  genera,  Taleyallus  and 
dEpypodius,  little  is  known ;  but  the  ways  of  the  species  of  Lipoa  and  Meya- 
podius have  been  more  carefully  studied.  Ealipoa  from  the  Moluccas  has 
but  one  species,  E.  wallacii,  with  a  more  rounded  wing  than  in  the  ordinary 
megapodes,  and  further  remarkable  for  its  brighter  colours.  Of  the 
ocellated  megapode  (Lipoa  ocdlata}  Sir  George  Grey  sent  to  Mr.  Gould  a 
most  interesting  account  of  the  habits,  from  which  it  appears  that  the  birds 
tirst  scratch  a  hole  in  the  sand,  fill  it  up  with  dead  leaves  and  grass,  and  then 
build  a  mound  of  dried  grass,  etc.,  over  it.  The  hole  is  then  opened  and  an 
egg  deposited  in  the  sand,  and  as  many  as  eight  are  placed  at  intervals,  an 
egg  being  deposited  every  day,  or  at  least  every  few  days;  and  the  male  bird 
helps  the  female  to  uncover  the  hole.  The  eggs  are  p laced  upright,  and 
several  mounds  are  found  within  a  short  distance  of  each  other,  each  being 
the  property  of  a  single  pair  of  birds.  All  the  megapodes  are  very  shy  birds, 
and  escape  to  the  trees  when  pursued,  roosting  in  these  during  the  heat  of 
the  day,  and  being  then  apparently  stupid  birds  they  can  be  shot  down 
in  succession  without  attempting  to  fly,  so  that  the  whole  party  is  soon 
cleared  off. 

The  true  megapodes  (Meyapodius)  are  the  most  widely  distributed  of  any 
of  the  group,  but  are  best  known  from  the  studies  which  have  been  made  of 
the  habits  of  the  Australian  species,  M.  tumulus.  Gilbert  found  many  nests 
of  this  bird  in  the  Cobourg  Peninsula,  and  dug  out  a  young  bird,  which  he 
kept  alive  for  a  few  days.  It  was,  however,  very  wild  and  intractable,  and 
made  its  escape ;  but  it  is  interesting  to  learn  that  this  little  chick  employed 
its  time  in  continually  scratching  up  sand,  for  which  purpose  it  only  used 
one  foot.  Eggs  were  taken  by  Gilbert  from  a  depth  of  six  feet  in  the  mound, 
but  as  the  holes  ran  down  obliquely  from  the  centre,  towards  the  outer  slope 
of  the  hillock,  the  eggs  might  be  six  feet  deep  from  the  summit  but  only  two 
or  three  feet  from  the  side  of  the  mound.  One  mound  that  Gilbert  found  in 
Knocker's  Bay  in  a  thicket  was  fifty  feet  in  height  and  sixty  feet  in  circum- 
ference ;  and  the  late  Mr.  Davison  met  with  a  mound  of  the  Nicobar  mega- 
pode (M.  nicobariensis)  which  was  eight  feel)  in  height  and  quite  sixty  feet 
in  circumference.  Mr.  John  Whitehead,  in  the  course  of  his  famous  explora- 
tions in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  visited  the  Island  of  Palawan,  and  there 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Cuming's  megapode  (Meyapodius  cuminyi),  which 
he  found  nesting  from  June  to  August.  The  note  of  this  species  is  a  most 
doleful  "  mew,"  exactly  like  that  of  a  cat  in  distress,  and  is  heard  many 
times  towards  evening,  adding  to  the  melancholy  of  the  forest.  The  nest 
he  describes  as  a  most  wonderful  structure,  and  no  doubt  the  result  of  the 
labour  of  several  pairs  of  birds.  The  eggs  were  placed  so  deep  that  it  was 
impossible  to  reach  them,  and  he  says  that  he  dug  out  a  young  bird  so  far 
grown  that  it  looked  like  the  adult  of  another  species,  and  yet,  although 


THE  CURASSOW—THE  GROUSE. 


229 


fully  feathered  and  able  to  fly  well,  he  was  convinced  that  it  had  never  seen 
daylight. 

The  curassows  form  the  second  sub-order  of  Professor  Huxley's  Peristero- 
podes,  and  like  the  megapodes  have  the  hind-toe  not  elevated,  but  on  the  same 
level  as  the  other  toes.  They  have  also  a  tufted  oil-gland,  and 
their  whole  appearance  is  more  like  that  of  the  pheasants  and  ^e  Curassows. 
true  Game-Birds,  and  quite  different  from  that  of  the  mega- 
podes. The  wind-pipe  is  long  and  convoluted.  They  like- 
wise nest  in  trees  and  lay  two  white  eggs,  and  the  nestlings  have  a  patterned 
downy  stage,  like  that  of  true  Game-Birds.  Mr.  Ogilvie-Grant,  who  has 
made  a  special  study  of  all  the  Gallinaceous  Birds, 
recognises  eleven  genera  of  curassows,  and  he 
divides  them  into  two  sections,  the  true  curas- 
sows with  a  very  deep  bill,  and  the  guans  with 


—Sub-  Order 

Oraces. 


a  more  elongated  and  widened  bill,  the  tipper 
mandible  being  broader  than  it  is  high.  Very 
little  has  been  recorded  of  the  habits  of  the  curas- 
sows in  their  wild  state,  but  they  are  often  to  be 
seen  in  menageries,  where  they  walk  about  like 
great  turkeys,  or  sit  on  the  branches  of  the  trees 
provided  for  them. 

Ono  of  the  most  curious  of  the  curassows  is 
Lord  Derby's  guan  (Oreophasis  derHanns\  or  the 
Derbyan  mountain-pheasant,  as  it  is  also  called. 
It  has  the  top  of  the  head  almost  bare,  and  an 
elevated  kind  of  cylindrical  casque  on  the  crown, 
situated  between  the  eyes.  This  remarkable  bird 
is  found  only  in  Guatemala,  where  it  is  apparently 
restricted  to  the  forests  on  the  Volcan  de  Fuego.  Fig.  6.—  THE  CRESTED  CURAS- 
Here  Mr.  Osbert  Salvin  found  it  feeding  on  fruits  in 

the  higher  branches  of  the  forest-trees  in  the  early  morning,  and  descending  to 
the  underwood  as  day  advances,  remaining  there  all  the  day-time,  basking  or 
scratching  among  the  leaves.  This,  says  Mr.  Salvin,  is  pretty  much  what  the 
curassows  and  guans  of  the  lowlands  do.  The  Indian  name  for  the  mountain- 
guan  is  "  khannanay,"  and  it  is  apparently  very  rare  even  on  the  mountain 
which  is  its  sole  habitat. 

All  the  rest  of  the  Game-Birds,  comprising  by  far  the  greater  number  of 
known  species,  belong  to  the  sub-order  Alectoropod.es,  and  have  the  hind-toe 
elevated,  and  raised  above  the  level  of  the  other  toes.  Mr.  Ogilvie-Grant 
recognises  two  large  families,  the  Tetraonidce  or  grouse,  and  the  Phasiandce.  or 
pheasants  and  partridges.  In  the  grouse  the  nostrils  are  hidden  by  feathers. 
The  toes  are  mostly  feathered,  and  there  are  never  any  spurs  on  the  legs. 

Eleven   genera    are   recognised  as   constituting   the   family   Tetraonidce, 
and  among   them   are  the   genera  Lagopus,    Lyrurus,  and 
Tetrao,  which  are  represented  in  Great  Britain  by  our  red 
grouse    and  ptarmigan,  the  black  grouse,  and  the  caper- 
cailzie. 

The  willow-grouse  or  "  Ripa  "  of  Scandinavia  (Lagopus  lagopus)  is  the 
most  wide-spread  of  all  the  group,  for  it  inhabits  the  northern  regions  of 
both  hemispheres,  varying  slightly  in  different  localities,  so  that  many  races 
are  recognised  by  modern  ornithologists.  These  forms,  however,  all  belong 
to  one  type,  and  they  are  characterised  by  a  common  character,  the  as- 


Tlie  Grouse. 
—Family 

Telraonidce. 


230 


AVES— ORDER  GALLIFORMES. 


sumption  of   three   different  styles  of  plumages,  in  summer,  autumn,  and 
winter  respectively,  their  plumage  thus  varying  in  accord  with  the  colour  of 
the  country  which  they  inhabit.     Thus,  in  summer,  when 
The  True         their  surroundings  are  darkest,  the  plumage  is  of  a  dark 
Grouse.          colour  ;  in  autumn,  when  the  tint  of  the  country  is  grey,  they 
become  grey  ;  and,  lastly,  when  the  land  becomes  white  from 
its  covering  of  snow,  the  willow-grouse  again  changes  its  plumage  into  snowy 
white.     In  our  red  grouse  (Lagopus  scoticus),  which  is  an  insular  form  of  the 
"Ripa,"  the  changes  of  plumage  are  quite  different,  and  the  bird  always  remains 
dark-coloured  throughout  the  year,  the  necessity  for  change  on  the  ground  of 
protective  resemblance  to  its  surroundings  having  become  removedin  our  island 
climate.    It  is  to  be  noticed  as  a  curious  fact  that  the  willow-grouse,  through- 
out its  changes,  never  loses  its  white  wings.  The  nest  of  the  red  grouse  is  always 

upon  the  ground,  and  the  birds  are  subject  to 
the  attacks  of  many  enemies,  of  which  the 
carrion  and  hooded  crows  are  perhaps  the 
most  active.  Unlike  some  of  the  other  grouse, 
our  British  species  has  but  one  mate,  and  is 
monogamous,  the  nesting  season  being  in 
April  and  May,  though  sometimes  lasting  into 
the  early  days  of  June,  as  grouse  are  much 
affected  by  the  mildness  or  inclemency  of  the 
season,  and  when  the  latter  is  wet,  the  number 
of  eggs  laid  is  much  smaller  than  in  favourable 
summers.  The  red  grouse  is  essentially  a  bird 
of  the  rnoors,  and  its  place  on  the  higher  moun- 
tains is  taken  by  the  ptarmigan  (Lagopus 
midus),  which  also  inhabits  the  higher  moun- 
tains of  Scotland  and  Europe  generally  as  far 
east  as  the  Urals. 

The  black  grouse  (Lyrurus)  are  represented 
by  two  species  only,  one  of  which,  L.  tetrixl 
is  our  British  species,  and  extends  in  suitable 
localities  across  Europe  and  Northern  Asia  to  Eastern  Siberia,  being  repre- 
sented in  the  Caucasus  by  a  second  species,  the  Georgian  black  grouse 
(Lyrurus  mlokosiewiczi). 

These  woodland  grouse  are  the  largest  representatives  of  the  family,  and 

rank,  indeed,  among  the  largest  of  Game-Birds.     They  are  peculiar  to  the 

Old  World,  where  they  inhabit  the  pine-forests  of  Europe 

The  and  Asia.     Four  species  are  known,  our  British  capercailzie 

Capercailzies.     (Tetrao  urogallus)  inhabiting  certain  parts  of  Scotland  and 

extending  its  range  through  the  pine-covered  mountains  of 

Europe  and  Asia  as  far   as  Lake  Baikal.       In  the  Ural  Mountains  it  is 

replaced  by  T.  uralensis,  and  again  in  Eastern  Siberia  by  T.  parvirostris, 

which  is  represented  in  Kamtchatka  by  T.  kamtchaticus.     They  are  woodland 

birds,  and  our  own  species  feeds  on  the  tender  shoots  of  larch  and  spruce, 

as    well   as    on    various    ground-fruits,    in  pursuit  of   which  it  sometimes 

quits  its  favourite  fir- woods  for  the  more   open  country.     Like  the  black 

grouse,  the  capercailzie  has  several  wives,  and  desperate  fights  take  place 

amongst  the  males,  who,  at  the  commencement  of  the  nesting  season,  are 

often  shot  by  the  hunter,  as  they  are  engaged  in  "laking,"  as  it  is  called. 

The  male  resorts  to  some  particular  spot  to  utter  his  love-song,  and  becomes  so 


Fig.  7.— THE  BLACK  GROUSE 
(Lyrurus  tetrix). 


THE  PARTRIDGES.  231 


absorbed  in  his   "spell"  as  to  be   utterly  oblivious  to  anything  going  on 
around  him. 

In  America  several  peculiar  forms  of  grouse  are  found,  the  dusky  caper- 
cailzies (Dendmgapus)  having  a  naked  air-sac  on  the  sides  of  the  neck,  which 
they  are  able  to  inflate  at  will.  Mr.  Gale  describes  the  nesting  habits  of 
D.  obscurus  in  Colorado,  and  says  that  the  male,  during  the  nesting  season, 
performs  some  curious  evolutions.  "  If,"  he  says,  "you  are  anywhere  near 
the  haunts  of  a  pair,  you  will  surely  hear  the  male,  and  most  likely  see  him. 
He  may  interview  you  on  foot,  strutting  along  before  you,  in  short,  hurried 
tacks,  alternating  from  right  to  left,  with  wide-spread  tail  tipped  forward, 
head  drawn  in  and  back,  and  wings  dragging  along  the  ground,  much  in  the 
style  of  a  turkey -gobbler.  At  other  times  you  may  hear  his  mimic  thunder 
overhead  again  and  again  in  his  flight  from  tree  to  tree.  As  you  walk  along, 
he  leads,  and  this  reconnoitring  on  his  part,  if  you  are  not  familiar  with  it, 
may  cause  you  to  suppose  that  the  trees  are  alive  with  grouse.  He  then 
takes  his  stand  upon  a  rock,  stump,  or  log,  and  distends  the  lower  part  of  his 
neck,  opens  his  frill  of  white,  edged  with  the  darker  feather  tips,  showing  in 
the  centre  a  pink  narrow  line,  describing  somewhat  the  centre  of  a  circle  ; 
then  with  very  little  apparent  motion  he  performs  his  growling  or  groaning,  I 
don't  know" which  to  call  it,  which  has  the  strange  peculiarity  of  seeming 
quite  distant  when  quite  near,  and  near  when  distant  ;  in  fact,  appearing  to 
come  from  every  direction  but  the  true  one."  The  pinnated  grouse  (Tym- 
panuchus)  have  an  elongated  tuft  of  feathers  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  as  well 
as  an  air-sac.  These  and  the  ruffed  grouse  (Bonasa)  are  also  North  American, 
being  replaced  in  Europe  and  Northern  Asia  by  the  hazel-hens  (Tetrastes), 
which  inhabit  hilly  and  wooded  districts. 

In  the  family  Phasianidce,  which  includes  all  the  partridges,  quails,  and 
pheasants,  we  meet  with  the  most  typical  of  the  Game-Birds.     Mr.  Ogilvie- 
Grant  proposes  to  divide   them  into  three   sub-families — 
partridges  (Perdicince\  pheasants  (Phasianince},  and  Odonto-  The 

phorinw,  or  American  tooth-billed  partridges.  The  latter  Partridges, 
may  be  at  once  distinguished  by  having  the  cutting  edge  of 
the  lower  mandible  serrated  or  toothed.  The  partridges  may  be  recognised 
by  their  short  and  stumpy  tails,  which  never  exceed  the  length  of  the  wing, 
and  there  are  other  minor  differences,  which  the  above-mentioned  author  has 
pointed  out.  Unfortunately  for  the  classification  of  the  Game-Birds,  many 
forms  are  intermediate,  while  the  characters  assigned  to  the  partridges  hold 
good  only  to  a  certain  extent,  the  character  which  should  separate  par- 
tridges from  pheasants,  viz.  the  proportion  of  the  primaries  and  the 
secondaries,  breaks  down,  as  Mr.  Ogilvie-Grant  has  pointed  out,  in  the 
important  genus  Phasiaum,  which  has  the  wing  of  a  partridge,  but  the  long 
tail  of  a  pheasant.  Thus  the  two  groups,  the  partridges  and  the  pheasants, 
to  outward  appearance  so  different,  appear  to  be  inseparably  connected,  and 
it  is  difficult  to  find  any  line  of  demarcation  between  them.  Pheasant-like 
partridges  and  partridge-like  pheasants  fill  the  gap  between  the  true  partridges 
and  the  true  pheasants. 

The  snow-partridges  of  the  Himalayas  are  represented  by  the  genus  Lenva, 
which  has  the  upper  half  of  the  tarsus  covered  with  feathers,  indicating  an 
inhabitant  of  high   elevations.      Thus   we  find   the   genus 
Lerwa  only  in  the  upper  ranges  of  the  Himalayan  system,      Part!.id^es 
from  Koteghur  to  Sikkim,  and  again  in  Moupin  and  the     Genug 
mountains  of  Szechuen  in  Western  China,     It  is  found  near 


232 


A  VES— ORDER  GALL/FORMES. 


The 

Snow- Cocks. — 
Genus 

Tetraoyallus. 


the  snow-line  in  summer,  and  is  somewhat  local  in  its  distribution,  inhabiting 
rocky  situations,  where  its  plumage  blends  with  its  surroundings,  and  makes 
the  bird  difficult  to  identify.  It  nests  in  the  Himalayas  at  an  elevation  of 
from  12,000  to  15,000  feet,  and  is  very  tame,  probably  on  account  of  its 
habitat  being  only  reached  by  a  most  adventurous  sportsman,  whose  visits 
are  few  and  far  between. 

These  large  and  handsome  birds  are  readily  distinguished  by  their  large 
size  and  by  the  number  of  their  tail-feathers,  which  are  20  or  22  in 
number.  The  snow-cocks,  or  snow-pheasants  as  they  are 
called  (Tetraogallus),  are  the  largest  of  the  partridge-group, 
and  are  only  found  in  high  ranges,  from  the  mountains  of 
Asia  Minor,  the  Caucasus,  and  Persia,  to  the  Himalayas, 
Turkestan,  the  Altai,  and  the  higher  hills  of  Moupin  and 
North- Western  China.  In  the  Himalayas,  the  snow-pheasant  (T.  himalayensis) 
is  an  inhabitant  of  the  snowy  ranges,  from  which  it  only  migrates  to  some- 
what lower  altitudes  on  the  approach  of  the  winter  sno\V.  These  birds  are 
generally  found  in  packs  of  from  five  to  ten,  but  sometimes  twenty  or  thirty 
are  in  a  single  flock  ;  and  even  during  the  nesting-season  a  good  many  are 
found  in  company.  Snow-pheasants  are  birds  of  the  open,  rocky  hill-country, 
frequenting  grass-lands,  and  never  entering  the  forest  or  perching  on  trees. 
They  are,  therefore,  evidently  gigantic  partridges  in  their  ways,  and  it  is  a 
mistake  to  call  them  snow-"  pheasants,''  as  is  so  often  done. 

The  red-legged  partridges  differ  from  the  true  partridges  in  having  only 
14  feathers  in  the  tail.  They  are  also  easily  recognisable  by  the  beautiful 
barring  of  red,  grey,  and  black  of  the  sides  of  the 
body.  The  most  familiar  of  all  the  group  is  the  red- 
legged  partridge  of  England  (Catcalls  rufa),  which  is 
confined  to  South-Western  and  Western  Europe.  In 
North- West  Africa,  Sardinia,  and  Southern  Spain 
it  has  a  near  ally  in  the  Barbary  red-legged  partridge 
(C.  petrosa),  while  the  rock  red-legged  partridge  (C. 
saxatilis)  takes  its  place  in  the  mountains  of  Southern 
Europe,  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  Balkans.  A  paler 
form,  known  as  the  Chukar  or  Greek  partridge  (C. 
chukar),  extends  from  Greece  through  Central  Asia  to 
China,  and  is  a  well-known  bird  in  the  Himalayas. 
In  Tibet  and  Kokonoor  a  large  species,  Prjevalskfs 
red-legged  partridge  (Caccabis  mayna),  is  met  with  ; 
but  the  largest  of  all  is  the  black-headed  red-legged 
partridge  (C.  melanocephala\  which  lives  in  Southern 
Arabia,  and  is  a  very  fine  bird,  approaching  even 
some  members  of  the  genus  Tetraogallus  in  size.  The 
distribution  of  these  species  of  Caccabis  is  most  interesting,  and  there  is  no 
doubt  that  climate  exercises  considerable  influence  on  their  plumage,  those 
which  inhabit  dry  and  sandy  localities  being  paler  than  those  of  the  more 
cultivated  country.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  chukars  ;  but  considerable 
variation  in  tint  is  also  seen  in  the  common  red-leg  from  different  areas.  The 


Fig.  8— THE  RED- 

L£GGED  PARTKIDOJ 

(Caccabis  rufa). 


chukars  inhabit  dry  and  stony  situations,  and  never  go  into  the  forests,  pre- 
ferring in  the  Lower  Himalayas  the  grassy  hill-sides  to  the  cultivated  fields. 
In  summer  they  are  met  with  in  pairs,  or  in  small  parties  ;  but  in  winter 
they  assemble  in  loose,  scattered  flocks,  sometimes  to  the  number  of  forty  or 
fifty,  or  even  a  hundred. 


THE  FRANCOLINS.  233 


In  the  bare  portion  of  the  countries  between  North- Western  India,  Persia, 
and  North-Eastern  Africa,  is  the  home  of  the  see-see  partridges  (Ammoperdix), 
of  which  two  species,  A.  bonhami  and  A.  heyi,  are  known  ;  and  then  we  leave 
the  true  partridges  for  the  francolins,  which  are  a  very  large  group,  princi- 
pally African.  They  may  be  divided  into  two  genera,  Francolinus  and 
Pternistes.  Both  these  genera  have  14  tail-feathers  ;  but  the  former  has  a 
feathered  throat,  while  in  Pternistes  the  throat  is  bare.  More  than  forty 
species  of  francolin  are  known,  of  which  all  but  four  are  peculiar  to  Africa. 
They  inhabit  all  kinds  of  country  :  some  the  open  grass-lands,  some  bare  and 
desert  situations,  while  others  are  found  in  forest-lands. 

This  interesting  species  (F.  francolinus)  has  now  been  practically  exter- 
minated in  its  former  haunts  in  Sicily  and  other  parts  of  Southern  Europe, 
but  is  still  found  in  Cyprus,   Palestine,  and  Asia  Minor, 
whence  it  extends  eastwards  to  the  Indian  Peninsula,  as  far      The  Common 

as  Assam  and  Manipur.     It  is  familiarly  known  as  the  black      Francolin. 

partridge,  by  Indian  sportsmen,  and  is  a  favourite  Game- Bird  F.  francolinus. 
in  the  north-west  provinces  of  India,  though  it  is  much  less 
common  in  many  places  than  it  was  formerly.  This  is  partly  owing  to  the  per- 
secution it  receives,  while  from  the  accounts  published  by  Mr.  Allan  Hume 
and  his  friends,  the  francolin  is  not  a  prolific  breeder,  and  the  young  birds 
suffer  from  the  depredations  of  stoats,  jackals,  etc.  It  is,  like  most  of  its  kind, 
a  ground  bird,  but  Mr.  Greig  says  that  the  cock  will  at  times  get  on  to  a  stump 
or  ant-hill,  when  calling,  and  he  has  even  seen  them  high  up  in  fir-trees. 
The  natives  are  very  fond  of  keeping  the  francolin  as  a  pet,  and  numbers  are 
netted  by  them.  Some  of  the  African  species  are  quite  small,  scarcely  larger 
than  a  quail,  whilst  others  are  of  large  size  and  heavy  build,  and  they  are 
sometimes  so  disinclined  to  fly,  that  after  being  flushed  a  second  time,  they 
will  allow  themselves  to  be  taken  with  the  hand  rather  than  rise  again. 

These  birds  have  all  the  appearance  of  francolins,  but  differ  from  them  in 
having  the  throat  naked.     Nine  species  are  known,  and  they  are  all  peculiar 
to  the  Ethiopian  region.     Pternistes  swainsoni  is  one  of  the 
best-known  species, -and  is  the  "pheasant"  of  Matabeleland.        The  Bare- 
Mr.  T.    E.    Buckley   says   that   the   coveys   are   extremely         throated 
difficult  to  flush,  and  they  prefer  to  escape  by  running.     In     Francolins. — 
the  day-time  they  come  out  into  the  open,  and  frequent  the  Genus  Pternistes. 
neighbourhood  of  small  streams  ;  they  pass  the  night  in  the 
brushwood,   and  roost  on  trees.     They  feed  on  bulbs,  seeds,  berries,  and 
insects.     The  eggs  of  Swainson's  bare-throated  francolin  are  six  or  more  in 
number  ;  they  are  rounded  in  shape,  of  a  pinkish  cream-colour,  finely  speckled 
with  chalky-white. 

In  the  Malayan  Archipelago  the  francolins  of  Africa  and  India  are  re- 
presented by  the  genus  Rhizothera,  distinguished  by  its  long  bill.  The 
typical  species,  the  long-billed  francolin  (R.  longirostris\  is  an  inhabitant 
of  .the  southern  portion  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  Sumatra,  and  the  lowlands 
of  Borneo.  In  the  highlands  of  the  latter  island,- on  Mount  Dulit,  at  an 
elevation  of  4,000  feet,  it  is  replaced  by  Hose's  long- billed  francolin 
(Rhizothera  dulitensis). 

Of  these  birds  our  common  partridge  (P.  perdix)  is  the  type,  and  the  best- 
known  species.  In  illustration  of  the  curiosities  of  bird-life,  especially  in 
species  the  most  familiar  to  us,  I  may  mention  that  Mr.  Ogilvie-Grant, 
who  has  made  the  game-birds  his  special  study,  has  recently  discovered 
diflerences  in  the  coloration  of  the  sexes  of  the  partridge  hitherto  unrecorded. 


234  AVES— ORDER  GALLIFORMES. 


The    male,    as    might    be   believed,   has   a   large    horse-shoe   shaped   mark 
of    chestnut    on   the  breast.      This  is  either  feebly  developed  or  entirely 

absent   in   the   adult  female,  which  can  always  be   recog- 

Tlie  True        nised    by   the    barred   Aving-coverts,   of   which   the   ground 

Partridges. —      colour  is   black,  with  widely  set  buff  cross-bars.       Young 

Genus  Perdix.    birds    of    both    sexes    can    be   told    by   the    pointed,    not 

rounded,  end  to  the  first  primary,  while  the  yellowish  horn- 
colour  of  the  feet  is  also  a  distinguishing  character.  Then  comes  the  curious 
fact  that  the  young  female  has  a  horse-shoe  mark  on  the  breast,  which  is  not 
seen  in  the  immature  male.  Many  ornithologists  recognise  certain  races  of 
the  common  partridge  in  Europe,  and  a  small  form,  supposed  to  inhabit  the 
higher  ground  in  summer  and  to  descend  to  the  lower  ground  in  winter,  is 
known  as  Perdix  damascena.  A  still  more  curious  hill  race  from  the 
mountains  of  Lorraine,  which  crops  up  occasionally  in  certain  parts  of 
England,  is  the  mountain  partridge  (Perdix  montana),  a  bird  almost  entirely 
rufous,  with  a  creamy  buff  head.  It  cannot  be  considered  more  than  a 
variety  of  the  ordinary  partridge,  but  at  first  sight  would  seem  to  be  a 
perfectly  distinct  species. 

In  Eastern  Siberia  our  common  partridge  is  represented  by  the  bearded 
partridge  (P.  daurica),  which  has  tufts  of  feathers  on  the  throat,  forming  a 
kind  of  "  beard.3'  In  Tibet  and  Kansu  two  species  of  true  partridge  are 
encountered,  P.  hodgsonice  and  P.  sifanica,  both  of  which  have  sixteen  tail 
feathers,  instead  of  eighteen,  as  in  our  common  species. 

Passing  by  several  small  genera  of  bush  quails  (Margaroperdix  of  Mada- 
gascar, Perdicula  and  Microperdix  of  India),  we  come  to  the  tree  partridges 

(Arboricola)  which  inhabit  the  hill  ranges  of  the  Himalayas, 

The  Tree         Assam,  and  the  Burmese  provinces,  and  those  of  Sumatra, 

Partridges. —      Java,  Borneo,  Hainan,  and  Formosa.    This  distribution  is  in- 

Genus  teresting  as  snowing  the  Himalayan  element  in  the  mountain 

Arboricola        fauna  of  the  last-named  islands.     In  the  lower  hills  of  Burma, 

Malacca,  Sumatra,  and  Borneo  occurs  the  allied  genus 
Tropicoperdix,  which  contains  a  couple  of  species  very  like  those  of  Arboricola, 
but  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  the  supra-orbital  chain  of  bones,  which  is 
one  of  the  features  of  Arboricola.  Closely  allied  to  these  tree-partridges  are 
the  genera  Hcematortyx  of  Mount  Kina  Balu,  in  North-Western  Borneo,  re- 
markable for  its  three-spurred  leg  and  crimson  head,  and  Caloperdix,  the 
latter  genus  containing  three  species,  inhabiting  respectively  the  mountains 
of  Tenasserim  and  the  Malay  Peninsula,  Sumatra  and  Java,  and  North-Western 
Borneo.  The  crested  wood-partridges  (Rollulus\  which  have  a  tuft  of  long 
hair-like  bristles  on  the  middle  of  the  forehead,  are  represented  by  a  single 
species  (jR.  rouloul\  which  is  found  in  the  Indo-Malayan  sub-region  from 
Southern  Tenasserim  and  the  Malay  Peninsula  to  the  Sunda  Islands.  It  is 
accompanied  in  the  greater  part  of  its  range  by  the  black  wood-partridge 
(Melanoperdix  nigra). 

These  little  birds  are  only  found  in  the  Old  World,  the  common  or  migra- 
tory quail  (Coturnix  coturnix)  being  found  in  Europe  and  Northern  Asia  in 

summer,  and  migrating  in  vast  hosts.     The  numbers  which 

The  Quails. —     appear  in  the  winter  quarters  of  the  species,  in  Northern 

Genus  Coturnix.  Africa,  in  Egypt,  and,  above  all,  in  North-Western  India, 

are  sometimes  incredible.  Colonel  Tickell,  in  one  of  his 
shooting  experiences,  speaks  of  them  as  like  locusts  in  number.  In  South 
Africa  our  European  quail  is  replaced  by  the  Cape  quail  (Coturnix  capensis), 


QUAILS— PHEASANTS.  235 


which  extends  northwards  to  the  Azores,  and  the  Canary  Islands;  and  in  Japan, 
Mongolia,  and  China,  G.  japonica  replaces  C.  cotumix.  The  female  of  C.  japonica 
is  bearded,  which  is  a  curious  fact,  when  one  remembers  that  a  bearded 
partridge  of  Siberia  replaces  our  own  western  partridge  (P.  perdix).  In 
India,  Africa,  and  Australia  are  peculiar  species  of  the  genus  Coturnix,  and 
New  Zealand  formerly  possessed  a  species  of  its  own  (C.  novae,  zealandm). 
The  New  Zealand  quail  is  now  extinct,  and  specimens  are  valued  at  nearly 
£100,  and  yet  fifty  years  ago  it  was  so  common  that  twenty  brace  in  a  day's 
shooting  was  not  considered  a  large  bag  !  If  the  sportsmen  of  those  days 
had  known  of  the  impending  extinction  of  the  species,  and  had  preserved 
the  skins  of  the  birds  they  shot  for  the  table,  a  small  fortune  might  have 
been  their  lot. 

These   small    birds   are    peculiar   to    the    Australian    region,    inhabiting 
Australia,  New  Guinea,  and  the  islands  of  Timor  and  Flores.     They  closely 
resemble  the  true  quails,  and  only  differ  in  their  short  grey 
axillaries.     The  eggs,  however,  are  not  so  boldly  marked  as  The  Swamp  and 
in  those  of  the  quails,  and  are  of  a  pale  bluish  white,  with  a    Painted  Quails, 
number  of  light  brown  spots.     The  painted  quails  (Excal- 
factorla)  are  birds  of  small  size,  but  of  many  colours.     They  inhabit  India, 
the  Indo-Chinese  countries,  and  the  entire  Malayan  Archipelago  to  Australia, 
while  one  species,  E.  adansonij  is  found  in  Africa. 

Under  this  sub-family  are  also  included  the  turkeys  and  the  guinea-fowls,  and 
it  contains  the  most  widely  distributed  and  the  most  highly  decorated  of  the 
Game-Birds.    The  bamboo-pheasants  and  the  spur-fowl  of  the 
Indian  region  have  rather  the  aspect  of  partridges  than  true    The  Pheasants. 
pheasants.      Another  intermediate  form  between  the  two     —Sub-Family 
sub- families  is  seen  in  the  blood-pheasants  (Ithagenes)  of  the       Phasianince. 
Himalayas  and  the  allied  chains  of   mountains  in  North- 
Western  China.     They  are  forest  birds,  living  at  a  great  altitude  near  the 
snows,  affecting  the  clumps  of  mountain-bamboo,  and  feeding  at  some  seasons 
on  the  tops  of  pine  and  juniper,  when  their  flesh  is  somewhat  rank  to  eat, 
and  at  others  on  seeds  and  small  fruits,  when  their  flesh  is  quite  palatable. 

These   splendid  birds,   generally    called   "  Argus "  pheasants   by   Indian 
sportsmen,  on  account  of  their  white-spotted  plumage,  are  found  in  the 
Himalayas  and  the  hills  of  Assam  and  South-Eastern  China. 
They  are  remarkable  for  the  adornments  of  the  males,  which      The  Horned 
have  fleshy  horns  and  a  bare  gular  lappet  of  bright  colours.      Pheasants.— 
The  latter  is  displayed  during  the  breeding-season,  but  is  Genus  Trayopan. 
scarcely  distinguishable  in  the  winter,  when  the  birds  aro 
most  easily  observed,  as  they  descend  to  the  lower  grounds  and  are  often 
snared  by  the  natives.      In  summer  they  frequent  the  forests  near  the 
snow-line. 

The  moonals  or  impeyan  pheasants  are  some  of  the  handsomest  of  all 
known  birds,  their  plumage  being  metallic,  and  of  divers  colours  of  green, 
purple,  and  blue,  and  they  carry  a  crest  of  light  spade-shaped 
plumes  or  curled  feathers.     They  inhabit  the  higher  ranges  The    Moonals. — 
of  the  Himalayas  and  the  mountains  of  Assam  and  Western  Genus 

China,  descending  to  lower  elevations  as  the  winter  comes     Lophophorus. 
on.     Mr.  Hume,  speaking  of  the  common  moonal,  says  : — 
"  There  are  few  sights  more  striking,  where  birds  are  concerned,  than  that 
of  a  grand  old  cock  shooting  out  horizontally  from  the  hillside  just  below 
one,  glittering  and  flashing  in  the  golden  sunlight,   a  gigantic  rainbow- 


236 


AVES— ORDER  GALLIFORMES. 


Fig.  9.— LOBED  PHEASANT  (Lobiophasis 
bulweri). 


tinted  gem,  and  then  dropping  stone-like,  with  closed  wings,  into  the  abyss 
below. " 

The  fire-backed  pheasants  (Acomus  and  Lophura)  arc  inhabitants  of  the 
mountains  of  the  Indo-Chinese  provinces  and  the  Malayan  Peninsula  and 
Islands.  On  the  high  mountains  of  North- Western  Borneo,  on  the  La  was  River 
and  the  region  of  Mount  Dulit  occurs  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  all  game 

birds,  the  lobed  pheasant  (Lobiopha- 
sis), which  has  no  less  than  thirty- 
two  feathers  in  the  tail,  which,  as  Mr. 
Ogilvie-Grant  says,  is  "by  far  the 
largest  number  of  tail-feathers  in  the 
Phasianidce.  One  of  the  eared  phea- 
sants (Crossoptilum  aiiritum)  has 
twenty-four,  and  the  smallest  num- 
ber occurs  in  the  painted  quails 
(Excalfactoria),  which  have  only 
eight ! "  The  female  of  the  lobed 
pheasant,  however,  has  twenty- 
eight  feathers  only.  The  horns  and 
wattles  on  the  head  show  some  sort 
of  likeness  to  the  naked  ornaments 

found  in  the  tragopans,  but  the  style  of  plumage  is  in  other  respects  entirely 
different.  Like  the  tragopans,  the  lobed  pheasant  inhabits  the  mountains, 
but  does  not  extend  beyond  2,000  feet,  and,  according  to  Mr.  C.  Hose,  it  lives 
in  the  forest,  and  has  the  ways  of  a  jungle-fowl. 

In  these  birds,  which  are  remarkable  for  the  long  white  tufts  on  the  side  of 
the  head,  whence  the  name  of  "eared"  pheasants,  the  sexes  are  alike  in 
colour.     They  are  large  birds,  inhabiting  the  high  mountains 
of  Tibet,  Western  China,  and  Manchuria.     They  live  in  the 
woods  at  high  elevations,  and  assemble  in  large  flocks. 

The  best-known  species  of  Gennteus  is  the  silver  pheas- 
ant, so  often   seen   in   aviaries.      The   kalijes   inhabit  the 
Himalayas  and  the  hills  of  Assam  and  Burmah.      Jn  the 
Himalayas    they    are    found    at    different    elevations,    from    1,000    up    to 
9,COO  feet.     They  are  easily  reared  in  captivity,  and  large  numbers  are  snared 
by  the  natives.     The  black-backed  kalij  is  described  by  Mr. 
The  Kalij         Gammie,  a  well-known  Himalayan  naturalist,  as  being  very 
Pheasants. —      tame  when  it  is  found  away  from  its  native  forests,  which  it 
Genus  Gennceus.  does  not  often  quit.     He  says  : — "  In  fine  weather,  the  male 
often  makes  a  sharp,  drumming  noise  by  beating  his  wings 
against  his  sides,  somewhat  after  the  style  of  the  wing-flapping  of  a  domestic 
cock,  preparatory  to  crowing  from  some  elevated  place  ;  but  instead  of  the 
cock's  few  leisurely  flaps,  the  kalij  strikes  oftener  and  smarter,  producing  a 
sound  more  like  drumming  than  flapping.     This  noise  is  heard  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year,  but  most  frequently  before  the  setting  in  of  the  rainy  season  ; 
at  other  times  just  before  a  fall  of  rain.     Hence  the  natives  look  on  the 
drumming  of  the  kalij  as  a  sure  sign  of  approaching  rain."     The  Himalayan 
kalijes,    even   in   a   wild  state,  interbreed,   while   in   the  species  from  the 
Burmese  provinces,  intermediate  forms  also  occur,  which  render  it  difficult  to 
draw  the  line  between  the  different  species. 

The  koklass  or  pucras  pheasants  (Pucrasia)  are  found  in  the  Himalayan 
chain  from  Afghanistan  eastwards  to  Tibet,  and  the  mountain  ranges  of 


The  Eared 

Pheasants. — 

Genus 

Crossoptilum. 


PHEASANTS. 


237 


The  Common 
Pheasant.  — 


colchicus. 


Southern  China  to  Fokien  and  Manchuria.  They  are  birds  of  the  forests  like 
the  kalijes,  and  of  a  somewhat  retired  and  solitary  disposition,  according  to 
Mr.  F.  Wilson,  who  writes  of  P.  macrotephct : — "In  the 
remote  forests  of  the  interior  of  the  Himalayas,  on  the  report  The  Koklass 
of  a  gun,  all  the  koklass  pheasants  within  half  a  mile  or  so  will  Pheasants.— 
often  crow  after  such  a  report.  They  will  also  crow  after  a  clap  Genus  Pucrasia. 
of  thunder  or  any  loud  or  sudden  noise,  and  this  peculiarity 
seems  to  be  confined  to  those  which  live  in  the  dark  shady  woods  of  the  interior, 
as  I  never  noticed  them  acting  thus  in  the  lower  hills.  The  food  of  the  koklass 
pheasants  is  varied,  like  that  of  the  kalijes,  and  consists,  according  to  Mr. 
Wilson,  of  leaves  and  buds,  roots,  grubs,  acorns,  seeds,  berries,  moss,  and 
flowers.  The  nest  of  P.  macrolopha  is  described  as  a  hole  scraped  in  the 
ground,  and  sheltered  by  a  tuft  of  grass,  or  a  bush,  or  rock.  The  species  is 
found  nesting  at  an  elevation  of  from  5,000  to  11,000  feet  in  the  Himalayas." 
To  the  genus  Phasianus  belong  the  birds  which  we  all  know  familiarly  as 
pheasants,  and  it  is  interesting  as  representing  one  of  the  few  types  peculiar 
to  the  Palsearctic  region.  There  are  a  great  many  species 
of  the  genus  Phasianus  scattered  through  Europe,  Central 
Asia,  and  China,  most  of  them  being  of  the  form  and  general 
coloration  of  our  common  pheasant  (P.  colchicus),  which  is 
supposed  not  to  be  a  native  of  Western  Europe,  but  to  have 
been  imported  from  the  Caucasus  or  from  Asia  Minor. 
Recent  discoveries  of  fossil  remains,  however,  tend  to  prove  that  pheasants 
of  some  kind  were  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  western  Palsearctic  region, 
and  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  pheasant  of  our  own  day  is  a  descendant  of 
these  old  forms,  and  that  the  story  of  its  introduction  into  England  by  the 
Romans  is  a  myth.  At  the  present 
time  it  is  very  difficult  to  find  a  pure- 
bred pheasant  in  the  British  Islands, 
as  by  far  the  greater  number  of 
those  birds  killed  in  the  autumn 
have  white  rings  round  their  necks, 
owing  to  the  introduction  of  the 
Chinese  ring-necked  pheasants,  with 
which  our  native  birds  have  freely 
crossed.  The  genus  Phasianus  is 
one  of  the  few  typical  forms  of  birds 
peculiar  to  the  Palsearctic  region, 
for  in  the  Himalayas  it  is  repre- 
sented by  the  cheer  pheasant 
(Catreus  ivalliehii).  Thus  the  true  pheasants  are  found  in  temperate  Europe, 
where  P.  colchicus  is  the  only  representative  species  of  the  genus,  to  Central 
Asia  and  China,  where  the  species  are  many,  though  in  these  countries  the 
pheasants  have  either  white  rings  on  their  necks  or  white  patches  on  the 
upper  part  of  their  wings.  Of  P.  colchicus  there  are  several  representative 
races,  as  for  instance  P.  talischensis,  from  Talisch,  on  the  south-western  border 
of  the  Caspian  Sea ;  P.  persicus,  from  the  south-eastern  shores  of  the  Caspian ; 
and  P.  principally  from  North-Western  Afghanistan.  Thence  in  the  Oxus 
Valley,  Zarafshan,  and  other  localities  in  Central  Asia,  our  common  pheasant 
is  represented  by  various  species  and  races,  for  a  description  of  which 
students  must  search  the  writings  of  Mr.  Ogilvie-Grant  and  others.  The 
ring-necked  pheasants  are  found  from  Turkestan  to  Kuldja,  Eastern  Siberia, 


Fig,  10.— THE  COMMON  PHEASANT 
(Phasianus  colchicus). 


238  AVES-ORDER  GALLIFORMES. 


China,  and  the  island  of  Formosa.  In  Japan  a  splendid  species  is  resident, 
P.  versicolar,  remarkable  for  its  dark  green  breast,  and  in  the  same  country  are 
found  the  copper  pheasants  (P.  samimeringi  and  P.  scintillaus),  birds  of  a 
different  type  altogether  from  our  ordinary  pheasant.  The  finest  of  all, 
however,  is  Reeves'  pheasant  (Phasianus  reevesi),  which  lives  in  China,  and 
is  remarkable  for  its  white  crown  and  the  length  of  its  tail,  which,  in  fully 
adult  birds,  attains  to  the  dimensions  of  five  feet  ! 

The  barred-backed  pheasants  (Callophasis)  are  represented  by  two  species 
only,  C.  ellioti,  from  the  mountains  of  South-Eastern  China,  and  C.  humice, 
from  the  Shan  States  and  the  Lushai  Hills  and  those  of  Manipur. 

The  best-known  species  of  the  genus  Chrysolophus  is  the  golden  pheasant 

(C.  pictus),  and  the  name  is  commonly  used  to  designate  the  genus,  and  is 

m       «  perfectly  appropriate  to  the  golden  pheasant,  but  is  a  mis- 

Tne  CaP®a       nomer    for  the   Lady   Amhersts'   pheasant,   which   has   no 

—Genus'        golden  colour  on  its  neck,  but  carries  a  "cape"  of  white, 

Chrysolophus      barred    with    steel-blue.       The    golden    pheasant    inhabits 

Southern  and  Western  China  to  Kokonoor,  and  C.  amherstice 

replaces  it  in  the  mountains  of  Western  China  and  Eastern  Tibet. 

These  birds  have  a  special  interest,  as  it  is  from  them  that  all  our  breeds 
of  poultry  have  been  derived,  although  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that  a  cochin- 
china,  a  dorking,  or  n  Spanish  fowl  can  have  originated  in 
The  Jungle-       these  spangled,  many-coloured  denizens  of  the  forests  of  the 
Fowl.— Genus      East.    The  nearest  approach  to  the  wild  stock  that  domestic 
Gallus.  variation   produces   is  found  in  the  "Game"  fowl,   and  a 

very  interesting  group  is  to  be  seen  in  the  Natural  History 
Museum  of  some  birds  shot  wild  in  the  Fiji  Islands  by  Mr.  E.  L.  Layard, 
C.M.G.  In  the  early  voyages  in  the  Pacific  by  Captain  Cook  and  other 
navigators,  fowls  were  turned  loose  on  some  of  the  islands,  to  provide 
food  for  any  unfortunate  sea-faring  folk  who  might  be  shipwrecked  on 
them.  At  the  present  day  these  birds  have  taken  to  their  original  habits 
as  jungle-fowl,  and  have  to  be  hunted  and  shot.  They  have,  moreover, 
reverted  to  the  plumage  of  true  jungle-fowl,  and  though  the  cocks  still  show 
traces  of  a  domestic  strain,  the  hens,  as  well  as  some  of  the  cock-birds,  have 
assumed  once  more  the  coloration  of  the  wild  stock  from  which  they  were 
originally  derived.  The  true  jungle-fowl  are  found  at  the  present  day  in 
the  Indian  Peninsula  and  Ceylon,  the  Indo-Malayan  region  to  Cochin-China 
and  the  island  of  Hainan,  south  to  the  Philippines,  Java,  Sumatra,  Borneo, 
Celebes,  and  other  islands  of  the  North  Moluccas. 

These  are  birds  of  grey  coloration,  but  remarkable  for  the  metallic  green, 
purple,  or  blue  spots  or  "eyes'1  which  adorn  their  plumage.     Five  species 
are  known,  inhabiting  the  Himalayan  system  of  mountains 
Ph          +°e        from  Sikkim  to  Tenasserim  and  Cochin-China,  and  thence 
Genus3  through  the  Malayan  Peninsula  to  Sumatra,  Borneo,  and  the 

Polypectrum  islan<i  °f  Palawan  in  the  south  of  the  Philippine  Archipelago. 
They  are  found  from  the  lowlands  up  to  6,000  feet  in  Tenas- 
serim. They  seem  to  affect  forest  country,  feeding  on  fruit,  insects,  worms, 
and  small  land-shells.  The  call  of  P.  chinquis,  the  Himalayan  species,  is  said 
by  Mr.  Clark  to  be  something  like  a  laugh—  "ha— ha— ha— ha."  Mr.  John 
Whitehead  says  that  in  Palawan  he  found  the  species  of  the  island,  P. 
nclpoleonis,  very  local,  and  his  specimens  were  all  collected  in  one  district  of 
the  forest.  It  is  not  known  for  certain  whether  the  peacock  pheasants  are 
polygamous,  and  Mr.  Whitehead  inclines  to  the  idea  that  they  are  not ;  but 


ARGUS  PHEASANTS— PEA-FOWL.,  239 


Mr.  Clark  once  came  across  a  party  of  four,  consisting  of  one  male  and  three 
female  birds.  In  Palawan  Mr.  Whitehead  found  that  Napoleon's  peacock 
pheasant  had  a  "showing-off"  ground,  like  that  of  the  argus  pheasants,  a 
bare  space  cleared  in  the  forest,  kept  scrupulously  clean,  "  with  a  small  hump 
of  earth  in  the  middle,  where,  no  doubt,  the  male  birds  show  off  their  splendid 
plumage,  and  perhaps  do  battle. ';  He  adds  that  the  fights,  if  they  have  any, 
must  be  very  short  and  decisive,  as  the  double  spurs  of  the  cocks  would  be 
sufficient  to  cut  his  adversary  into  bits.  In  the  Himalayan  species,  P. 
chinquis,  which  ranges  into  Cachar  and  Tenasserim,  as  many  as  four  spurs 
are  sometimes  found  on  the  legs  of  the  male. 

Of  these  extraordinary  pheasants,  three  species   are   known  :    the  com- 
mon argus  (A.   argus)    of    the    Malay  Peninsula,   Gray's    argus   (A.   grayi) 
of  Borneo,  and  A.  bipunctatus,  the  habitat  of  which  is  at 
present  unknown.      In  Tonquin  the  crested  argus  (Rhein-        The  Argus 
hardius  ocellatus)  occurs.     The  argus  pheasants  are  remark-      Pheasants. — 
able  for  "the  hundred  metallic  eyes"  on  the  wings,   the  Genus 

feathers  of  which  are  prolonged  in  an  extraordinary  Aryusiamis. 
manner,  while  the  tail-feathers  exceed  in  length  the 
dimensions  of  any  of  the  Game-Birds.  Like  the  giraffe,  which  most 
people  would  think  to  be  incapable  of  threading  its  way  through  jungle, 
the  apparently  clumsy  argus  makes  its  escape  by  darting  into  the 
thicket,  and  it  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  of  birds  to  force  into  flight. 
So  says  the  greatest  of  modern  collectors  of  birds,  the  late  Mr.  W.  R. 
Davison,  who  spent  years  in  the  jungles  of  Tenasserim  and  the  Malayan 
Peninsula,  engaged  in  forming  that  wonderful  collection  of  Oriental  birds 
presented  to  the  nation  in  1885  by  Mr.  Allen  Hume,  C.B.  In  Tenasserim  he  paid 
great  attention  to  the  habits  of  the  argus,  and  is  perhaps  the  only  white  man 
who  has  seen  the  bird  in  its  native  haunts.  He"  found  them  extremely  shy 
and  difficult  of  observation,  never  rising,  but  seeking  safety  in  running  away 
through  the  thick  jungle.  The  males  themselves  do  not  seem  to  engage  in 
combat,  though  they  will  answer  each  other's  call.  The  note  is  "  how-how," 
repeated  ten  or  a  dozen  times,  though  the  report  of  a  gun  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, or  the  passing  of  a  troop  of  monkeys,  will  set  every  male  calling.  The 
cry  of  the  female  is  different,  "  how-o-woo,"  repeated  ten  times  or  more. 
The  males  clear  an  open  space  in  the  forest,  which  Mr.  Davison  believed  to 
be  a  "  dancing-ground,"  though  he  never  caught  a  bird  inflagrante  delicto.  Not 
a  leaf  is  allowed  to  soil  the  hallowed  spot,  though  occasionally  a  male  of  the 
fire-back  pheasant  will  intrude,  and  take  a  savage  delight  in  driving  the 
argus  from  his  carefully-prepared  "  arena." 

Two  kinds  of  pea-fowl  are  known,  the  common  Paro  cristatus  of  India 
and  Ceylon,   and  P.  muticus  of   Indo-China  and  the  Malayan  Peninsula. 
These  birds  do  not  ascend  the  mountains,  as  a  rule,  but  are 
plentiful   in   the   plains   of    North- Western   India,   and    in  The  Pea-Fowl. — 
Rajputana  they  are  held  sacred  by  the  natives.     Near  Jey-      Genus  Paro. 
pur,  for  instance,  the  number  of  pea-fowl  is  very  large,  and 
they  can  be  observed  from  the  windows  of  the  passing  train,  walking  alout 
in  the  grass  near  the  sides  of  the  line,  or  perching  on  the  fences.     They  are 
very  well-known  birds  in  confinement,  and  the   "train"  of  eyed  plumes, 
formed  by  the  elongated  upper  tail-coverts  of  the  male  bird,  is  one  of  the 
most  extraordinary  developments  of  plumage  in  the  Class  Aves. 

Two  very  aberrant  forms  of  guinea-fowl,  Phasidus  and  Agedastes,  inhabit 
West  Africa,  from  Liberia  to  the  Congo ;  but  the  true  guinea-fowls  (Numida) 


240 


AVES- ORDER  GALLIFORMES. 


are  found  over  nearly  the  whole  of  Africa,  to  which  continent  and  Mada- 

gascar they  are  peculiar.     Seven  species  are  recognised,  each  with  a  kind  of 

horn  or  helmet  on  the  head,  and  they  are  all  birds  of  the 

The  Guinea-      open  country,  in  contradistinction   to  the   crested   guinea- 

Fowls.  —         fowls,  which  are  forest-haunting  birds.      The  true  guinea- 

Genus  fowls  (Numida)  go   in  flocks,    and   frequent    the   scrubby 

Numida.         bush  on  the  borders  of  streams.     They  escape  by  running, 

but    when    hotly  pursued    by   a    dog,   they    take    to    the 

trees,    and   are    so    occupied   with    taking   stock   of    their   canine   pursuer, 

that   they   can    be    shot   down,    one  after    the    other.     That  they   can   be 

easily  tamed  is  proved  by  the  way  in  which  they  are  domesticated  in  nearly 

every  country.     In  Damara  Land,  the  late  Mr.  C.  J.  Anderssnn  says  that  he 

has  seen  a  thousand  together.     When  the  birds  assemble  in  search  of  water, 

and  when  a  pool  is  discovered,  the  first-comers  act  in  a  most  civilised  manner, 

approaching  and  drinking  their  fill,  and  retiring  in  an  opposite  direction,  that 

the  next  in  order  may  have  room  to  file  in  and  slake  their  thirst. 

Of  the  crested  guinea-fowls(6rit££era)  four  species  are  known,  all  inhabitants 
of  the  bush-country  and  forests.  One  of  them  is  peculiar  to  West  Africa 
(G.  cristata\  one  to  South-East  Africa  (G.  edouardi),  and  one  to  East  Africa 
(G.  pucherani).  Like  the  ordinary  guinea-fowls,  when  hunted  with  a  dog, 
they  take  to  the  trees,  and  are  easily  shot.  One  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the 
group  is  the  vulturine  guinea-fowl  (Acryllium  mdtnrinum),  with  a  bare  head 
like  a  vulture,  whence  its  name,  and  remarkable  for  the  bright  cobalt-blue 
colour  on  the  wings  and  flanks.  The  bare  portions  of  the  head  and  neck  are 
also"  cobalt-blue.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  Eastern  Africa,  from  the  Pangani 
River  to  Somali  Land. 

The  common  turkey  of  our  farmyards  is  descended  from  the  Mexican  turkey 
(Meleagris  gallopavo).     Many  races  of  wild  turkeys  are  known  in  tho  Southern 
'          United  States 


h 

each  of  which 
has  a  separate  and  definite 
range  ;  but  the  most  beautiful 
species  of  all  is  the  Honduras 
turkey  (M.  ocellata).  Though 
they  feed  on  different  kinds  of 
seeds  during  the  day,  the  tur- 
keys betake  themselves  at  night 
to  the  trees  to  roost.  They 
even  ascend  the  mountains  to  a 
height  of  8,000  to  10,000  feet, 
descending  to  the  lower  valleys 
in  autumn,  when  they  con- 
gregate in  great  flocks.  They 
are  polygamous,  and  the  male 


Fig.  11.— THE  TURKEY  (Meleagris  gallopavo). 


leaves  to  the  female  the  entire  duty  of  rearing  the  young. 

These  are  all  birds  of  the  New  World,  and  are  remarkable  for  having  the 

The  T  6C^e  °^  *k°  lower  mandible  serrated  and  toothed.     They  are 

Partridges6-       a  somewuat  large  group,  and   include   all   the  colins  and 

Sub-family       tu^ed  and   painted  partridges.      Two  of  the  best  known 

Odontophorhinx.  sPec^es  are  the  Californian  quail  (Lophortyx  californiana) 
and  the  Virginian  quail  (Ortyx  viryinianus). 


HEMIPODES—SAND-  GRO  USE.  24 1 


At  the  end  of  the  series  of  Game-Birds  are  found  some  tiny  birds,  which 
look  like  dwarf  partridges.  These  are  the  bustard-quails  or  hemipodes, 
which  were  formerly  associated  with  the  true  quails  (Cotur- 
nix).  The  differences  between  the  hemipodes  and  the  The  Hemipodes. 
Game-Birds  are  chiefly  osteological,  and  need  not  be  detailed  — Genus  Turnix. 
here  ;  but  the  absence  of  the  hind-toe  distinguishes  the 
genus  Turnix  at  a  glance,  though  the  Australian  genus  Pedionomus  has  four 
toes  like  an  ordinary  Game- Bird.  One  of  the  most  curious  facts  connected 
with  the  hemipodes  is  the  superior  size  and  colour  of  the  female.  In  some 
cases  she  is  nearly  twice  the  size  of  her  mate,  and  on  the  latter  devolves  the 
duty  of  hatching  the  eggs  out  and  taking  care  of  the  young.  It  is  curious 
that  these  little  birds  should  have  such  an  ostrich-like  peculiarity,  but  there 
is  otherwise  nothing  struthious  about  them,  for  the  hemipodes  have  the  bones 
of  the  palate  more  like  those  of  Passerine-Birds  than  those  of  Game-Birds. 
They  frequent  the  open  plains  and  grass-country,  but  are  also  found  in 
some  places  on  the  outskirts  of  cultivation.  Hemipodes  are  entirely  birds 
of  the  Old  World,  and  are  distributed  over  Africa,  Madagascar,  India,  and 
China,  and  extend  throughout  the  Malayan  Archipelago  to  Australia. 

The  sand-grouse  are  peculiar  birds,  half  Pigeons,  half  Game-Birds,  of  which 
the  English  people  are  not  ignorant.  Although  the  sand-grouse  are  birds  of  the 
desert,  and  are  found  throughout  Africa,  Central  Asia,  India,  Th  S  d 

and   the   Tibetan  and  Mongolian    plateaux,    there   is   one    G          ?  ~ 

species,  Pallas'  sand-grouse  (Syrrhoptes  paradoxus),  which       Pterodetes 
makes   regular  irruptions   from   its   Eastern   home   in   the 
Kirghis  deserts  into  Western  Europe,  and  at  times  visits  England  in  swarms. 
Doubtless  these  immigrations  have  occurred  for  ages  at  regular  intervals, 
but  in  the  Middle  Ages  our  ancestors  were  too  much  occupied  in  fighting  and 
cutting  each  others'  throats  to  notice  a  swift-flying  bird  like  the  sand-grouse, 
which  their  weapons    would  have  been  powerless   to   capture.      And  thus 
it  happens  that  our  first  great  record  of  the  occurrence  of  Pallas'  sand-grouse 
in   England   took   place   in   1863, 
and  then  again   in    1888  another 
great  irruption  took  place,  when 
not  only  a  large  number  were  seen 
in  Western  Europe,  but  they  actu- 
ally stayed  and   even  nested    in 
Great  Britain.     In  some  places  the 
flocks  were  protected  by  intelligent 
land-owners  ;  but  they  ultimately 
disappeared,  having  apparently  mi- 
grated back  to  their  Eastern  home. 

The  sand-grouse  are  certainly 
desert  birds,  their  very  plumage 
being  of  a  sandy  colour,  and  assimilating  to  their  surroundings.  In  many  of 
their  osteological  characters  they  resemble  the  pigeons,  but  in  the  digestive 
organs  they  resemble  Game-Birds,  so  that  their  natural  position  is  as  a  dis- 
tinct order  between  these  two  well-marked  groups.  They  have  feathered 
legs,  but  never  carry  a  spur  like  Game-Birds,  and  they  have  either  three 
toes,  or,  if  the  fourth  toe  is  present,  it  is  only  rudimentary.  The  egg  is, 
however,  peculiar,  being  neither  white  like  that  of  the  pigeons,  nor  uniform 
like  that  of  the  pheasants  and  partridges,  nor  richly  mottled  like  that  of  the 
grouse,  but  double-spotted,  with  brown  spots  mostly  in  evidence,  and  under- 
17 


242      A  VES—  ORDERS  PTEROCLETES  AND  COLUMBIFORMES. 


lying  spots  of  pale  purple.     The  eggs  are,  moreover,   oval  in  shape,  but 
equally  rounded  at  each  end. 

Although  the  sand-grouse  are  not  often  observed  during  the  day-time,  they 
are  to  be  obtained  in  the  mornings  and  evenings,  when  they  assemble  at  the 
water-pools  to  drink.  Of  Pallas'  sand-grouse  the  late  General  Prjevalski 
writes  : — '  At  the  drinking-places,  as  well  as  at  the  feeding-places,  these  birds 
never  settle  on  the  ground  without  first  describing  a  circle,  in  order  to  assure 
themselves  that  there  is  no  danger.  On  alighting,  they  hastily  drink  and 
rise  again  ;  and,  in  cases  where  the  flocks  are  large,  the  birds  in  front  get  up 
before  those  at  the  back  have  time  to  alight.  They  know  their  drinking- 
places  very  well,  and  very  often  go  to  them  from  distances  of  tens  of  miles, 
especially  in  the  mornings  between  nine  and  ten  o'clock,  but  after  twelve  at 
noon  they  seldom  visit  these  spots."  Sometimes  the  sand-grouse  are  driven 
south  by  an  unexpected  fall  of  snow,  and  by  clearing  the  snow  from  a  patch 
of  ground,  Swinhoe  tells  us  that  the  natives  sometimes  manage  to  net  an 
entire  flock  of  birds.  It  may  be  such  a  sudden  snow-storm  that  forces  the 
sand-grouse  of  Central  Asia  to  make  the  unexpected  invasion  into  Western 
Europe  to  which  we  have  referred. 

The  Pigeons  are  a  large  order  of  birds,  and  are  divisible  into  two  sub- 
orders, viz.  the  Columbce  or  True  Pigeons,  and  the  Dodos  (Didi).  Pigeons 

have  a  swelling  of  the  bill  near  the  tip,  similar  to  the  bill  of 

The  Pigeons. —   the  plovers,  which  we  shall  discuss  presently.    At  the  base  of 

Order  the  bill  is  a  soft  bare  skin,  or  cere,  which  is  very  prominent 

Columbiformes,    in  some  of  the  fruit-pigeons,  and  is  generally  of  a  bright  colour. 

The  osteological  and  anatomical  characters  which  separate 
them  from  the  Game-Birds  (which  some  of  the  ground  pigeons  greatly 
resemble)  are  numerous,  the  chief  one,  perhaps,  being  that  the  fore-part  of 
the  sternum  or  breast-bone  is  never  perforated  to  receive  the  feet  of  the 
coracoids,  as  is  the  case  in  the  Game-Birds.  The  nest  which  pigeons  build 
is  one  of  the  simplest  structures  known  among  birds,  for  it  consists  of  a  slight 
cradle  of  sticks,  and  is  generally  placed  in  a  tree.  The  eggs  are  white,  and 
two  in  number,  though  there  are  many  species  which  lay  but  a  single  egg, 
and  in  this  order  of  birds  we  meet  with  the  great  exception  to  the  rule  in 
the  Class  Aves,  viz.  that  birds  which  lay  white  eggs  usually  nest  in  holes 
or  burrows,  so  that  the  eggs  are  concealed  from  view.  Not  only,  however, 
are  the  eggs  of  the  pigeons  white,  but  the  frail  platform  on  which  they  are 
placed  renders  them  easily  visible  from  above,  and  often  from  below.  The 
young  are  hatched  naked,  but  after  a  little  while  become  clothed  with  hairy 
down  ;  they  remain  helpless  in  the  nest  for  a  long  time  after  they  are 
hatched,  and  are  fed  by  the  old  birds. 

The  True  Pigeons,  of  which  our  ring-dove  or  wood-pigeon,  and  the  ordinary 
dove-cote  pigeons  may  be  taken  as  representatives,  constitute  the  order 
Columbw,  and  they  are  divided  by  Count  Salvador!,  the  latest  monographer  of 
the  order,  into  five  families. 

The  first  family  of  the  pigeons  consist  of  the  fruit-pigeons  (Trerontda)  with 
three  sub-families,  Treronince,  or  green  fruit-pigeons,  painted  fruit-pigeons 

(PtHopodin(K\  and  true  fruit-pigeons  (Carpopliagince).     The 

The  Fruit-        green  fruit- pigeons  are  found  in  Africa,  India,  and  the  Indo- 

Pigeons.— Family  Chinese  sub-region,  through  the  Malayan  sub-region  to  the 

Treronidce.       Molucca    Islands.      All    the    members   of    the    sub- family 

Treronince  have  the  tarsus  short,  exceeded  in  length  by  the 
middle  toe,  and  the  tail  feathers  vary  from  12  in  number  to  16,  while  the 


PAINTED  PIGEONS— FRUIT-PIGEONS.  24? 


chief  peculiarity  is  the  broadening  of  the  toes  beneath,  and  having  the  skin 
expanded  on  the  soles,  as  Count  Salvadori  has  pointed  out.  The  green  fruit- 
pigeons  are  accustomed  to  assemble  in  flocks  of  comparatively  large  size, 
and  feed,  as  a  rule,  on  small  fruit. 

The  Ptilopodince  include  some  of  the  most  beautiful  birds  of  the  world 
among  their  number.     Although  they  are  mostly  birds  of  small  size,  the 
exquisite  blending  of  their  bright  coloration  renders  their 
combination  of  plumage  extremely  beautiful,  and  there  is  no     The  Painted 
more  wonderful  bird  in  the  world   than   the  golden  fruit-       Pigeons. — 
pigeon  of  the  Fiji  Islands  (Chryscenas  victor}.  Sub-Family 

The  true  painted  pigeons  (Ptilopus)  are  nearly  all  highly-  Ptilopodince. 
coloured  birds,  and  have  generally  the  first  primary  narrowed 
to  a  slender  point.  They  are  among  the  smallest  of  all  the  pigeons,  many  of 
them  scarcely  exceeding  the  bulk  of  a  thrush,  but  they  are  ornamented,  as  a 
rule,  with  a  patch  of  bright  colour  on  the  fore  part  of  the  crown,  which  may 
be  rose-colour,  pink,  or  even  pale  lavender.  Very  little  has  been  written 
about  their  habits,  but  of  the  allied  genus,  Megaloprepia,  which  has  not  the 
attenuated  ending  to  the  first  primary-quill,  and  has  a  somewhat  longer  and 
more  rounded  tail  than  Ptilopus,  we  learn  from  Gould  that  the  magnificent 
fruit-pigeon  (Megaloprepia  magnified)  is  found  in  the  bushes  of  the  interior 
of  South-Eastern  Australia,  where  it  feeds  on  wild  figs  and  the  nut-like 
fruit  of  the  large  palms.  It  is  a  shy  bird,  and  is  not  easily  discovered,  unless 
it  betrays  its  presence  by  the  hoarse,  loud,  and  monotonous  note,  which  is 
frequently  uttered  by  the  male  during  the  pairing  season.  The  note  is  so 
extraordinary,  and  so  unlike  that  of  any  other  bird,  that  it  causes  the  utmost 
surprise  and  wonderment  as  to  what  it  can  proceed  from,  in  the  minds  of 
persons  who  hear  it  for  the  first  time.  Five  species  of  Megaloprepia  are 
known,  ranging  from  the  Northern  Moluccas  to  New  Guinea  and  to  South-East 
Australia  ;  whereas  no  less  than  75  of  the  painted  pigeons  (Ptilopus)  are 
known.  They  are  distributed  over  the  Malayan  Archipelago,  from  the 
Malay  Peninsula  to  Australia,  and  even  to  the  Pacific  Islands.  In  Mada- 
gascar and  the  neighbouring  islands  they  are  represented  by  the  species  of 
wattled  fruit-pigeons  (Alectrcenas),  of  which  four  kinds  only  are  known,  that 
from  Mauritius,  A.  nitidissima,  being  now  extinct. 

In  this  sub-family  are  found  some  of  the  largest  of  all  the  existing  pigeons, 
and  many  of  them  are  beautifully  ornamented  with  bright  patches  of  colour. 
Even  where  ornamental  plumage  does  not  obtain,  the  tones 
of  rufous  and  grey  and  bronzy-green  render  them  very  lovely       The  Large 
birds.     Some  have  a  fleshy  knob  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  as  in  Fruit-Pigeons. — 
the  genus   Globicera  ;  others  carry  a  conspicuous  crest,  as       Sub-Family 
in  Lopholaimus.     They  are  found  from  India  and  the  Indo-    CarpophayincK. 
Chinese  countries  throughout  the  entire  Malayan  Archipelago 
to    Australia.      One    of  these   great   fruit-pigeons,  Carpophaga   cenea,  is   a 
very  well-known-bird  in  certain  parts  of  India  and  Burma.     In  the  last- 
named  province  Mr.  Eugene  Gates  says  that  the  imperial  green  fruit-pigeon, 
as  he  calls  C.  ainea,  is  generally  distributed  throughout  the  forests  and  well- 
wooded  parts  of  the  country,  wherever,  in  fact,  there  are  trees  which  yield 
edible  fruits.     It  is  entirely  arboreal,  going  about  in  parties,  and  occasionally 
in  couples,  and  feeding  on  fruits.     It  makes  its  nest  in  thickets  and  bamboo 
bushes,  and  lays  but  one  egg,  though  in  India  two  young  birds  have  been 
found  in  a  nest. 

In  the  true  pigeons,  of  which  our  wood-pigeon  and  rock-pigeon  may  be 


244  AVES— ORDER  COLUMBIFORMES. 


considered  the  types,  the  tail  is  always  composed  of  twelve  feathers.     The 
soles  of  the  feet  are  not  so  broad  as  in  the  fruit -pigeons,  and,  according  to 
Count  Salvadori,  only  the  hind-toe  has  any  expansion  on  the 
The  True        sides.     Only  four  genera  of  Columbidce  are  admitted  by  the 
Pigeons. —        above-named   author,    viz.    Gymnophaps,   represented   by  a 
Family  single  species  from  South-Eastern  New  Guinea,  G.  albertisi, 

Columbidce.       named  after  the  famous  Italian  naturalist,  D'Albertis,  who 
discovered  it ;  Columba,  with  fifty-eight  species  and  a  cosmo- 
politan range  ;  Nescenas,  from  Mauritius,  with  its  single  species,  JV.  mayeri; 
and  Turturozna,  peculiar  to  Africa,  with  five  species. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  dilate  on  the  characteristics  of  the  ordinary  pigeons, 
In  the  woods,  the  wood-pigeon  or  ring-dove  is,  in  many  parts  of  its  range,  the 
mildest  and  shyest  of  birds,  but  in  confinement  it  makes  the  tamest  of  pets, 
and  can  be  fed  by  children  in  the  gardens  of  Paris,  and  is  now  so  civilised 
that  it  is  one  of  the  features  of  St.  James'  Park  in  London.  The  stock- 
dove (C.  cenas)  is  a  more  retiring  bird,  and  nests  in  holes  of  trees  or  of  old 
buildings,  while  the  rock-dove  (C.  lima)  frequents  caves  on  the  sea-coast. 
From  the  latter  are  believed  to  have  sprung  all  our  numerous  forms  of  do- 
mestic pigeon.  All  the  species  of  the  African  genus  Turturcena  are  some- 
what rare,  and  little  is  known  of  their  habits. 

All  these  are  Eastern  birds,  with  a  very  long  tail,  exceeding  the  wing  in 
length.     Only  four  genera  are  known  :  Turacceiid,  of  Celebes  and  Timor  ; 
Mdcropygia,  the  dominant  form,  with  about  thirty  species, 
The  Long-Tailed  mostly   of  a   rufous   coloration,  with   many  bands  ;   Rein- 
Pigeons. —        wardtcenas,  with  its  three  species,  inhabiting  the  Moluccas 
Sub-family       from   Celebes,    south   to   the   Bismarck   Archipelago  ;    and 
MacropyyiincK.    lastly,  Coryphcenas  of  the  Solomon  Islands.     Both  the  latter 

genera  have  short  and  somewhat  hooked  bills. 

The  Macropygice  are  commonly  called  cuckoo-doves,  on  account  of  their 
barred  plumage.  They  are  forest-birds,  feeding  on  fruits,  and  building  a 
slight  nest,  in  which  two  eggs  are  laid. 

This  sub-family  is  peculiar  to  North  America,  and  only  one  species  (E. 

migratoria)  is  known.     It  has  occasionally  visited  Great  Britain.     In  its  native 

country  it  is  remarkable  for  the  enormous  flocks  which  pass 

The    Passenger-  on  migration,  and  occupy  a  breeding  area  of  great  extent. 

Pigeons. —        One  observer  states  that  he  saw  a  flight  of  these  pigeons  five 

Sub-family       miles  long  and  a  mile  in  breadth,  while  their  nests  were  found 

Ectopistince.      jn  nearly  every  tree  for  a  distance  of  twenty-eight  miles.    As 

with  the  Carolina  parrot,  however,  constant  persecution  is 

rapidly  diminishing  the  numbers  of  this  interesting  bird,  and  its  nesting-area 

is  no  longer  so  widely  extended  as  in  former  times. 

This  family  of  pigeons  has  rather  a  longer  leg  than  those  we  have  been 
previously  discussing,  the  length  of  the  tarsus. being  equal  to,  or  exceeding, 
that  of  the  middle  toe.     The  tail-feathers  vary  in  number 
The  Ground-      from   12   to   20,   according  to   the   different  genera.     The 
Pigeons. —        Zenaidince  are   exclusively  American,   the   Peristerince  are 
Family          American  and  African  ;  the  Geopeliiiue  are  American,  Aus- 
Peristeridce.      tralian,  and  Indo-Malayan;  while  the  Phabince,  GeotrygoninoR, 
and  Ccdcenadince  are  Malayan  and  Australian.     There  is  no- 
thing very  peculiar  about  the  habits  of  these  ground-doves,  but  the  remaining 
sub-family  Turturince,  or  turtle-doves,  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  whole  family 
of  pigeons,  and  contains  about  thirty  species,  of  which  our  British  turtle-dove, 


CRO  WNED  P1GE ONS—  TO 0  THED-PIGE ONS—D  OD  OS. 


245 


(T.  turtur\  and  the  cream-coloured  turtle-dove  (T.  risorius)  so  often  kept  in 
cages,  are  the  best-known  examples.  The  sub- family  Calcenadince  is  repre- 
sented by  the  single  genus  Catenas,  the  Nicobar  pigeons,  as  they  are  called, 
remarkable  for  their  metallic  plumage  and  the  long  hackles  on  the  neck,  like 
those  of  a  fowl.  The  crowned  pigeons  (Goura)  which  are  only  found  in  the 
Papuan  Islands,  are  remarkable  for  their  beautiful  crests  of  diffused  plumes. 
Six  species  are  known,  all  of  them  inhabiting  different  areas  of  the  great 
island  of  New  Guinea,  or  the  islands  immediately  adjacent  to  it. 

This  interesting  form  of  pigeon,  repre- 
sented by  a  single  genus  only,  Didun- 
culus,  is  an  inhabitant 
of  Samoa  or  the  Navi-       The  Tooth- 
gator's  Islands.     It  has  Billed  Pigeons. — 
a     large     hooked     bill,  Family 

which  has  also  some  Didtmculidce. 
notches  or  toothed  ser- 
rations near  the  tip  of  the  lower  man- 
dible. It  is  remarkable  for  the  similar- 
ity of  its  form  to  that  of  the  dodo, 
though,  of  course,  it  is  on  a  much 
smaller  scale.  Hence  the  name  Didun- 
culus,  or  little  dodo,  of  which  the  single 
species,  D.  strigirostris,  was,  a  short  time 
ago,  threatened  with  the  same  extinc- 
tion as  that  which  has  overtaken  its  larger 
relative.  The  dodo,  not  having  wings 
capable  of  flight,  was  unable  to  save 
itself  when  danger  threatened  ;  but  the 
Didunculus,  though  a  ground-bird,  and 
formerly  nesting  on  the  ground,  so  that 
it  was  fast  diminishing  in  numbers, 
owing  to  the  attacks  of  wild  cats,  appears  suddenly  to  have  resumed  its 
arboreal  habits,  and  now  both  roosts  and  nests  in  trees,  so  that  of  late  years 
its  numbers  have  greatly  increased. 

The  sub-order,  Didi,  consists  of  two  genera,  Pezophaps  and  Didus,  both 
now  extinct,  but  living  on  the  earth  less  than  three  hundred  years  ago. 
The  solitaire  (Pezophaps  solitarius)  inhabited  the  island  of  Rodriguez,  and 
was  about  the  size  of  a  turkey.  The  old  traveller,  Leguat,  has  given  a 
description  of  the  bird  as  follows: — "They  never  fly;  their  wings  are  too 
little  to  support  the  weight  of  the  bodies  ;  they  serve  only  to  beat  themselves 
and  flutter  when  they  call  one  another.  They  will  whirl  about  for  twenty  or 
thirty  times  together  on  the  same  side  during  the  space  of  four  or  five 
minutes.  The  motion  of  their  wings  makes  a  noise  very  like  that  of  a 
rattle,  and  one  may  hear  it  two  hundred  paces  off.  The  bone  of  their  wing 
grows  greater  towards  the  extremity,  and  forms  a  little  round  mass  under 
the  feathers  as  big  as  a  musket  ball.  That  and  its  beak  are  the  chief  defence 
of  this  bird.  Some  of  the  males  weigh  forty-five  pounds.  The  females  are 
wonderfully  beautiful,  some  fair,  some  brown  ;  I  call  them  fair,  because  they 
are  of  the  colour  of  fair  hair.  They  have  a  sort  of  peak,  like  a  widow's,  upon 
their  breasts  (lege  beaks),  which  is  of  dun  colour.  No  one  feather  is 
straggling  from  the  other  all  over  their  bodies,  they  being  very  careful  to 
adiust  themselves,  and  make  them  all  even  with  their  beaks.  The  feathers 


Fig.  13.— THE    CROWNED   PIGEON   (Goura 
coronata). 


246 


AVES— SUB-ORDER  DIDI. 


on  their  thighs  are  round  like  shells  at  the  end,  and  being  there  very  thick, 
have  an  agreeable  effect  They  have  two  risings  on  their  craws,  and  the 
feathers  are  whiter  than  the  rest,  which  lively  represents  the  fine  neck  of  a 
beautiful  woman.  They  walk  with  so  much  stateliness  and  good  grace,  that 
one  eannot  help  admiring  and  loving  them  ;  by  which  means  their  fine  mien 
often  saves  their  lives.  We  find  in  the  gizzards  of  both  male  and  female  a 
brown  stone,  of  the  bigness  of  a  hen's  egg  ;  'tis  somewhat  rough,  flat  on  one 
side,  and  round  on  the  other,  heavy  and  hard.  We  believe  that  this  stone 
was  there  when  they  were  hatched,  for  let  them  never  be  so  young,  you 
meet  with  it  always.  They  have  never  but  one  of  'em,  and  besides,  the 
passage  from  the  craw  to  the  gizzard  is  so  narrow,  that  a  like  mass  of  half 
the  bigness  could  not  pass.  It  served  to  whet  our  knives  better  than  any 
other  stone,  whatsoever." 

The  dodo  lived  in  Mauritius,  and  more  is  known  of  its  appearance  than  of 
the  solitaire,  as  several  drawings  of  it  were  made  from  life,  and  now  exist  in 

various  libraries.  A  foot 
of  the  bird  is  in  the  British 
Museum,  and  another  is  in 
the  Ashmolean  Museum  at 
Oxford,  along  with  a  head, 
these  being  the  last  relics 
of  an  embalmed  specimen 
which  was  destroyed  by 
the  authorities  at  Oxford 
in  1855.  Another  head  of 
the  dodo  is  in  the  Museum 
at  Copenhagen,  but  the 
actual  remains  of  the  body 
of  this  wonderful  bird  are 
very  few,  and  the  species 
is  principally  known  from 
the  skeletons  which  have 
been  unearthed  during  the 
last  few  years.  The  heavy 
body  of  the  dodo,  with  its 
feathery  tail,  and  wings 
represented  by  a  few 
plumes  only,  have  led  some  authorities  to  consider  it  as  a  kind  of  struthious 
bird,  from  the  similarity  of  its  wings  to  those  of  an  ostrich,  but  recent  re- 
searches have  shown  that  the  dodo  was  a  gigantic  pigeon. 

We  have  now  followed  the  Class  Aves  from  the  Ratitse,  through  the 
Tinamous  to  the  Game-Birds,  and  thence  through  the  Sand- Grouse  to  the 
Pigeons.  We  now  come  to  a  sudden  stop  in  the  continuity  of  the  series  of 
orders  of  birds,  and  take  up  the  thread  of  connection  a  little  further  back, 
it  being  absolutely  impossible  to  follow  a  direct  linear  arrangement  in 
a  scheme  of  classification. 

The  hoatzin  has  the  appearance  of  a  Game-Bird,  and  especially  of  a  guan. 
Like  the  latter  birds,  it  is  an  inhabitant  of  South  America,  where  it  is  found 
on  the  Amazon  and  the  rivers  of  Guiana,  Venezuela,  Colombia,  Ecuador, 
Peru,  and  Bolivia.  For  all  its  guan-like  appearance,  the  bird  is  more  of  a 
rail  than  a  Game-Bird,  and  its  curious  nest,  suspended  in  the  branches  over- 
hanging the  water,  is  like  that  of  a  rail,  while  its  eggs  greatly  resemble  those 


s  -  * 


Fig.  14.— THE  DODO  (Didus  ineptus). 


HOATZINS. 


247 


of  the  Rallidce.  Many  of  its  anatomical  characters,  its  osteology,  and  the 
peculiarities  of  the  young  birds,  show  that  the  genus  Opisthocomus  is  an 
isolated  form,  probably  the  survival  of  some  ancient  stock  of  birds,  of  which 
it  is  the  only  survivor.  Fossilized  remains  of  a  bird  like  the  hoatzin  have 
been  found  in  France,  so  that  the  type  may  have  been  far  more  widely 
spread  in  ancient  times,  and  have  been  distributed  over  certain  portions  of 
the  Old  World. 

One  curious  feature  about  the  hoatzin  is  the  size  of  its  crop,  which  is  situ- 
ated in  a  deep  cavity  in  the  upper  half  of  the  pectoral  muscles.  It  occupies 
the  upper  part  of  the  chest,  and  is  so  enormous 
as  to  distort  the  f  urcula  and  sternum.  The  nest- 
ling is  hatched  naked,  and  has  a  well-developed 
claw  on  the  pollex  and  index  fingers  of  the  wings, 
so  that  it  is  able  to  crawl  about  by  their  means. 
Mr.  J.  J.  Quelch,  the  Director  of  the  Museum  at 
Georgetown  in  British  Guiana,  has  written  a 
most  interesting  account  of  the  hoatzin,  from 
which  wre  have  extracted  the  following  notes  : — 
' '  Soon  after  the  hatching  of  the  eggs,  the  nest- 
lings begin  to  crawl  about  by  means  of  their 
wings  and  legs,  the  well-developed  claws  on  the 
pollex  and  index  being  constantly  in  use  for  hold- 
ing and  hooking  on  to  the  surrounding  objects. 
If  the  birds  are  drawn  from  their  nest  by  means 
of  their  legs,  they  hold  on  firmly  to  the  twigs 
both  with  bill  and  wings  ;  and  if  the  nest  be 
upset  by  means  of  a  rod  pushed  up  from  below, 
they  hold  on  to  all  objects  with  which  they  come 
in  contact  by  means  of  bill,  feet,  and  wings,  mak- 
ing considerable  use  of  the  bill,  not  only  to  reach  objects  above  them,  but 
also  with  the  help  of  the  clawed  wings  to  raise  themselves  to  a  higher  level. 
One  curious  feature  noticed  with  a  nestling  which  had  been  upset  in  the 
river,  was  its  power  of  rapid  swimming  and  diving  when  pursued.  As  soon 
as  the  hand  was  placed  close  to  it,  it  rapidly  dived  into  the  dark  water,  in 
which  it  was  impossible  to  see  it,  and  would  rise  at  distances  of  more  than  a 
yard  away.  Owing  to  this  power,  the  little  creature  managed  to  evade  all  my 
attempts  to  seize  it,  taking  refuge  eventually  under  the  bushy  growth,  where 
it  was  impossible  to  pursue  it.  The  prolonged  immersion  which  a  nestling 
will  thus  instinctively  and  voluntarily  undergo,  or  which  an  adult  bird  will 
bear  in  an  attempt  to  drown  it,  seems  to  me  to  be  quite  remarkable. 

"The  nestlings,  when  resting  on  the  bare  sticks  of  the  nest,  are  observed 
to  rest  the  weight  of  the  body,  as  in  the  adult  birds,  on  the  bare  and 
thickened  integument  of  the  carina  sterni,  the  toes  being  spread  out  and  the 
wings  generally  drawn  up  to  the  side." 

The  food  of  the  adult  hoatzin  consists  of  leaves  or  fruit,  and  the  birds 
after  death  have  a  very  unpleasant  odour,  which  prevents  them  being  eaten 
as  food.  They  are  incapable  of  sustained  flight,  and  in  this  fact  we  see 
another  rail-like  characteristic.  Mr.  Quelch  observes  : — "  Whether  from  the 
fact  of  their  occupying  situations  where  they  are  but  seldom  disturbed,  or 
but  little  likely  to  be  pursued,  or  from  a  natural  weakness  of  wing,  the  birds 
are  but  seldom  seen  in  flight ;  and  when  they  take  to  the  wing  during  dis- 
turbance, they  do  so  for  but  a  very  short  distance — a  very  exceptional  flight 


Fig.  15.— THE  HOATZIN 
(Opisthocomus  cristatus). 


248  AVES—  ORDERS  OPISTHOCOMIFORMES  AND  RALLIFORMES. 


being  once  observed  of  a  length  of  about  40  yards,  with  the  wind,  across  a 
creek,  from  a  high  growth  on  one  bank  to  a  lower  level  on  the  other. 
Usually  they  rise  almost  with  a  jump  from  the  branch,  seldom  in  a  straight 
line,  but  with  a  marked  convex  curve  to  the  point  where  they  alight.  The 
flight  of  the  birds,  in  spite  of  their  great  expanse  of  wings,  in  relation  to  the 
weight  of  the  body,  is  thus  extremely  awkward,  and  the  body  presents  a 
peculiarly  humped  appearance.  During  their  longer  courses,  the  wings  are 
rapidly  and  violently  flapped.  The  apparent  awkwardness  in  placing  them- 
selves when  they  alight,  is  chiefly  due,  I  believe,  to  the  smallness  of  the 
branches  on  which  they  usually  settle,  and  which  they  are  unable  firmly  to 
grasp  with  their  long  toes,  balancing  themselves  meanwhile  by  the  expanded 
wings  and  tail  ;  but  it  is  also  attributable,  I  think,  though  to  a  much  less 
degree,  to  a  certain  weakness  in  their  legs — even  though  they  are  thick  and 
apparently  strong-looking — since  when  they  alight  on  a  thick  limb,  a  certain 
amount  of  instability  is  still  manifest. 

"  This  weakness  of  limbs  seems  to  be  still  more  evidenced  by  the  method 
of  perching  characteristic  of  the  birds.  At  any  time  during  the  heat  of  the 
day  they  will  be  found  resting  on  the  branches,  two  or  more  together,  the 
body  directly  applied  to  the  wood,  and  supported  on  the  bare,  thickened, 
and  hardened  patch  of  skin  which  covers  the  flattened  and  broadened  surface 
of  the  posterior  determination  of  the  carina  sterni." 

From  the  game-like  rail,  or  rail-like  Game-Bird  Opisthocomus,  we  now  pass 

to  the  true  rails.     Only  one  family  can  be  admitted,  which  bears  the  name 

of  Rallidce.     At  first  sight  it  would  seem  more  natural  to 

The  Rails. —  divide  the  rails  into  three  families — true  rails  (Rallidcv), 
Order  water-hens  (Gallinulidce),  and  coots  (Fulicidce)  ;  but  after  a 

Ralliformes.  prolonged  study  of  the  family,  we  have  come  to  the  conclusion 
that  there  is  no  separation  to  be  drawn  between  these  appar- 
ently natural  groups,  and  the  most  that  can  be  done  is  to  recognise  two  sub- 
families, rails  and  water-hens  (Rallince),  and  coots  (Fulicincn\  the  latter  having 
lobate  webs  on  the  toes  like  the  grebes. 

That  the  rails  are  birds  of  an  ancient  origin  is  undoubted.  Their  feeble 
powers  of  flight  are  compensated  for  by  their  swiftness  of  foot  and  power  of 
concealment,  and  at  the  present  day  there  are  many  flightless  rails,  de- 
scendants of  an  ancient  stock.  At  the  same  time  there  are  species,  like  our 
corn-crake  (Crex  crex\  which  are  capable  of  long  migrations,  as  are  also  others 
of  the  crakes  ;  but,  as  a  rule,  the  rails  are  stay-at-home  birds,  and  do  not 
care  for  long  journeys  across  the  seas.  With  the  exception  of  the  blue  water- 
hens  (Porphyrio),  they  are  birds  of  rather  sombre  coloration. 

Numerous  fossil  species  of  rails  have  been  described  from  the  Miocene  and 
Eocene  formations,  and  in  America  extinct  forms  (Tdmatornis)  have  been 
found  in  the  Cretaceous. 

Fifty-three  genera  of  rails  have  been  admitted  by  me  in  the  twenty-third 
volume  of  the  "  Catalogue  of  Birds,"  and  the  following  are  the  most  remark- 
able, and  call  for  special  notice.  The  Rallidce  may  be  divided  into  three 
great  groups — true  rails  (Rallincti),  crakes  (Crecwct),  and  coots  (Fulicittce). 
As  before  mentioned,  on  account  of  their  lobed  toes,  the  coots  may  be  even 
further  separated  from  the  rails  and  crakes. 

In  the  rails  the  bill  is  long  and  slender,  so  as  to  exceed  in  length  the 
middle  toe  and  claw.  The  crakes  have  a  shorter  and  stouter  bill.  The 
true  rails  may  be  divided  into  two  groups,  water-rails  and  wood-rails.  Of 
the  former  four  genera  are  recognised,  and  our  English  water-rail  is  the 


WA  TER-RAILS—  WOOD-RAILS. 


249 


type  of  this  section.  The  water-rail  is  certainly  not  a  bird  to  be  observed 
every  day.  It  is  the  impersonification  of  shyness  and  retiring  habits.  A 
coot  or  a  moor-hen  is  often  seen  in  the  open,  and  may 

be  observed  from  the  windows  of  a  railway  train,  swimming      The  Rails. 

about  on  lakes  or  pools  of  water,  the  coot  easily  discernible       Sub-Family 
by  its  waxy-white  shield  on  the  forehead,  the  moor-hen  by         Rallince. 
its  red  frontal  shield  and  the  bright  red  garter  above  the 
hock,  which  is  easily  in  evidence  as  it  swims.     The  water-rail,  on  the  con- 
trary, is  never  seen,  nor  can  its  voice  be  heard,  like  that  of  the  noisy  corn- 
crake.    It  is  a  bird  of  the  reed-beds  and  the  marshes,  and  is  so  disinclined 
for  flight,  that  even  when  pursued  by  a  dog,  it  will  double  and  turn  and 
twist,  rather  than  fly,  and  is  often  caught  by  the  dogs  before  it  can  bring 
itself  to  use  its  wings.     The  eggs  are  numerous,  from  seven  to  eleven  in 
number,  of  a  creamy  white,  double-spotted,  with 
reddish  -  brown  overlying   spots  and  ashy -grey 
underlying   ones.      The  nest   is  well   concealed 
among  coarse  herbage,  of  which  it  is  composed, 
and  the  young  are  covered  with  black  down,  and 
can  take  care  of  themselves  soon  after  they  are 
hatched,  swimming  and  diving,  and  managing  to 
conceal  themselves  from  danger  in  a  marvellous 
manner. 

The  water-rails  are  found  all  over  the  New 
World,  and  also  in  the  Old  World,  except  in  the 
Irido-Malayan  sub-region  and  the  whole  of  the 
Australian  region,  where  their  place  is  taken  by 
the  barred  rails  (Hypotcenidia).  In  the  tropical 
regions  of  South  America,  Limnopardalus  replaces 
the  genus  Rattus,  and  in  the  islands  of  the  Aus- 
tralian region,  the  dusky  rails  (Cabalus)  are  one 
of  the  most  curious  forms  of  bird-life.  In  the 
Chatham  Islands  is,  or  rather  was,  found  C. 
dieffenbachii,  now  believed  to  be  extinct,  and  in  these  islands  also  occurs  C. 
modestus,  a  dusky-brown  species,  which  cannot  fly,  and  is  also  on  the  verge  of 
extinction,  while  a  third  species,  C.  sylvestris,  is  peculiar  to  Lord  Howe  Island. 

These  are  birds  of  the  bush  and  forest,  though  showing  considerable  likeness 
to  the  water-hens.  They  are  found  in  both  hemispheres,  and  one  genus  at 
least,  Megacrex,  from  Southern  New  Guinea,  is  incapable  of 
flight.  The  black  wood-rail  (Habroptila  wallacii)  was  dis-  The  Wood-Rails, 
covered  by  Dr.  A.  R.  Wallace  in  the  island  of  Halmahera 
in  the  Moluccas,  and  when  sent  home  by  him,  the  species  was  described  and 
figured  in  the  "Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  Society,"  as  an  ordinary  rail 
standing  in  the  water.  Consequently,  when  the  Dutch  travellers  received 
instructions  from  Professor  Schlegel  to  be  sure  and  find  Habroptila,  they 
searched  for  the  bird  in  the  marshes,  but  ultimately  discovered  it  in  the 
bush.  It  is  altogether  a  curious  form,  black  like  a  water-hen,  and  having  a 
small  frontal  shield. 

Perhaps  one  of  the  most  interesting  genera  of  this  group  of  rails  are  the 
wood-rails  of  the  iieo-tropical  region  (Aramides),  which  have  a  somewhat 
ornamental  plumage  of  rufous  and  grey,  with  a  bright  yellow  bill  and  red 
legs.  Of  late  years  they  have  been  seen  in  the  aviaries  and  zoological 
gardens  of  Europe,  and  have  even  been  known  to  nest  in  captivity. 


Fig.  16  —WATER-RAIL 
(Rallus  aquaticus). 


2  50  A  VES—  0  RDER  RALL I  FORMES. 


Of  the  ypecaha  wood-rail  of  Argentina  (Aramides  ypecaha)  Mr.  Hudson, 
the  biographer  of  Argentine  birds,  has  given  many  amusing  details,  and  ho 
credits  the  species  with  considerable  intelligence,  repudiating  the  idea  that 
this  wood-rail  is  to  be  considered  an  ideal  member  of  what  has  been 
called  a  "stupid  family"  of  birds.  He  writes  : — "On  spying  an  intruder, 
it  immediately  utters  a  powerful  cry,  in  strength  and  intonation  not  unlike 
that  of  the  pea-fowl.  This  note. of  alarm  is  answered  by  other  birds  ab  a 
distance  as  they  hastily  advance  to  the  spot  whence  tho  warning  was 
sounded.  The  cry  is  repeated  at  irregular  intervals,  first  on  one  side,  then 
oil  the  other,  as  the  birds  change  their  position  to  dog  the  intruder's  steps 
and  inspect  him  from  the  reeds.  I  have  surprised  parties  of  them  in  an  open 
space,  and  shot  one  or  more  ;  but  no  sooner  had  the  survivors  gained  their 
refuge,  than  they  turned  about  to  watch  and. follow  me,  sounding  their  power- 
ful alarm  the  whole  time.  I  have  frequently  been  followed  half  a  mile 
through  the  rushes  by  them,  and  by  lying  close  and  mimicking  their  cries, 
have  always  succeeded  in  drawing  them  about  me.  But  the  ypecaha's  loudest 
notes  of  alarm  are  weak  compared  with  the  cries  he  utters  ab  other  timesj 
when,  untroubled  with  a  strange  presence,  he  pours  out  his  soul  in  screams 
and  shrieks  that  amaze  the  listener  with  their  unparalleled  power.  These 
screams,  in  all  their  changes  and  modulations,  have  a  resemblance  to  the 
human  voice,  but  of  the  human  voice  exerted  to  its  utmost  pitch,  ar,d  ex- 
pressive of  agony,  frenzy,  and  despair.  A  long  piercing  shriek,  astonishing 
for  its  strength  and  vehemence,  is  succeeded  by  a  lower  note,  as  if  in.  the 
first  one  the  creature  had  well-nigh  exhausted  itself.  The  double  scream  ia 
repeated  several  times  ;  then  follow  other  sounds,  resembling,  as  they  rise 
and  fall,  half-suppressed  cries  of  pain  and  moans  of  anguish.  Suddenly  the 
unearthly  shrieks  are  renewed  in  ail  their  power.  This  is  kept  up  for  some 
time,  several  birds  screaming  in  concert  ;  it  is  renewed  at  intervals  through- 
out the  day,  and  again  at  set  of  sun,  when  the  woods  and  marshes  resound 
with  the  extravagant  uproar.  I  have  said  that  several  birds  unite  in  scream- 
ing ;  this  is  invariably  the  case.  I  have  enjoyed  the  rare  pleasure  of 
witnessing  the  birds  at  such  times,  and  the  screams  then  seem  a  fit  accom- 
paniment to  their  disordered  gestures  and  motions.  A  dozen  or  twenty 
birds  have  their  place  of  reunion  on  a  small  area  of  smooth,  clean  ground 
surrounded  by  reeds  ;  and  by  lying  well  concealed  and  exercising  some 
patience,  one  is  enabled  to  watch  their  proceedings.  First  one  lf>ird  is  heard 
to  utter  a  loud  metallic-sounding  note,  three  times  repeated,  and  somewhat 
like  the  call  of  the  guinea-fowl.  It  issues  from  the  reeds,  and  is  a  note  of 
invitation  quickly  responded  to  by  other  birds  on  every  hand  as  they  all 
hurriedly  repair  to  the  customary  spot.  In  a  few  moments,  and  almost 
simultaneously,  the  birds  appear,  emerging  from  the  reeds  and  running  into 
the  open  space,  where  they  all  immediately  whirl  about  and  begin  the  exhibi- 
tion. Whilst  screaming,  they  rush  from  side  to  side  as  if  possessed  with 
frenzy,  the  wings  spread  and  agitated,  the  beak  wide  open  and  raised 
vertically.  I  never  observed  them  fight  or  manifest  anger  towards  each  other 
during  these  performances  ;  and,  knowing  the  pugnacious  spirit  of  the 


ypecahas,  and  how  ready  they  are  to  seek  a  quarrel  with  birds  of  other 
species,  this  at  first  surprised  me,  for  I  was  then  under  the  mistaken  im- 
pression that  these  gatherings  were  in  some  way  related  to  the  sexual  instinct. 
Whilst  watching  them  I  also  remarked  another  circumstance.  When  con- 
cealing myself  amongst  the  rushes  I  have  been  compelled  to  place  myself  so 
diaadvantageously,  owing  to  the  wet  ground,  that  any  single  bird  straying 


CRAKES.  251 


accidentally  into  the  open  space  would  have  discovered  my  presence  im- 
mediately ;  yet  the  birds  have  entered  and  finished  their  performance  with- 
out seeing  me,  so  carried  away  are  they  by  the  emotion  that  possesses  them 
during  these  moments.  But  no  sooner  has  the  wild  chorus  ended  than, 
aware  of  my  presence,  they  have  fled  precipitately  into  the  reeds. " 

These  are  rails  with  a  stout  bill,  the  culmeii  being  shorter  than  the  middle 
toe  and  claw.     They  may  be  divided  into  two  sections,  distinguished  by  the 
presence  or  absence  of  a  bare  frontal  shield.     Those  which 
possess  the  latter  characters  are  the  moor-hens.  The  Crakes. 

Among  the  largest  of  the  crakes  are  the  weka  rails  of  New  Sub-Family 
Zealand  (Ocydromus),  of  which  there  are  three  species.  These  Crecince. 
birds  are  remarkable  for  their  pugnacious  disposition,  and 
also  for  the  tameness  with  which  they  will  wander  from  their  homes  in  the 
bush,  even  entering  camps  and  houses.  They  are  heavy-bodied  birds,  with 
feeble  wings,  which  are  insufficient  to  carry  them  through  the  air,  and  they 
are  consequently  incapable  of  flight.  Like  their  distant  relative,  the  Apteryx, 
they  serve  themselves  by  running  only,  and  are  also  protected  by  their 
crepuscular  habits,  being  more  lively  at  night  than  in  the  day,  and  calling 
throughout  the  dark  hours.  These  birds  evince  a  curious  antipathy  to  any- 
thing of  a  red  colour,  and  this  is  the  more  interesting  as  remains  of  extinct 
forms  of  weka  rails  have  been  found  in  the  Mascarene  Islands,  one  of  which 
is  known  as  Erythromachus,  "the  fighter  of  red."  The  former  distribution 
of  forms  of  flightless  rails  in  New  Zealand  and  the  Chatham  Islands,  almost, 
if  not  absolutely,  identical  with  each  other,  has  given  rise  to  some  very  in- 
teresting speculations  as  to  whether  there  was  an  ancient  continuation  af 
land  area  between  these  two  portions  of  the  globe.  Certainly  the  discovery 
of  the  remains  of  an  extinct  genus,  Aphawi-pteryx,  in  Mauritius  and  in  the 
Chatham  Islands,  is  very  remarkable. 

Of  these,  the  most  typical  form  is  our  corn-crake  or  land- rail  (Crex  crex\ 
whose  harsh  voice  is  heard  in  the  hay-fields  during  the  summer,  often  far  into 
the  night.     Like  all  of  its  kind,  the  corn-crake  loves  seclu- 
sion, and  is  seldom  seen  on  the  wing,  except  during  the      The  SmaUer 
shooting  season,  when  the  birds  are  driven  up  by  the  dogs.  Crakes. 

Even  then  they  only  take  short  flights,  and  drop  into  cover 
again.  Everything  points  to  the  wing-power  of  the  corn-crake  being  of  the 
feeblest  description  and  yet  we  know  that  it  must  be  a  bird  capable  of  cover- 
ing considerable  distances,  as  it  reaches  South  Africa  on  its  winter  migration. 
The  little  crake  (Zapornia  parva),  the  spotted  crake  (Porzaua  porzana),  and 
Baillon's  crake  (Porzana  intermedia),  are  all  species  which  visit  England,  and 
the  genus  Porzana  may  be  said  to  be  cosmopolitan  in  its  range.  In  the 
Sandwich  Islands  were  found  two  curious  flightless  crakes  of  small  size, 
Pennula  ecaudata  and  P.  sandivichensis,  and"  in  the  island  of  Kushai  also  lived 
till  recently  a  small  black  crake  (Aphanolimnas  monasd).  All  these  interest- 
ing little  birds  are  now  believed  to  be  extinct,  and  as  they  could  not  fly,  they 
were  doubtless  exterminated  by  cats  and  rats.  In  the  island  of  Laysan  in 
the  Pacific,  however,  there  still  exists  one  of  these  curious  little  crakes, 
Porzanula  palmeri. 

Numerous  genera  of  small  crakes  are  known,  of  which  space  does  not  per- 
mit us  to  give  a  detailed  description  ;  but  the  distribution  of  the  white- 
winged  crakes  (Ortygops)  is  deserving  of  special  mention.  There  are  four 
species,  each  of 'which  is  peculiar  fur  having  some  white  quills,  which  are 
very  conspicuous  when  the  bird  flies.  The  distribution  of  the  four  species  is 


252  A  FES— ORDER  RALLIFORMES. 


very  interesting.  One,  0.  novcboracensis,  is  only  found  in  North  America  ;  a 
second,  0.  exquisita,  in  Eastern  Siberia  and  China  ;  a  third,  0.  notata,  in 
Uruguay  ;  and  a  fourth,  0.  ayresi,  in  South-Eastern  Africa. 

Passing  from  the  crakes  to  the  water-hens,  we  find  many  varied  forms, 
some  of  them  flightless,  as  Pareudiastes  ^acificus,  the  black  water-hen  of 
Samoa,  and  the  isolated  water-hens  of  Tristan  d'Acunha  (Porphyriornis 
nesiotis)  and  of  Gough  Island  (P.  comeri).  All  rails,  isolated  on  any  island, 
appear  to  become  rapidly  incapable  of  flight.  They  seem  to  be  birds  which 
are  always  averse  to  taking  wing,  and  doubtless  for  this  reason  the  power  of 
flight  soon  disappears  ;  but  they  are,  as  a  rule,  perfectly  able  to  take  care  of 
themselves  by  running,  or  by  concealing  themselves  in  the  grass. 

The  water-hens  are  found  all  over  the  world,  and  are  all  very  similar  to  our 
own  species,  the  "  moor-hen,"  as  it  is  frequently  called  (Galliuula  chloropus). 
They  are  birds  of  black  plumage,  and  have  a  bare  red  shield 
The  Water-Hens,  on  the  forehead.     The  most  brilliant  of   all   the  rails  are 
— Genus         the  blue  water-hens  (Porphyrio),  which  are  found  all  over 
Galliuula.        the  Old  World,  from  the   Mediterranean  over  Africa,  and 
from  India  and  China  to  Australia,     They  are  very  hand- 
some birds,  with  bright  red  bills  and  red  legs,  contrasting  with  their  blue  and 
green  plumage,  and  in  many  places  they  are  kept  in  confinement  as  orna- 
mental fowl  ;    they  are,  however,  somewhat  destructive   and   mischievous. 
The  largest  of  the  blue  water-hens  is  the  famous  Notornis  of  New  Zealand, 
which  is  a  giant  form,  incapable  of  flight,  and  believed  to  have  become  ex- 
tinct during  recent  years.     A  fossil  form  of  rail,  Aptomis,  also  from  New 
Zealand,  was  at  first  believed  to  be  a  small  kind  of  moa,  which  will  give  some 
idea  of  its  large  size. 

These  birds  are  remarkable  for  their  stout  bodies,  bare  frontal  shield  of 
ivory-white  or  yellow,  and,  above  all,  for  their  curiously  lobed  toes.  They 

are  found    in    nearly   every 
The  Coo.ts. —      part  of  the  globe,  and  several 
Sub-family       species  are  met  with  in  South 
Fulicina.         America.      One  of  the  most 
curious  of  the  ancient  forms 
was  the  extinct  Leguatia  gigantea  of  Mauri- 
tius. 

These  curious  birds  are  intermediate  be- 
tween the  rails  and  the  grebes,  and  are  chiefly  Fig  17  _THE  FIN  FOOT. 

remarkable    for    their  lobed  (Heiiomis fulica). 

The  Finfeet. —     toes,    which    in    the    South 

Family  American  finfoot  (Heliornis  fulica)  are  banded  with  black  and 

Hdiornithidce.  yellow.  Whereas  all  the  rails,  as  well  as  the  water-hens 
and  coots,  have  the  nestlings  clothed  in  black  down,  the  young 
finfoot  is  said  to  be  hatched  naked.  At  present  very  little  is  known  about 
these  birds  and  their  habits,  and  the  above  statement  may  turn  out  to  be 
incorrect.  It  certainly,  seems  to  be  very  unlikely  that  birds  so  obviously 
connected  with  the  rails  and  grebes  should  have  anything  but  downy  young. 
There  are  three  genera  of  the  Heliornithidce — Podica  from  Africa,  Heliopais 
from  Burma  and  Malacca,  and  Heliornis  from  South  America.  All  the  species 
are  very  shy  and  difficult  of  observation.  The  Senegal  finfoot  (Podica  sene- 
galensis)  was  found  by  Mr.  Biittikofer  in  Liberia,  and  his  is  apparently  the 
only  record  of  the  habits  of  the  birds.  They  swim  about  in  pairs,  and  do  not 
seek  to  escape  by  diving,  like  the  rails  or  grebes,  but  simply  by  concealing 


ORDER  PODICIPEDIDIFORMES—  GREBES. 


253 


The  Grebes.— 
Order 

Podicipedidi- 
formes. 


themselves  in  the  foliage  on  the  banks.     When  flying,  which  they  seldom  do, 
they  go  heavily,  striking  the  water  with  their  bill  and  feet. 

These  birds  are  familiarly  known  on  account  of  the  use  made  of  their 
beautiful  white  breasts  for  muffs  or  the  trimming  of  dresses,  but  in  a  wild 
state  they  are  not  easy  to  observe,  as  they  are  among  the 
shiest  of  birds.  Although  the  species  are  not  very  numerous, 
there  is  scarcely  a  portion  of  the  globe  which  grebes  do  nob 
inhabit.  The  feet  are  lobed,  and  there  is  never  any  visible 
tail,  the  broad  rectrices  of  other  birds  being  represented 
in  the  grebes  by  a  tuft  of  downy  plumes. 

The  Sclavonian  Grebe  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  order,  and  is  an  in- 
habitant of  the  northern  portions  of  both  hemispheres.     It  is  not  an  unfrequent 
visitor  to  Great  Britain  in  winter.     The  great-crested  grebe 
(Podicipes  cristatus)  is  almost  cosmopolitan  in  its  range,  and  is    The  Sclavonian 
the  largest  of  the  British  species.  It  is  still  to  be  found  nesting  Grebe  (Podicipes 
on  some  of  the  Norfolk  broads  and  inland  lakes  of  England,          auritus). 
building,  like  all  grebes,  a  nest  of  the  dampest  description, 
composed  of  weeds  and  rushes.     The  eggs  are  at  first  white,  but  become 
stained  in  a  very  short  time,  as  the  bird  generally 
covers  them  up  with  weeds  on  leaving   the  nest. 
All  the  grebes  are  splendid  divers,  and  even  the 
little  nestlings  take  to  the  water  soon  after  they  are 
hatched,  a.nd  escape  either  by  diving  or  by  hiding 
themselves  in  the  weeds  and  rushes.     The  nestlings 
are  very  pretty  little  creatures,  covered  with  soft 
down  of  a  zebra-like  pattern  in  streaks  of  white  and 
black  or  brown. 

There  are  not  many  genera  of  the  grebes,  most  of 
the  species  belonging  to  the  genus  Podicipes,  but  in 
America  the  thick-billed  grebe  belongs  to  a  distinct 
genus,  Podilymbus,  while  on  Lake  Titicaca,  in 
Bolivia,  is  found  a  large  form,  Centropelma,  which 
has  such  small  wings  that  it  is  apparently  incapable 
of  flight. 

The  dabchick  of  our  English  waters  (Tachybaptes 
flumatilis)  is  one  of  the  smallest  grebes,  and  is  dis- 
tributed over  the  greater  part  of  the  Palsearctie  region,  but  is  replaced  by  an 
allied  species  in  Africa  (T.  capensis],  and  in  India  by  7'.  albipennis. 

In  the  summer  the  dabchick  frequents  rivers,  lakes,  and  even  ponds 
and  small  sheets  of  water,  where  it  builds  a  nest  of  weeds,  which  are 
always  in  a  moist  condition,  and  the  nest  always  resembles  a  small  heap  of 
refuse  more  than  anything  else.  A  dabchick  is  a  pretty  object  to  watch,  but 
it  is  so  shy  a  bird  that  a  near  approach  is  impossible,  and  it  is  only  at  a  dis- 
tance that  they  can  be  seen  swimming  about  on  the  water.  On  the  first  sign 
of  danger,  it  disappears  like  magic,  and  comes  to  the  surface  again  for  a 
second,  only  to  dive  again  out  of  sight  on  the  instant.  If  one  of  them  be  sur- 
prised in  the  open,  it  will  dive  immediately,  and  if  there  be  a  bed  of  reeds  or 
other  shelter,  it  makes  for  them  under  the  water,  and  one  never  knows  at  what 
distance  its  head  will  reappear.  Twenty  and  thirty  yards  is  by  no  means  an 
uncommon  dive  for  a  dabchick  to  make,  and  it  uses  its  lobed  feet  as  propellers 
and  steerers,  not  making  much  use  of  its  wings,  which  are  held  close  to  the 
body,  the  stumpy  and  soft  tail  being  of  no  sort  of  use  to  it  as  a  steering  apparatus. 


Fig,  is. — THE  SCLAVONIAN 
GREBE  (Podicipes  auritus). 


254 


A  VES— ORDER  COL  YMBIFORMES. 


The  downy  nestlings  are  striped,  and  in  the  first  plumage  the  dabchicks  are 
brown  above.  In  the  autumn  they  are  to  a  certain  extent  migratory,  and  are 
shot  in  our  tidal  harbours  ;  but  in  mild  winters  they  do  not  desert  their  native 
homes.  In  summer,  both  sexes  don  a  nuptial  plumage,  with  a  yellow  patch 
on  the  bill  and  a  black  breast,  against  which  the  rufous  colour  of  the  face  and 
neck  forms  a  striking  contrast.  In  all  the 
grebes,  the  brighter  colours  and  the  ornamental 
tippets  and  crests  are  dropped  during  the  winter 
season. 

The  divers  are  birds  of  the  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere, few  in  number  and  arctic  in  habitat. 
Four  species  are  known,  all  of 
The  Divers.—     which  are  found  in  Great  Bri- 
Order  tain,  two  of  them  nesting  within 

Colymbiformes.  our  limits.  The  red -throated 
diver  (Colymbus  septentrional  is) 
is  one  of  them,  and  the  black-throated  diver  (C. 
arcticus)  is  the  second.  The  great  northern 
diver  (C.  glacialis)  is  a  more  or  less  frequent 
visitor  in  winter,  and  the  white-billed  diver 
(C.  adamsi)  has  occurred  a  few  times. 

This   is  chiefly  known  as  an  inhabitant  of 
North  America  and  Iceland,  as  the  great  north- 
ern diver  which  breeds  in  the 
Old    World   will   probably  be 
found  to  be  C.  adamsi.      The 

habits  of  all  the  divers  are  much  the  same.  On  the  water 
they  are  at  home,  swimming  about  and  diving  with  the  great- 
est of  ease  ;  but  on  land  they  are  very  awkward,  and  the 
backward  position  of  their  legs  seems  to  make  it  impossible  for  the  birds 
ever  to  stand  upright.  In  fact,  they  seem  to  shuffle  along  the  ground  with  a 


The  Great 
Northern  Diver 

(Colymbus 
glacialis) . 


Fig.  19.— THE  LITTLE  GKEBE  OR 

DABCHICK 
(Tachylaptes  Jluviatilis). 


snake-like  motion,  and  never  walk.     They  excel  all  the  grebes  in  their  power 

of  flight,  though,  as  a  rule,  they  trust 
to  their  swimming  and  diving  powers 
to  escape  from  danger,  and  are  often 
to  be  seen  swimming  in  the  sea  far 
away  from  land ;  and  they  are  also  able 
to  submerge  their  bodies,  so  that  only 
the  head  and  neck  is  exposed,  and 
they  can  remain  under  water  for  an 
astonishing  time,  the  great  northern 
diver  having  been  known  to  remain 
below  the  surface  for  eight  minutes. 
The  nesting-place  is  on  some  inland  loch 
or  secluded  lake,  and  the  nest  is  a 
poorly  constructed  affair.  The  eggs  are 
two  in  number,  of  a  russet-brown  or  olive-brown  colour,  with  black  spots  and 
fainter  block  underlying  markings. 

The  divers  differ  from  the  grebes  in  having  webbed  feet  and  a  well-developed 
tail.  The  young  birds  are  covered  with  down,  and  are  able  to  dive  and  shift 
for  themselves  shortly  after  they  are  hatched.  The  sexes  are  alike  in  plum- 
age, and  they  have  a  distinct  summer  and  winter  dress,  as  with  the  grebes. 


Fig.  20. — THE  GREAT  NORTHERN  DIVER 
(Colymbus  glacialis). 


PENGUINS. 


255 


The  penguins  are  birds  of  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  the  most  northerly 
ranging  species  occurring  in  the  Galapagos  Islands,  off  the  coast  of  South 
America.     They   are  chiefly  remarkable  for  their  close-set 
plumage,  unlike  that  of  any  other  birds,  and  the  flipper-like  Tlie  Penguins. — 
character  of  their  wings.     The  feathers,  which  are  harsh  and  Order 

scaly,   and  generally  devoid  of  barbs,  are  distributed  over  Sphenisciformes. 
the  whole  body,  so  that  there  are  no  bare  spaces  between  the 
feather-tracts,  as  in  most  birds.     Penguins  are  found  in  astonishing  numbers 
in  the  Southern  Seas,  especially  at  their  breeding- 
places,   which    are    selected    on    rocky   islands, 
such  as  Kerguelen,  Tristan  d'Acunha,  the  islets 
round  New  Zealand,  and  the  Falklands.    As  they 
cannot  fly,  great  havoc  is  worked  among  them 
on     their     island     homes    during     the     nesting 
season,  when  thousands  are  killed  for  the  sake 
of  their  oil. 

The  penguins  vary  very  much  in  size, 
from  the  diminutive  Eudypiila  minor  to  the 
gigantic  emperor  and  king  penguins  (Apteno- 
dytes  patachonica)  of  the  Antarctic  Seas.  They 
always  walk  or  hop  in  an  erect  position, 
and  they  are  assisted  in  the  support  of 
their  heavy  bodies  by  the  unusual  strength 
of  their  tarsi,  the  metatarsal  bone  being 
very  shorb  and  wide.  The  scapular  bone 
is  also  of  unusual  width  for  a  bird.  The 
nestlings  are  covered  with  dense  down,  which 
is  retained  for  a  considerable  period,  until,  in 
fact,  the  birds  are  nearly  full-grown. 

The  habits  of  all  the  penguins  are  very  similar,  and  the  following  account 
of  the  "Johnnie"  (Pygoscelis  taniata),  by  the  Rev.  A.  E.  Eaton,  who 
observed  the  species  on  Kerguelen  Island,  during  the  <k  Transit  of  Venus 
Expedition,"  is  very  characteristic  of  the  order,  and  we  therefore  give  the 
following  extracts  : — 

"It  builds  in  communities,  some  of  only  a  dozen,  others  from  70  to  150 
families.  A  more  populous  colony  was  visited  by  six  officers  from  the  ships, 
who  estimated  the  number  of  nests  in  it  to  amount  to  2,000  or  more. 
These  larger  communities  are  approached  from  the  sea  by  regular  paths, 
conspicuous  at  a  distance,  like  well-worn  sheep  tracks,  which  lead  straight  up 
the  hill  from  the  water.  Their  formation  is  due  to  the  penguins  being  very 
particular  about  where  they  land  and  enter  the  sea.  A  small  party  of  the 
birds  occupied  a  position  upon  the  neck  of  a  low  promontory  within  an  hour's 
walk  of  Observatory  Bay.  Their  nests  were  nearest  to  the  farther  side  of 
the  isthmus  ;  bub  when  they  were  approached,  the  male  birds  used  to  run  to 
the  water,  not  by  the  shortest  route  where  it  was  deep  close  to  the  rocks,  bub 
by  the  longest  to  a  place  where  the  shore  was  shelving.  It  was  amusing  to 
see  them  start  off  in  a  troop  as  fast  as  their  legs  could  carry  them,  holding 
out  their  wings  and  tumbling  headlong  over  stones  in  their  way,  because  as 
they  ran  they  would  keep  looking  back  instead  of  before  them,  and  to  hear 
their  outcries.  Panic  and  consternation  seemed  to  possess  them  all  ;  bub 
the  females  (possibly  because  they  could  nob  keep  up  with  their  mates) 
seldom  went  far  from  their  nests,  and,  if  the  intruder  stood  still,  soon 


Fig.  21.— THE  KING  PENGUIN 
(Aptenodytes  longirostris). 


256  AVES—  ORDER  SPHENISCIFORMES. 


returned  and  settled  down  again  upon  their  eggs.  Not  many  weeks  had 
passed  before  a  change  was  effected  in  their  conduct.  The  young  were 
hatched,  and  now  the  mothers  anxiously  endeavoured  to  persuade  them  to 
follow  the  example  of  their  fathers,  and  run  away  to  sea.  But  the  nestlings 
preferred  to  stay  in  their  nests  ;  they  did  not  mind  if  the  stranger  did  stroke 
them,  although  their  anxious  mothers  ran  at  him  with  open  mouths  whenever 
he  dared  to  do  so.  Only  a  few  of  the  older  chicks  could  be  prevailed  upon 
to  stir,  and  they,  after  waddling  a  few  yards,  became  satisfied  with  their 
performance,  and  turned  to  go  home  again.  The  mothers,  who  had  straggled 
to  a  greater  distance,  began  to  return  too.  It  was  now  that  the  more  tardy 
youngsters  began  to  experience  the  ills  of  life.  Every  penguin  that  had 
reached  its  place  before  them  aimed  blows  at  them  as  they  passed  by  towards 
their  own  abodes.  One  of  the  little  birds  certainly  did  seem  to  deserve 
correction.  It  saw  its  neighbour's  nest  empty,  and  sat  down  in  it.  The  old 
female  Johnnie,  the  rightful  occupier,  presently  returned  in  company  with 
her  own  chick,  to  whom,  having  put  her  head  well  into  his  mouth,  she  began 
to  administer  refreshment  after  his  run.  Seeing  them  so  pleasantly  engaged, 
the  small  vagrant,  thoughtlessly  presuming  upon  her  generosity,  went  nearer 
and  presented  himself  to  be  fed  also,  as  if  he  had  a  right  to  her  attention 
and  care.  She  looked  at  him  while  he  stood  gaping  before  her  with  drooping 
wings,  unable  for  the  moment  to  credit  what  she  saw.  But  suddenly  the 
truth  flashed  upon  her,  and,  provoked  by  his  consummate  audacity,  she  gave 
vent  to  her  indignation,  pecked  his  tongue  as  hard  as  she  could,  chased  him 
out  of  the  nest,  darting  blows  at  his  back,  and  croaked  ominously  after  him 
as  he  fled  precipitately  beyond  the  range  of  her  beak,  leaving  trophies  of 
down  upon  the  scene  of  his  unfortunate  adventure.  The  whole  of  this 
community  of  penguins  was  subsequently  boiled  down  into  'hare  soup3  for 
the  officers  of  H.M.S.  Volage,  and  very  nice  they  found  it.  The  nests  were 
composed  of  dried  leaf-stalks  and  seed-stems  of  pringlea,  together  with  such 
other  suitable  material  as  happened  to  be  at  hand.  There  were  two  eggs  in 
every  nest,  and  one  of  them  was  invariably  larger  than  the  other.  Most 
likely  the  birds  hatched  from  the  larger  eggs  are  of  the  opposite  sex  to  those 
which  are  produced  from  the  smaller.  Whether  the  big  or  the  little  egg  is 
the  first  to  be  laid  was  not  ascertained. 

' '  As  is  the  case  with  many  other  kinds  of  birds,  Johnnies  are  very  regular 
in  their  habits.  Every  afternoon  at  nearly  the  same  time  they  repair  to  the 
shore  when  they  have  done  fishing,  landing  in  small  parties  at  their 
accustomed  places  at  the  heads  of  shallow  inlets.  On  issuing  from  the 
water  they  dispose  themselves  to  rest,  seldom  proceeding  beyond  the  verge 
of  the  shore.  Those  which  are  inclined  to  sleep  put  their  heads  behind  their 
flippers  ;  the  others  stand  amongst  them  with  their  neck  shortened  so  as  to 
bring  the  head  down  close  to  the  body,  with  the  beak  slanting  upwards  and 
forwards,  somewhat  in  the  manner  of  a  very  young  thrush  during  repose. 
Their  eyes  present  a  rather  tearful  appearance,  and  resemble  bits  of  dull 
black  glass  set  in  their  heads, — perhaps  the  nictitating  membrane  may  be 
kept  drawn  over  them.  At  frequent  intervals  a  kind  of  watery  fluid  is 

ejected  from  their  mouth  by  a  shake  of  the  head." 

The  Petrels. —       The  petrels  are  also  often  called  the  Tubinares,  on  account 

Order  Pro-      of  their  tubular  nostrils.     They  are  generally  associated  with 

cellariiformes.    the  gulls,  but  there  is  really  little  in  common  between  the 

two  groups,  beyond  the  fact  that  they  are  both  marine  orders 

of  birds.     The  petrels  differ  from  the  gulls  in  many  important  anatomical 


PETRELS.  257 


and  osteological  characters,  but  we  need  go  no  further  here  than  to  specialize 
their  peculiar  nostril  and  bill,  the  covering  of  the  latter  consisting  of  several 
horny  pieces  separated  by  deep  grooves. 

The  albatroses  are  the  largest  of  the  petrels,  and,  indeed,  possess  a 
wider  spread  of  wing  than  any  known  bird.  On  the  other  hand,  some 
of  the  storm-petrels  are  hardly  larger  than  a  swallow.  All  of  them  have 
a  peculiar  odour,  a  sort  of  musky  smell,  which  clings  to  the  person  after 
handling  a  number  of  these  birds.  The  eggs,  too,  are  impregnated  with 
this  smell,  which  adheres  to  them  for  years  after  they  have  been  in  a 
cabinet. 

The  petrels  lay  but  one  egg,  and  this  is  generally  concealed  under  a  rock 
or  boulder,  the  nest  being  of  the  flimsiest  description,  though  the  albatroses 
make  a  rough  nest  in  the  open.  The  young  are  covered  with  down,  and  re- 
main helpless  for  some  time  in  the  nest ;  the  down  is  generally  of  a  sooty 
colour,  but  is  white  in  the  case  of  some  of  the  larger  albatroses.  Mr.  Osbert 
Salvin,  in  his  recent  work  on  the  group,  recognises  four  families — Pro- 
cellariidce  or  storm-petrels,  PuffinicU'e  or  shearwaters,  Pdecanoidce  or  diving- 
petrels,  and  Diomedeidce  or  albatroses. 

There  are  two  sub-families  of  the  Procellariidte,  the  short-legged  petrels 
(Procellariince),  and  the  long-legged  petrels  (Oceanitince).  In  the  former  we 
find  the  storm-petrel  of  the  British  coast  (Procellaria  pelagica),  which  is  the 
typical  form  of  the  group.  Jt  inhabits  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean  as  far  south 
as  West  Africa,  and  enters  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  At  the  nesting  time  it 
visits  the  islands  and  western  coasts  of 
Great  Britain,  but  has  not  been  found 
breeding  on  the  east  coasts  of  England 
or  Scotland.  Another  well-known  member 
of  the  storm-petrels  is  the  fork-tailed  or 
Leach's  petrel,  which  is  found  throughout 
the  North  Atlantic,  and  also  occurs  in  the 
Japanese  Islands.  It  is  a  larger  bird  than 
the  storm-petrel,  and  is  easily  known  by  its 
forked  tail.  It  breeds  on  some  of  the 
Outer  Hebrides  and  also  on  the  islands  off 
the  coast  of  Kerry.  A  curious  instance  of 
the  way  in  which  petrels  are  distributed  over  the  ocean,  and  how  very  little 
we  really  know  of  their  range,  has  lately  been  noted  in  England,  where  in 
December,  1895,  a  specimen  of  the  Canarian  fork-tailed  petrel  was  obtained 
for  the  first  time,  at  Littlestone  in  Kent.  It  is  only  fourteen  years  ago  that 
this  species  was  described  by  Mr.  Ridgway  from  the  Sandwich  Islands  in 
the  Pacific,  to  which  it  was  believed  to  be  confined.  In  1895  Mr.  Ogilvie- 
Grant  discovered  it  on  the  Salvage  Islands  in  the  Atlantic,  and  now  the 
British  Museum  contains  specimens  from  Madeira  and  the  Desertas  group, 
as  well  as  from  St.  Helena.  It  has  also  been  recently  discovered  as  an  in- 
habitant of  the  Galapagos  Islands  off  South  America.  Another  remarkable 
case  occurred  a  few  years  ago,  when  a  petrel  from  the  Fiji  Islands  and  the 
New  Hebrides,  (Estrelata  brevipes,  one  of  the  rarest  of  all  petrels,  turned  up 
unexpectedly  in  Wales.  It  had  never  been  heard  of  before  away  from  the 
Pacific  Ocean. 

This  family  is  numerously  represented  in  all  the  great  oceans  of  the  world, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  where  there  are  not  so  many  species. 
The  British  Islands  are  visited  by  several  species  of  PiiffmuSy  and  one,  the 
18 


258  A  VES— ORDER  PROCELLARIIFORMES. 


manx  shearwater,  is  resident  and  breeds  on  St.  Kilda,  as  well  as  in  other 
places  in  the  west  of  Europe.  Like  all  other  members  of  their  family,  the 
shearwaters  are  birds  of  rapid  flight,  and  may  be  seen  in 
The  Shearwaters  flocks  far  out  at  sea,  apparently  revelling  in  the  rough 
and  Fulmars. —  weather. 

Family  The  fulmar-petrels  (sub-family  Fidmarince)  are  also  very 

Puffinida!.        widely  distributed  over  all  the  oceans,  and  some  of  them 

are    as    large    as    gulls,    one    species,    Ossifraga    yiyaulea, 

from  the  Southern    Seas,  being  as  large  as  some    of   the   albatroses.     The 

common   fulmar  -  petrel   (Fulmanis  glacialis)  is   a    well-known  inhabitant 

of  the  seas   of  Arctic   Europe,  and  nests  on  St.   Kilda  and  the  Shetland 

Islands. 

The  diving-petrels  (Pelecnnoididie)  are  curious  little  birds  from  the  Southern 
Seas,  which  have  much  the  appearance  of  the  little  auk  (Mergulns  alle)  of 
the  Northern  Hemisphere.  Mr.  Eaton  says  that,  like  that  species,  the  diving- 
petrels  have  a  hurried  flight,  and  dive  into  the  sea  without  any  interruption 
of  the  action  of  their  wings;  both  also  emerge  from  beneath  the  surface  fly- 
ing, and  they  both  swim  with  their  tails  rather  deep  in  the  water.  This 
resemblance,  he  says,  does  not  extend  to  other  particulars  of  their  habits. 
The  little  auk,  when  breeding,  usually  flies  and  fishes  in  small  flocks  of  six  or 
a  dozen  birds,  and  nests  in  communities  of  considerable  size,  which  are  ex- 
ceedingly noisy.  Diving-petrels,  on  the  other  hand,  are  more  domestic  in 
their  mode  of  living,  fishing  and  flying  for  the  most  part  in  pairs  or  alone, 
and  nest  sporadically.  Their  burrows  are  about  as  small  in  diameter  as  the 
holes  of  bank  martins  or  kingfishers.  They  are  made  in  dry  banks  and 
slopes  where  the  ground  is  easily  penetrable,  and  terminate  in  an  enlarged 
chamber,  on  the  floor  of  which  the  egg  is  deposited.  There  is  no  specially 
constructed  nest.  Some  of  the  burrows  are  branched,  but  the  branches  are 
without  terminal  enlargements,  and  do  not  appear  to  be  put  to  any  use  by 
the  birds. 

The  family  of  albatroses  or  Diomedeidce  contains  three  genera,  Diomedea 
with  nine  species  of  true  albatroses,  Thalasso(jero)i,<>?cu\m'ina,ted  albatroses,  with 

five  species,  and  Pluebetria,  or 
sooty  albatroses,  with  a  single 
species.  Most  of  the  members 
of  this  family  are  birds  of  wide 
range,  whence  the  common 
species  gets  its  name  of  "wan- 
dering." They  are  remarkable 
for  their  wide  extent  of  wing 
and  their  graceful  and  sus- 
tained flight.  At  certain  periods 
of  the  j'ear  they  resort  to  the 
islands  in  the  Southern  oceans 
to  Dreec^  an(l  the  gatherings 
which  take  place  are  some- 

times  incredible.     Thus  on  the 

Fig.  23.-THK  WANDERING  ALBATROS  island  of  Laysan,  in  the  Pacific, 

(Diomedea  exulans).  thousands   upon    thousands    of 

eggs    of    the    white    albatros 

(Diomedea  immutcibilis)  are  collected.     Mr.   Palmer,  who  visited  this  island 
on  behalf  of  the  Hon.  Walter  Rothschild,  says  that  the  birds  literally  covered 


ALB ATROSES— AUKS.  259 

the  surface  of  Laysan,  the  young  in  some  places  being  as  thick  as  they  could 
stand.  He  writes  : — "  It  is  very  curious  to  watch  the  love-making  antics  of 
the  birds.  First  they  stand  face  to  face,  then  they  begin  nodding  and  bow- 
ing vigorously,  and  then  rub  their  bills  together  with  a  whistling  cry  ;  after 
this  they  begin  shaking  their  heads  and  snapping  their  bills  with  marvellous 
rapidity,  occasionally  lifting  one  wing,  straightening  themselves  out,  and 
blowing  out  their  breasts  ;  then  they  put  their  bill  under  their  wings  or  toss 
it  in  the  air,  with  a  groaning  scream,  and  walk  round  each  other,  often  for 
fifteen  minutes  at  a  time.  They  are  quite  fearless,  and  do  not  move  out  of 
the  way.  When  Mr.  Freeth  was  going  to  the  guano-field  on  his  tram- 
way-line, he  had  to  send  a  boy  ahead  to  clear  the  tracks  of  the  young 
albatroses." 

Mr.  D.  le  Souef  gives  a  very  interesting  account  of  a  visit  to  Albatros 
Island  in  Bass'  Straits,  Australia  : — "  The  nests  of  the  cautious  albatros 
(Thalassogeron  catitus)  are  situated  at  varying  distances  one  from  the  other, 
from  a  foot  upwards,  some  on  the  ground,  and  others  again  on  the  uneven 
side  or  top  of  a  point  of  rock.  Some  of  the  birds  had  come  on  shore  to  rest 
only,  while  a  few  of  them  had  their  heads  turned  back  and  partially  under 
their  wings,  and  were  asleep.  When  one  wished  to  fly  it  had  to  walk  to  the 
edge  of  the  cliff,  and  go  off  with  a  downward  sweep  ;  but  when  the  wind  was 
blowing  very  strong  the  bird  could  then  rise,  facing  it,  from  a  point  of  rock. 
One  bird  1  found  in  a  depression  about  60  feet  across  and  30  feet  deep,  with 
steep  sides,  and  as  it  could  neither  climb  or  fly  out  I  caught  it  and  climbed 
up  the  bank  with  the  bird  under  rny  arm,  and  took  it  back  to  the  "  rookery. ' 
On  approaching  very  close  to  the  birds,  they  would  partly  stand  up  on  their 
nest,  leaning  backwards  and  apparently  resting  the  tail  on  the  edge  of  the 
nest,  and  then  facing  the  intruder.  When  one  was  within  two  feet  of  them, 
they  would  utter  a  loud  cackling  noise,  shaking  their  heads  up  and  down, 
and  opening  and  shutting  their  beaks  rapidly.  A  considerable  noise  was 
made  by  the  mandibles  coming  together,  and  at  the  same  time  a  strong- 
smelling  oily  secretion  was  thrown  up.  In  order  to  secure  an  egg,  the  beak 
of  the  bird  was  caught  hold  of  with  one  hand  and  the  egg  taken  up  with  the 
other,  and  on  stepping  back  the  beak  was  let  go  again.  The  bird  would  then 
sit  or  stand  on  its  nest  for  some  time  afterwards.  The  birds  often  had  diffi- 
culty in  alighting  on  a  particular  spot,  when  the  wind  was  blowing  strongly 
on  to  their  breeding-ground  from  the  sea,  as  they  always  flew  against  the 
wind  when  desiring  to  alight,  and  I  have  watched  them  sometimes  try 
seven  or  eight  times  before  they  could  successfully  accomplish  their  object. 
They  came  up  with  considerable  force,  holding  their  heads  well  back,  and 
stretching  out  their  expanded  feet  at  the  same  time,  and  the  fact  of 
having  their  win^s  half -closed  gave  them  a  very  ungainly  appearance  when 
alighting." 

The  auks  are  birds  of  the  Northern  Seas.     They  form  a  peculiar  group,  and 
are  usually  associated  with  the  gulls,  from  which  birds,  however,  they  differ 
in  many  important  characters,  though  in  their  osteology  the 
two  orders  have  many  points  in  common.     Externally,  how-      The  Auks.— 
ever,  the  differences  are  apparent  at  a  glance.     The  gulls  are      Order  Alcce. 
splendid  flyers,  but  are  no  great  divers,  while  diving  is  one 
of  the  chief  features  of  an  auk's  economy.     Again,  the  gulls  make  a  nest  of 
some  sort,  the  auks  seldom  or  never,  for  the  latter  birds  select  a  bare  ledge 
or  cleft  of  a  cliff,  or  the  broken  rocks,  on  which  to  lay  their  egg,  the  colour 
and  markings  of  which  are  entirely  different  from  those  of  any  gull  or  tern. 


260 


AVES— ORDER  ALCIFORMES. 


Fig   24.— THE  GREAT  AUK 
(Pldutus  impennis). 


One  of  the  most  interesting  of  all  the  Alcce  is  the  great  auk,  which  was  a 
kind  of  gigantic  razorbill,  but  possessing  such  diminutive  wings  that  the 
power  of  flight  was  denied  to  it.  It  has  become  extinct  during  the  first  half 
of  the  present  century,  and  specimens  of  the  bird  and  the  egg  fetch  large 
prices  whenever  they  come  into  the  market.  The  great  auk,  as  Professor 
Newton  has  pointed  out,  owes  its  extinction  entirely  to  the  agency  of  man, 
who  hunted  the  bird  to  its  destruction.  It  seems  to  have  had  a  compara- 
tively limited  range,  having  been  abundant  in 
Newfoundland  and  the  adjacent  shores  of  North 
America  and  Iceland,  ranging  in  smaller  num- 
bers to  the  Hebrides  and  the  shores  of 
Northern  Britain. 

The  razorbill  ( Aha  torda)  and  the  guillemot 
(Uria  troile)  are  well-known  British  birds, 
which  breed  in  vast  numbers  on  our  coasts, 
the  best-known  nesting  colonies  being  on  the 
cliffs  of  Flam  borough  and  on  the  Fame  Islands, 
Here  large  numbers  of  the  eggs  are  taken  every 
year,  those  of  the  guillemot  presenting  an  end- 
less variety  of  colour  and  marking.  The  black 
guillemot  (Uria  yrylle)  nests  in  the  Arctic 
regions,  and  in  the  north  of  Scotland  and  Ire- 
land, and  the  rotche  or  little  auk  (Mergidus 
alle)  is  a  winter  visitor  to  Great  Britain,  being 
often  driven  far  inland  by  stress  of  weather. 
The  breeding-places  of  the  little  auk  have 
been  described  as  tenanted  by  countless  thou- 
sands, Admiral  Beechey  having  stated  that  he  saw  a  column  of  these  birds 
on  the  wing  at  one  time  which  he  estimated  at  four  millions  ! 

Our  English  puftin,  or  sea-parrot,  is  a  representative  of  the  group  of  the 
auks  which  are  most  numerous  in  the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  where  several 
crested  species  are  found.  They  are  re- 
markable for  the  coloration  of  the  bill, 
which  is  grooved  in  a  curious  fashion, 
and  exhibits  bright  colours,  while  there 
is  also  a  blue  excrescence  above  the  eye. 
These  ornamental  features  of  the  bird's 
bill  are  a  sign  of  the  breeding-season, 
and  are  shed  as  by  a  moult  in  the  winter, 
to  be  resumed  in  the  following  spring. 
The  birds  of  the  year  have  quite  a  small 
bill,  without  any  of  the  grooving  or 
coloured  ornamentation  which  character- 
ises the  adults.  Puffins  differ  from  the 
other  auks  in  their  nesting  habits,  the 
egg,  which  is  white,  with  occasionally  a 
few  indistinct  markings,  being  placed  in  a  rabbit  burrow,  or  in  a  hole 
tunnelled  by  the  birds  themselves. 

The  gulls  are  divided  into  two  families,  the  true  gulls,  or  Laridce,  and  the 
skuas,  or  Stercorariidce.  The  general  appearance  of  gulls  is  too  well  known 
to  detain  us  long  with  the  characters  which  define  the  order,  which  is  admitted 
to  be  closely  related  to  the  order  Charadriiformes,  the  great  group  of  plovers 


Fig.  25. — THE  PUFFIN  (Fratercula 
arctica). 


GULLS— TERNS. 


261 


and  snipes,  with  which  the  Gulls  possess  many  anatomical  characters  in 
common,  though  they  differ  from  the  plovers  and  their  allies  in  having 
webbed  feet.  The  Laridce,  or  true  gulls,  differ  from  the 

skuas  in  having  no  "  cere  'J  on  the  bill,  which  is  a  feature      The  Gulls 

in  the  latter  family.     The  cere  is  a  wax-like  bare  space  at  Order 

the  base  ot  the  bill,  a  common  characteristic  of  Hawks  and       Lariformes. 
Parrots,  but  rare  in  every  other  order  of  birds,  and  it  is 
decidedly  interesting  that  it  should  reappear  in  a  family  of  gulls,  especially 
as  it  is  combined  with  a  decidedly  rapacious  disposition  in  the  skuas. 

The  family  Laridce  is  divided  by  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  into  three  sub- 
families: the  terns,  or  sea-swallows  (Sternince) ;  the  skimners  (Rhynchopince) ; 
and  the  gulls  (Larince). 

The  sea-swallows  are  found  all  over  the  world,  from  the  high  north  to  the 
extreme  south.  They  are  mostly  marine,  but  many  of  them  are  birds  of  the 
marshes,  especially  during  the  nest- 
ing season,  while  others  frequent 
rivers  and  inland  lakes.  It  is, 
however,  on  the  sea  that  these 
graceful  birds  are  generally  seen 
to  the  greatest  advantage,  as  they 
hover  over  the  water,  or  glide  along 
above  its  surface,  occasionally  drop- 
ping down  to  capture  some  small 
fish  or  other  prey.  They  often 
follow  shoals  of  small  fry,  and  we 
remember  seeing  a  flock  of  large 
terns  in  the  Red  Sea,  evidently 
engaged  in  decimating  a  shoal  of  fig.  26.— ARCTIC  TERN  (Sterna  mqcrtfra). 

fish   on  the  surface  of  the  water, 

and  keeping  up  such  a  cackling  all  the  time  that  they  could  be  heard  at  least 
a  mile  off. 

In  the  British  Islands  we  have  thirteen  different  kinds  of  terns,  five  of 
which  breed  with  us,  the  best  known  being  the  common  tern  (Sterna  flumatilis), 
the  arctic  tern  (S.  macrura),  and  the  lesser  tern  (S.  minuta).  The  sandwich 
tern  (S.  cantiaca)  now  only  nests  in  a  few  localities  ;  and  a  few  pairs  of  the 
beautiful  roseate  tern  (S.  dougalli)  are  believed  to  still  breed  in  one  or  two 
places  off  our  coasts.  Among  the  visitors  to  the  British  Islands  are  the 
three  species  of  marsh  tern,  belonging  to  the  genus  Hydrochelidon,  which 
have  only  moderately  forked  tails,  the  outer  feather  or  "  streamer "  not 
being  prolonged,  as  in  most  of  the  terns.  The  black  tern  (H.  nigra)  is  the 
commonest  of  the  three  species  which  visit  England,  the  white-winged  black 
tern  and  the  whiskered  tern  bein**  of  very  rare  occurrence.  These  marsh 
terns  nest  in  swamps  and  marshes  throughout  temperate  Europe,  Asia,  and 
North  America,  and  they  are  plentiful  in  the  marismas  of  Southern  Spain 
and  the  Danube.  The  nests  are  made  of  weeds,  and  are  placed  on  tussocks, 
or  on  floating  vegetation. 

The  largest  of  the  terns  is  the  Caspian  tern  (Hydroprogne  caspia),  a  large 
red-billed  species,  which  measures  nearly  two  feet  in  length,  and  is  found 
over  the  greater  part  of  the  globe.  The  common  and  Arctic  terns  are  species 
which  breed  in  colonies  on  many  parts  of  the  British  coasts,  laying  their 
eggs  on  the  shingle,  and  making  scarcely  any  attempt  at  a  nest.  The  eggs 
have  a  great  resemblance  to  those  of  some  of  the  plovers,  and,  like  the  latter 


262  A  VES— ORDER  LARIFORMES. 


are  difficult  to  distinguish  on  the  ground.     This  is  especially  the  case  with 
the  eggs  of  the  lesser  tern  (Sterna  minuta). 

One  of  the  rarest  visitors  to  Britain  is  the  sooty  tern  (Sterna  fuliginosa). 
This  is  the  species  which  breeds  in  such  enormous  numbers  on  certain  islands, 
such  as  Laysan  in  the  Pacific,  and  Ascension  Island  in  the  Atlantic.  In  the 
latter  the  assemblage  of  these  birds  is  known  as  "  Wideawake  Fair."  On 
Ascension,  according  to  Mr.  Howard  Saunders,  the  sooty  terns  lay  but  one 
egg,  and  this  was  also  found  to  be  the  case  by  Mr.  Palmer  on  Laysan,  the 
birds  being  perfectly  fearless,  and  not  moving  off  their  nest,  but  pecking  and 
biting  at  anyone  that  approached  them.  As  many  as  two  hundred  dozens  of 
eggs  have  been  collected  on  Ascension  Island  in  the  course  of  a  morning, 
and  this  will  give  some  idea  of  the  numbers  frequenting  that  spot. 

In  the  tropical  islands  of  the  southern  oceans  is  found  a  curious  form  of 
tern,  snowy-white  in  plumage,  with  a  pointed  black  bill.  This  is  the  snowy 
tern  (Gyyis  alba),  which  possesses  a  very  wide  range  over  the  islands  of  the 
Pacific  and  South  Atlantic.  It  lays  but  a  single  egg,  which  is  placed  carelessly 
among  the  rocks  or  scrub,  but  is  also  often  found  in  a  cavity  of  a  branch  or 
on  the  fork  of  a  tree. 

These  curious  river  terns  are  called  scissor-bills,  on  account  of  the  remark- 
able disparity  in  the  length  of  the  two  mandibles  of  the  bill   and   their 
extreme  sharpness  of  the  ridges,  which  is  compressed  like  the 
The  Skimmers.—  blade  of  a  pair  of  scissors.     The  name  given  to  the  American 

Sub-family  species  by  one  of  the  old  writers  in  1731  is  "cut-water," 
RhynchopinoR.  a  very  good  title  for  the  bird,  as  these  scissor-bills  fly  along 
the  top  of  the  water,  cutting  the  latter  with  their  blade-like 
under  mandible,  which  is  considerably  longer  than  the  upper  one.  The 
skimmers  frequent  rivers  in  the  tropical  countries  of  the  Old  and  New 
Worlds,  being  found  nesting  as  far  north  as  Virginia  in  North  America,  and 
Egypt  in  the  Old  World.  The  eggs,  which  resemble  those  of  the  true  terns, 
are  laid  on  sand-banks  in  the  rivers  frequented  by  the  birds.  Five  species 
are  known,  each  with  a  separate  range,  Hkyncliops  niyra,  being  found  in  the 
Southern  United  States  to  Central  America,  _R.  intercedens  in  Brazil,  and  .B. 
melanura  in  the  northern  part  of  South  America.  R.  flai'irostris  is  an  in- 
habitant of  Africa,  and  R.  albicollis  of  India. 

Their  heavy  build  and  square  tails,  as  a  rule,  distinguish  gulls  from  terns, 

but  it  must  be  remembered  that  some  of  the  gulls  are  small,  and  many  are 

not  so  big  as  the  Caspian  tern,  for  instance.     The  forked  tail 

The  Gulls.  —      of  the  terns  is  seen  in  one  genus  of  gulls,  Xema,  which  con- 

Sub-family       tains  two  species,  Sabine's  gull  (X.  sabinii),  and  the  large 

Larince.         fork-tailed  gull  (X.  furcata).     The  former  is  an  inhabitant 

of  the  Arctic  Seas,  but  sometimes  straggles  as  far  as  the  coasts 

of  Britain,  while  X.  furcata  is  only  known  from  the  Galapagos  and  the  coasts 

of   Western   America.      Ross's  gull  (Wiodoxtcthia  rosea)   is  another  Arctic 

species,  which  on  rare  occasions  visits  Europe,  but  is  one  of  the  rarest  of  all 

the  gulls,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  wedge-shaped  tail  and  the  beautiful  rosy 

blush  on  its  white  breast,  which  is  like  that  seen  in  the  roseate  tern. 

Of  the  true  gulls  (Larus),  of  which  the  common  gull  (L.  camts)  may  be 
considered  the  type,  there  are  more  than  forty  species  known,  and  these  are 
distributed ,  like  the  terns,  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  globe,  from  the 
Arctic  regions  in  the  north  to  the  extreme  south.  The  gulls  may  be  divided 
into  two  groups,  those  with  a  hood  and  those  without.  The  hooded  gulls 
comprise  such  species  as  our  black-headed  gull  (Larus  ridibundus)  and  its 


GULLS-SKUAS. 


263 


Fig.  27.— THE  COMMON  GULL 
(Larus  canus). 


allies,  another  British  species  being  the  little  gull  (L.  miwitus).  The  other 
gulls  with  which  we  are  familiar  in  this  country,  such  as  the  greater  black- 
backed  gull  (L.  mariwis),  the  lesser  black-backed  gull  (L.  fuscus),  the  her- 
ring gull  (L.  anie.ntatus\  have  white  heads  and  white  tails.  The  habits  of 
gulls  are  much  the  same  all  the  world  over.  They  feed  mostly  on  fish  ;  but 
some  of  the  larger  kinds  are  not  only 
greab  robbers,  but  will  eat  almost 
anything,  and  will  devour  young  birds 
and  even  sickly  mammals.  The  little 
black-headed  gull,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  a  most  useful  bird,  as  it  frequents 
and  breeds  in  inland  districts,  where  it 
often  follows  the  plough,  and  devours 
large  numbers  of  grubs  and  insects. 
The  other  gulls  breed  on  the  rocky 
coasts,  mostly  in  the  north,  sometimes 
in*  vast  numbers  together.  This  is 
especially  the  case  with  the  kittiwake 
(Rissa  tridactyla),  which  is  separated 
from  the  true  gulls  on  account  of  the  absence  of  a  hind  toe. 

The  skuas  are  often  called  the  parasitic  gulls,  from  their  habit  of  robbing 
the  smaller  gulls  of  their  food,  instead  of  catching  it  for  themselves.  They 
differ  from  the  true  gulls  in  having  a  cere,  or  bare  wax-like 
base,  to  the  bill.  The  latter  is  very  strongly  hooked  at  the 
tip,  and  in  the  posterior  portion  of  the  sternum,  or  breast- 
bone, there  is  only  a  single  notch,  instead  of  two,  as  in  the 
gulls. 

Four  species  of  the  great  skuas  are  known,  of  which  one,  M.  catarrhactes, 
is  an  inhabitant  of  the  North  Atlantic,  where  it  breeds  in  a  few  scattered 

localities,  such 

as  Iceland,  the  The  Great  Skuas. 
Faeroes,     and          — Genus 
Norway,  and  a       Meycdestris. 
few  pairs  still 

nest  in  the  Shetland  Isles,  where 
great  pains  are  now  taken  to 
preserve  them,  as  they  had  be- 
come nearly  extinct  there.  They 
nob  only  feed  011  fish  and  car- 
rion, bub  rob  other  gulls  of 
their  prey,  and  even  kill  and 
eat  some  of  the  smaller  species. 
The  eggs  are  two  in  number, 
and  the  birds  become  very  bold 
in  defence  of  their  nests.  A 
second  species  of  great  skua 
(M.  chilet^is)  inhabits  both  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts  of 
South  America,  from  Peru  on  the  west,  to  Southern  Brazil  on  the  east. 
From  the  New  Zealand  seas  to  Kerguelen,  and  thence  to  the  Falkland  islands, 
occurs  M.  antarctica,  while  in  Victoria  Land  and  the  frozen  countries  of  the 
Antarctic  Continent  is  found  a  peculiar  pale  form  of  great  skua,  M. 


The  Skuas.  — 
Family 

Stercorariidce. 


Fig.  28. — BUFFON'S  SKUA  (S'crcorarius  parasiticus) 


264  AVES— ORDER    CHARADRIIFORMES. 


cormicki.  The  long-tailed  skuas  (Stercorariiis)  differ  from  the  members  of 
the  preceding  genus  in  having  more  or  less  elongated  central  tail  feathers, 
these  being  developed  in  some  of  the  species  to  a  great  length.  The 
members  of  the  genus  Btercorarius  are  three  in  number,  all  of  them  breeding 
in  the  high  north,  and  visiting  more  southern  localities  in  winter.  With  the 
exception  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  South  America,  where  only  the  pomatorhine 
skua  (S.  pomatorhinus)  has  been  known  to  occur,  the  whole  of  the  other 
Southern  oceans  appear  to  be  visited  by  these  skuas.  They  all  nest  on  the  tundra 
of  the  Arctic  regions,  and  the  pomatorhine  skua  and  Buffon's  skua  are  only 
winter  visitors  to  the  British  Islands,  but  Richardson's  skua  (S.  crepidatns) 
nests  in  the  Orkneys  and  Shetland  Isles,  as  well  as  in  some  of  the  Hebrides 
and  on  the  north-west  of  Scotland.  Like  their  larger  relatives,  these  smaller 
skuas  live  principally  by  robbing  the  terns  and  smaller  gulls  of  the  fish  they 
capture.  They  will  also  devour  young  birds  and  eggs,  as  well  as  lemmings 
and  small  rodents,  Crustacea,  etc.,  while  the  young  of  Buffon's  skuas  are  said 
to  be  fed  on  crowberries  in  the  summer. 

As  has  already  been  mentioned,   there  are   many  characters  which  the 

Charadriiformes,  or  Limicoline  birds,  as  they  are  often  called,  share  with 

the  gulls,  the  principal  one  being  the  cleft,  or  schizognathous 

The  Plovers       palate.     The  nostrils  are  almost  entirely  schizorhinal,  or  in 

and  Bustards. —    the  form  of  a  slit,  though  there  are  exceptions  to  this  in  the 

Order  Ghara-     seed-snipes,  the  bustards,  and  the  thick-knees.     The  eggs  of 

driiformes.  most  of  the  Charadriiformes  are  peculiar  to  the  group,  being 
generally  pear-shaped,  four  in  number,  and  double  spotted, 
having  the  overlying  markings  black,  arranged  in  lines,  blotches,  or  spots, 
and  the  underlying  spots  grey.  The  young  are  covered  with  down,  and 
can  take  care  of  themselves  very  shortly  after  their  birth,  running  with 
great  swiftness,  and  being  able  to  escape  capture  by  their  protective  colora- 
tion, which  effectually  conceals  them  in  the  midst  of  their  natural  sur- 
roundings. 

There  is  but  a  single  species  to  represent  this  sub-order,  and  it  is  one  of  the 

most  peculiar  of  birds.  While  possessing  anatomical  characters  which  show  that 

it  is  an  aberrant  kind  of  plover  (though  many  observers  have 

The  Crab-         considered  it  to  be  rather  an  aberrant    kind   of    tern),  it 

Plovers. —        differs  from  all  gulls  and  plovers  in  laying  a  pure  white  egg. 
Sub-order        Its  nesting  habits  are  in  fact  altogether  peculiar.     Not  only 

Dromades.  does  it  lay  a  white  egg,  but  only  one,  and  that  is  placed  in  a 
tunnel  hollowed  out  in  the  sand,  as  described  below.  The 
crab-plover  is  a  handsome  black  and  white  bird,  the  mantle  being  black,  and 
having  the  plumes  elongated,  so  as  to  form  a  swallow-tailed  patch  when  the 
bird  is  flying.  It  is  long-legged,  like  a  thick-knee  or  stone-plover,  and 
inhabits  the  coast-land  of  Eastern  Africa  and  Arabia,  the  Persian  Gulf,  and 
the  eastern  shores  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  as  far  as  Ceylon,  reappearing  in  the 
Andamans  arid  the  Nicobar  Islands  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  It  probably 
breeds  in  most  of  the  above  localities,  but  the  headquarters  of  the  species 
seem  to  be  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  the  coasts  of  Arabia  and  Mekran.  Mr. 
Nash,  who  visited  one  of  the  islands  off  Bushire,  found  that  the  birds  bur- 
rowed into  the  sand-hills  to  the  distance  of  about  four  feet,  and  in  the  shape 
of  a  bow,  the  passage  being  about  a  foot  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and 
the  entrance  usually  near  or  under  tussocks  of  grass  or  low  shrubs,  the  single 
egg  being  laid  on  the  bare  soil  at  the  end  of  the  hole,  without  any  sign  of  a 
nest.  The  birds  nest  in  colonies,  and  the  young,  which  are  covered  with 


SHEATHBILLS. 


265 


greyish  down,  remain  in  the  holes  during  the  day,  like  youno-  petrels  and 
they  are  apparently  night-feeders. 

Like  Dramas,  the  sheathbills  are  very  aberrant  members  of  the  Limicoline 
group,   and   are   only   found   on   the  islands  of  the  Atlantic,   such  as   the 
Crozettes,   Kerguelen,    Marion   Island,   and  the   Falklands. 
The  species  of  the  latter  islands  is  Chionis  alba,  the  yellow-   The  Sheathbills 
billed  sheathbill,  which  is  also  found  in  Southern  Patagonia,       —Sub-order 
and  extends  to  the  island  of  South  Georgia  and  the  land  of        Chionides. 
the  Antarctic  Continent.      The  species  inhabiting  Kerguelen 
and  Marion  Islands  is  Chionarchus  minor,  which  has  a  black  bill,  and  does 
not  exhibit  the  wattles  on  the  face  found  in  Chionis  alba.     The  form  of  the 
sheath  is  also    somewhat  different,  though 
both   show   a    tube-like    opening  on   the 
base  of  the  bill,  something  like  that  of  a 
petrel.     In  the    bird  from  the  Crozettes 
(Chionarchus    crozettensis)  this  petrel-like 
opening  to   the  sheath  is  absent,  and  the 
bird  is   smaller  than  G.   minor,  and  has 
darker  legs. 

The  Rev.  A.  E.  Eaton  gives  an  amusing 
account  of  the  habits  of  the  sheathbills  in 
Kerguelen  Island  during  the  visit  of  the 
"Transit   of  Venus  Expedition  »  to  that      f.    29  _THE  YEIjLow.BILLED  SHEATH. 
place.       I  hey   were   common   where    the  BILL  (Chionis  alba). 

coast  was  rocky  and  sheltered,  and  were 

seen  in  flocks  of  as  many  as  thirty,  but  during  the  breeding  season  they  were 
met  with  only  in  pairs.  They  were  very  tame  and  inquisitive,  and  suffered 
considerably  in  consequence  during  the  stay  of  the  expedition,  as  they  could 
often  be  knocked  on  the  head  with  a  stick.  Mr.  Eaton  writes  . — "They 
were  also  very  assiduous  in  their  attendance  on  the  colonies  of  shags  and 
crested  penguins,  whose  eggs  they  greedily  devoured.  The  sitting  birds 
stretched  out  their  necks  and  croaked  at  the  sheathbills  sauntering  past  their 
nests  ;  but  the  marauders,  keeping  just  out  of  reach  of  their  bills,  paid  uttle 
regard  to  them,  and  proceeded  in  a  business-like  manner  to  eat  up  the  first 
eggs  they  chanced  to  find  unguarded.  It  occasionally  happened  that  while 
an  old  shag  was  gesticulating  violently  at  a  Chionis  in  front  of  her,  his  friend 
pecked  from  behind  at  the  eggs,  which,  in  the  excitement  of  the  moment, 
were  not  completely  covered  by  her.  When  she  found  out  what  was  taking 
place  she  drove  him  away  with  a  croak,  and,  true  to  her  sex,  affected  to  have 
won  her  point  in  the  affray.  Reseating  herself  upon  the  nest  with  great 
dignity  of  deportment,  and  gently  replacing  with  her  bill  the  broken  eggs 
under  her  feathers,  she  resigned  herself  to  the  task  of  trying  to  hatch  them. 
Some  time  after  the  sheathbills  have  gone  away  the  broken  eggs  are  in- 
spected, and  if  there  is  only  a  small  hole  pecked  in  each  of  them  they  are 
kept  in  the  nest.  Their  appearance  and  manner  of  caressing  one  another 
led  the  blue-jackets  to  call  sheathbills  *  white  pigeons.'  In  their  gait  and 
flight  they  closely  resemble  ptarmigan;  and  like  these  they  utter  i  heir  cry 
when  starting  on  the  wing,  as  well  as  during  flight.  After  they  have  attained 
a  fair  rate  of  speed,  they  sail  along  from  time  to  time  with  outstretched 
wings.  On  alighting  at  their  destination  they  often  greet  one  another  with 
a  gentle  chuckle,  nodding  their  heads  the  while." 

The  eggs  of  the  sheathbills  are  plentifully  marked,  and  resemble  those  of 


266  A  VES—  ORDER  CHARADRIIFORMES. 


oyster-catchers  .among  the  plovers.  The  nest  is  a  rough  affair,  placed  in  a 
hole  behind  or  between  rocks,  sometimes  an  old  burrow  of  a  petrel  being  used 
and  enlarged  by  the  sheath  bill.  Enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  the 
sheathbill  is  a  very  remarkable  form  of  bird.  Its  inquisitiveness  and  tame- 
ness  reminds  us  of  the  weka  rails,  while  its  habit  of  devouring  eggs  is  also 
one  of  the  bad  propensities  of  the  larger  rails.  In  some  other  respects,  as 
Mr.  Eaton  remarks,  it  resembles  a  ptarmigan,  and  that  it  is  a  bird  of  con- 
siderable power  of  flight  is  proved  by  a  specimen  in  the  British  Museum, 
which  was  shot  whilst  flying  round  a  ship  200  miles  from  land. 

These  birds  are  only  found  on  the  Andes  and  in  the  southern  portion  of 

South  America,  from  Argentina  to  Tierra  del  Fuego  and  the  Falkland  Islands 

on  the  east,  and  from  Chili  to  Ecuador  on  the  west.     There 

The  Seed  Snipes,  are  but  two  genera,  Attacjis  and  Thinocorus,  the  former  birds 

— Sub-order       being  as  large  as  grouse,  the  latter  of  the  size  of  a  quail. 

Attaffidex,         Despite   their   game-like  plumage,   they  are   allied   to  the 

plovers,  though  they  differ  from  these  in  having  a  palate 

much  like  that  of  a  passerine  bird,  while  the  nostrils  are  holorhinal,   not 

schizorhinal.     The  nest  is  a  mere  depression  in  the  ground,  sometimes  lined 

with  a  few  blades  of  grass,  and  the  eggs  are  pale  stone-colour,  very  thickly 

speckled  with  light  and  dark  brown. 

This   is   a   very  large   group,  and  contains  all  the  plovers,    snipes,    and 

sandpipers.     The  palate  throughout  is  cleft  or  schizognathous,  the  nostrils 

split   or   schizorhinal,   basipterygoid   processes  are  present, 

The  Plovers. —    and  the  spinal  feather  tract  is  forked  on  the  upper  back. 

Sub-order        The  eggs  are  nearly  always  pear-shaped,  four  in   number, 

Charadrii.  and  are  deposited  point  to  point.  The  plovers  and  snipes 
form  one  large  family,  Charadriidce,  but  there  are  no  less  than 
ten  sub-families. 

These  are  small  Arctic  birds,  which  exhibit  certain  grebe -like  characters, 

for  they  have  the  toes  lobed,  swim  well,  and  have  also  a  serrated  edge  to  the 

hinder  margin  of  the  planti  tarsi)  the  hind  portion  of  the 

The  exposed  leg  being  exactly  as  in  the  grebes.    The  phalaropes  are 

Phalaropes. —    likewise  remarkable  for  their  bright  coloration,  in  which  the 

Sub-family       female  excels  the  male,  and  is  the  handsomer  bird  of  the 

Phalaropincn.  two  ;  she  is  also  larger  than  the  male,  and  does  all  the  court- 
ing. There  are  three  genera  of  phalaropes,  each  containing 
a  single  species — Crymophil-us,  with  the  grey  phalarope  (C.  fulicarius)  ; 
Phalaropus,  with  the  red-necked  phalarope  (P.  hyperboreus)  ;  and  Steyanopus, 
with  Wilson's  phalarope  (S.  tricolor),  as  the  representatives  of  the  three 
respective  genera.  The  two  former  breed  in  the  Arctic  regions  of  both 
hemispheres,  but  Wilson's  phalarope  inhabits  temperate  North  America. 
All  of  them  migrate  far  south  in  winter,  and  are  found  off' the  coasts  of  South 
America  as  well  as  in  the  Indian  and  Australian  seas. 

Some  of  the  details  of  the  nesting  habits  of  phalaropes,  as  observed  by  Mr. 
E,  W.  Nelson  in  Alaska,  are  very  amusing.  Speaking  of  the  red-necked 
phalarope  (P.  hyperboreiis),  he  remarks  : — "  As  the  season  comes  on,  when  the 
flames  of  love  mount  high,  the  dull-coloured  males  move  about  the  pool, 
apparently  heedless  of  the  surrounding  fair  ones.  Such  stoical  indifference 
usually  appears  too  much  for  the  feelings  of  some  of  the  latter  to  bear.  A 
female  coyly  glides  close  to  him  and  bows  her  head  in  pretty  submissive- 
ness,  but  he  turns  away,  picks  at  a  bit  of  food,  and  moves  off ;  she  follows, 
and  he  quickens  his  speed,  but  in  vain  ;  he  is  her  choice,  and  she  proudly 


SNIPES-PAINTED  SNIPES.  267 


arches  her  neck,  and,  in  mazy  circles,  passes  and  repasses  close  before  the 
harassed  bachelor.  He  turns  his  breast  first  to  one  side,  then  to  the  other, 
but  there  is  his  gentle  wooer  ever  pressing  her  suit  before  him.  Frequently 
he  takes  flight  to  another  part  of  the  pool,  all  to  no  purpose.  If,  with 
affected  indifference,  he  tries  to  feed,  she  swims  along  side  by  side,  almost 
touching  him,  and  at  intervals  rises  on  wing  above  him,  and,  poised  a  foot 
or  two  above  his  body,  makes  a  half-dozen  quick,  short  wing-strokes,  produc- 
ing a  series  of  sharp  whistling  noises  in  rapid  succession.  In  the  course  of 
time,  it  is  said,  water  will  wear  away  the  hardest  rock,  but  it  is  certain  that 
time  and  importunity  have  their  full  effect  upon  the  male  phalarope,  and 
soon  all  are  comfortably  married,  while  materfamilias  no  longer  needs  to  use 
her  seductive  ways  and  charming  blandishments  to  draw  his  notice.  About 
the  first  of  June  the  dry  rounded  side  of  a  little  knoll,  near  some  small  pond, 
has  four  dark  heavily-marked  eggs,  laid  in  a  slight  hollow  or  whatever  lining 
the  spot  affords,  or,  more  rarely,  upon  a  few  dry  straws  and  grass-blades, 
brought  and  loosely  laid  together  by  the  birds.  Here  the  captive  male  is 
introduced  to  new  duties,  and  spends  half  his  time  on  the  eggs,  while  the 
female  keeps  about  the  pool  close  by." 

Snipes  and  sandpipers  differ  from  plovers  in  having  a  long  bill,  with  no 
"dertrum."     The  latter  name  is  applied  to  the  swelling  of  the  end  of  the 
bill,  which  makes  this  portion  higher  than  the  middle  or  the 
basal  part.     Similar  swellings  are  seen  in  pigeons.     The  bill     The   Snipes. — 
in  many  of  the  snipes  is  widened  at  the  tip  and  is  pitted,  but        Sub-family 
it  is  not  deeper  at  the  end  than  at  any  other  part  of  its      Scolopaeimx. 
length.     The  nasal  groove  or  depression  in  which  the  nostrils 
are'placed  is  continued  through  nearly  the  whole  line  of  the  bill.     The  snipes 
and  sandpipers,  moreover,  differ  from  the  'Totanince   or  Tatters  in   having 
their  long  toes  cleft  to  the  bases,  without  any  connecting  web  between  the 
basal  joints. 

The  sub-family  Scolopaeinw  may  be  divided  into  two  main  groups,  the 
snipes  and  woodcocks,   which  have  the  eye  placed  far  back  in  the  head, 
almost  on  the  ear-opening,  while  the  sandpipers   have  the 
eye  placed  as  in  other  ordinary  wading  birds.     One  of  the      The  Painted 
most  curious  genera  belonging  to  this  sub-family  is  that  of  the         Snipes.— 
painted  snipes  (Rostratnla),  which  contains  three  species,  one,  Genus 

ti.  semicollaris,  being  confined  to  South  America,  while  R.  Rostratula. 
capensis  is  found  in  Africa  and  India  as  far  north  as  Japan, 
li.  australis  taking  its  place  on  the  Australian  continent.  In  these  painted 
snipes,  which  resemble  ordinary  snipes  in  their  habits,  we  meet  with  the 
same  peculiarity  as  in  the  phalaropes,  viz.  that  the  female  is  handsomer  in 
plumage  than  the  male.  The  latter  is  a  grey  bird,  with  rounded  spots  of 
golden  buff  on  the  wing-coverts  and  quills,  while  the  female  is  not  only 
larger,  but  has  chestnut  on  the  hind  neck,  and  in  the  hen  of  R.  capensis  on 
the  throat  also.  The  South  American  JR.  semicollaris,  however,  does  nofc 
differ  in  the  plumage  of  the  sexes.  In  Chili  and  Peru  occurs  the  curious 
Phefjornis  mitchelli,  which  has  a  chestnut  neck  like  lihynchwa,  but  has  no 
hind  toe. 

The  true  woodcocks  (Scolopax)  are  only  two  in  number,  our  own  well-known 
species,  and  a  dark  form  resident  in  the  mountains  of  Java  and  New  Guinea, 
called  S.  saturata.  In  North  America,  however,  there  is  a  small  form  called 
Philohela  minor,  which  is  distinguished  by  its  attenuated  outer  primaries;  and 
in  the  island  of  Bourou,  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  occurs  a  peculiar  woodcock 


268  A  VES—  ORDER  CHARADRIIFORMES. 


Neoscolopax  rochusseni.     All  the  woodcocks  differ  from  the  snipes  in  having 

successive  broad  bars  of  black  and  buff  on  the  hinder  head  and  neck,  whereas 

the  snipes  always  have  a  buff  band  down  the  centre  of  the  crown.     They  are 

likewise   birds   of   the  woods  and  forests  rather  than  the 

The  Woodcocks,    open   marshes,    which   the   snipes   love   to   frequent.     The 

—  Genus          jack   snipe   (Limnocryptes  gallinula)   differs  from  the  true 

Scolopax.         snipes  in  having  four  notches  in  the  hinder  margin  of  the 

sternum  instead  of  two. 

The  true  snipes  (Gallinago),  of  which  our  common  snipe  (G.  gallinago)  is 
the  type,  differ  from  the  woodcocks  in  having  much  more  pointed  wings, 
the  long  inner  secondaries  equalling  the  primaries  in  length,  while  the 
markings  on  the  head  are  longitudinal,  not  crosswise.  They  are  lovers  of 
the  marshes,  as  a  rule,  but  some  of  them  occur  only  on  the  high  lands,  and 
appear  to  have  the  habits  of  woodcocks.  Such  are  the  wood-snipe  (G. 
nemoricola)  of  the  Himalayas,  and  the  imperial  snipe  (G.  imperialis)  of  the 
Andes  of  Colombia,  and  Jameson's  snipe  (G.  jamesoni)  from  the  Andes  of 
Ecuador  in  South  America.  In  the  Auckland  and  Chatham  Islands  are 
found  peculiar  tawny  -coloured  species  (G.  aucklandica  and  G.  pusilla),  which 
run  like  rails,  and  do  not  take  to  flight,  unless  very  hard  pressed.  With  the 

exception  of  these  few  resident  species, 
snipes  are  migratory  birds,  nesting  in 
the  temperate  and  sub-  Arctic  regions  of 
the  north,  and  going  to  the  far  south  in 
winter.  Thus  Latham's  snipe  (G.  aits- 
trans')  nests  in  Japan  and  winters  in 
Australia,  and  the  North  American 
Wilson's  snipe  wanders  south  to  British 
Guiana  and  Brazil,  and  the  great  snipe 
(G.  major),  which  breeds  in  the  north 
of  Europe,  winters  in  South  Africa. 


Fig.  30.-THE  COMMON  SKIPE 

(Gallinago  gallinago).  of  the  tail-  feathers,  our  own  snipe  hav- 

ing only   14,    though   sometimes   it   is 

found  with  16,  but  in  the  wire-tailed  snipes,  G.  stenura  and  G.  megcda,  as 
many  as  26  and  20  are  found.  These  two  species  nest  in  Eastern  Siberia, 
and  visit  India  and  China  in  great  numbers  on  migration.  The  outer  tail- 
feathers  in  G.  stenura  are  reduced  to  wire-like  plumes,  the  eight  feathers  on 
the  outside  measuring  less  than  0'2  inch  in  width.  The  largest  of  the  snipes 
are  G.  gigantea  from  Southern  Brazil,  and  G.  undulata  of  British  Guiana, 
which  are  from  15  to  20  inches  in  length. 

A  curious  habit  of  the  common  snipe  during  the  nesting  season  is  known 
a^  "  drumming."  "The  male  may  then  be  seen,"  says  Mr.  Seebohm,  "  in  broad 
daylight,  high  in  the  air,  wheeling  round  and  round  in  enormous  circles,  arid 
flying  diagonally  upwards  with  rapid  beats  of  the  wings,  then  swooping  down 
an  imaginary  inclined  plane  with  half-expanded  and  visibly-vibrating  wings, 
but  with  outspread  tail-feathers,  uttering  a  sound  which  is  technically  called 
'drumming.'"  The  sound  is  heard  only  when  the  bird  is  descending,  but 
some  observers  assert  that  they  have  heard  it  proceeding  from  a  snipe  on  the 
ground  or  perched  on  a  dead  branch.  It  has  been  likened  to  the  bleating  of  a 
goat,  and  bears  some  resemblance  to  the  suppressed  gobble  sometimes  heard 
from  a  turkey.  Many  naturalists  believe  that  the  sound  is  produced  by  the  vi- 
bration of  the  wings  or  the  action  of  the  air  on  the  outspread  tail  ;  but  others, 


SANDPIPERS— X  UFFS. 


269 


Mr.   Seebohm  among  the  number,  believe  that  it  is  effected,  by  the  vocal 
organs. 

The  sandpipers  differ  from  the  snipes  in  having  the  position  of  the  eye 
normal,  and  not  reaching  to  the  ear-opening,  as  in  the  snipes  and  woodcocks. 
In  this  group  of  the  sub-family  Scolopaeinw  we  find  some  of  the  most  in- 
teresting of  the  waders,  the  purple  sandpipers  (Arquatella),  the  dunlins 
(Pelidna),  the  knots  (Trintja),  the  curlew  sandpipers  (Ancylochilus\  the 
stints  (Limonites),  and  the  sanderlings  (Calidris).  They  are  mostly  birds 
which  breed  in  the  Arctic  regions,  and  go  to  the  southern  continents  of  the 
globe  to  pass  the  winter.  Of  the  curlew  sandpiper  no  egg  has  yet  been 
found;  of  the  knot  no  really  authentic  egg  is  known;  and  of  the  sanderling 
but  very  few.  In  this  group  of  sandpipers  occurs  the  spoon-billed  sandpiper 
Eurynorhynchiis  pyynueus),  a  little  stint  with  a  spoon-shaped  bill,  which  nests 
in  the  arctic  regions  of  Eastern  Siberia,  where  Nordenskjold  met  with  it 
during  the  voyage  of  the  Veya,  and  passes  along  the  coasts  of  Japan  and 
China  to  winter  on  the  shores  of  Burma. 

These  birds  are  very  closely  allied  to  the  foregoing,  but  are  distinguished 
by  having  the  outer  toes  connected  with  the  middle  one  by  a  web  at  the 
base.     In  the  TotaniiuK  are  included  all  the  curlews  and 
whimbrels  (Numeniui^   the  god  wits  (Limosa),   the   tatlers      The  Tatlers. 
(Totanust\  the  green  sandpipers  (Helodromas),  the  summer      —Sub-family 
snipes  (Tringoides\  the  wood  sandpipers  (Rhyacophtius),  and        Totanince. 
the  ruffs  (Pavoncella).     They  are  mostly  birds  which  build 
in   northern  climes  and  in  the  temperate  portions  of   the  Palrearctic  and 
Nearctic  regions.     The  nest  is  usually  placed  in  a  marsh,  the  eggs  being  pear- 
shaped  and  four  in  number,  laid  with  the  pointed  ends  directed  towards  each 
other;  the  green  sandpiper  (Helodromas  ochropus),  however,  nests  in  trees, 
utilising  the  old  nest  of  a  thrush  or  some  other  bird  in  which  to  deposit  its 
eggs.     The  tatlers  frequent  the  sea-shores  on  their  journey  south,  arid  their 
musical  notes  enliven  the  dreary  expanse  of  mud-flats  on  many  parts  of  the 
British  coasts  during  the  autumn.     In  the  breeding  season  many  of  the 
stints  have  a  musical  trill  or  song,  which  they  utter  as  they  mount  into  the 
air  above  their  nests. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  the  tatler  group  is  the  ruff,  no  two  males 
of  which  are  alike  in  plumage.  The  female,  called  the  reeve,  is  smaller 
than  the  male,  and  of  a  plainer 
brown  plumage.  In  winter  both 
sexes  don  a  plain-coloured  dress, 
much  like  that  of  any  other  tatler, 
and  the  male  can  only  be  distin- 
guished from  the  hen  by  his  larger 
size.  On  arriving  at  their  breeding- 
places  in  Europe  and  Siberia,  the 
males  have  a  large  ruff  or  shield  on 
the  neck,  and  a  tuft  of  occipital 
plumes  on  each  side  of  the  head. 
These  ruffs  are  sometimes  plain  with- 
out bars,  and  may  be  white,  rufous, 
or  black,  while  every  kind  of  varia- 
tion is  seen  in  the  colour  of  the 
ruffs  and  occipital  ornaments.  Some- 
times they  are  white  barred  with  black,  or  rufous  with  black  bars  ;  in  fact, 


/-  31.— THE  RUFF  (Pavoncella  pugttux). 


270  AVES— ORDER  CHARADR1IFORMES. 


the  variation  is  endless.  They  are  pugnacious  birds,  and  fight  for  the 
females,  before  whom  they  dance  and  pirouette,  always  ending  by  placing  the 
bill  on  the  ground,  so  as  to  display  the  beauty  of  the  ruff  to  the  chosen  lady. 

Close  to  the  true  curlews  comes  the  pearl-grey  curlew  (Ibidorhynchus 
struthersi),  which  is  found  on  the  inland  streams  of  the  mountains  of  China, 
Central  Asia,  and  the  Himalayas.  It  is  the  sole  representation  of  the  sub- 
family IbLdorhynchwice,  and  has  a  curlew-like  bill,  but  differs  in  having  the 
metatarsus  reticulated  both  in  front  and  behind.  In  outward  appearance  it 
much  resembles  the  small  ibises,  but  an  examination  of  the  skull  shows  that 
it  is  really  an  aberrant  Limicoline  bird. 

These  birds  are  remarkable  for  their  long  legs  and  for  the  shape  of  their 

bills.     In  the  stilts  (Himantopiis)  the  bill  is  slender  and  straight,  arid  the 

legs  are  extremely  long,  and  when  the  birds  are  flying  these 

The  Stilts  and     are  carried  out  behind    them,  "and  from  their   bright  red 

Avocets.—        colour  are  very  conspicuous.     The  stilts  are  mostly  black 

Sub-family  and  white  birds,  distributed  through  the  marshes  of  the 
Himantopodince.  temperate  and  tropical  portions  of  both  hemispheres, 
while  a  completely  black  species  (H.  melas)  is  found 
only  in  New  Zealand. 

The  avocets  have  the  bill  upturned,  and  the  lower  edge  of  the  under 
mandible  is  broad  and  flattened,  the  bird  using  it  to  scoop  aside  the  sand  in 
search  of  food.  The  range  of  the  avocets  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  stilts, 
and  though  they  pass  southwards  in  winter,  they  nest  in  Africa  and  India  in 
places  suitable  to  their  marsh-loving  habits.  One  species,  Ilecurmrostra  an- 
diua,  is  only  known  from  the  Andes  of  Chili,  and  in  Australia  the  chestnut- 
breasted  avocet  is  found  (Cladorhynchus  leucocephalus),  a  bird  with  webbed 
toes  and  devoid  of  a  hind  toe  like  the  avocets,  but  with  a  very  slightly  up- 
curved  bill,  and  with  longer  and  more  stilt-like  legs. 

The  sub-family  PeUohyatince  is  represented  by  a  single  genus,  Peltohyas, 
which  again  has  but  one  species,  P.  austrcdis.  This  bird  has  usually  been 
considered  to  be  a  kind  of  dotterel,  and  it  has  a  dertral  swelling  towards  the 
end  of  the  bill,  as  in  these  birds,  Lut  the  tarsus  has  transverse  scutes  both  in 
front  and  behind,  and  the  species  is  more  like  a  courser  in  appearance.  I 
fully  expect  that  an  examination  of  its  osteology  and  general  anatomy  will 
prove  that  it  is  allied  rather  to  the  latter  birds  than  to  the  plovers. 

In  this  sub-family  we  find  the  majority  of  the  plovers,  which  are  dis- 
tinguished by  having  both  aspects  of  the  tarsus  covered  with  hexagonal  scales. 
They  may  be  divided  into  two  groups,  the  lapwings  and  the 
The  True  dotterels,  the  former  with  broad  and  rounded  wings,  mostly 

Plovers. —        resident  in  the  countries  they  inhabit ;  the  latter  with  sharp 

Sub-family       and  pointed   wings,  with  the  secondaries  nearly  as  long  as 

GharadriincK.      the  primaries,   and  accustomed  to  long  migrations.     Some  of 

them  are    known,  like  the  American  golden  plover  (Chara- 

driiis  dominicus),  to  be  capable  of  immense  flights,  such  as  from  Labrador  to 

the  Bermudas,  without  touching  land. 

Two  genera  have  longer  bills  than  any  of  the  rest,  TJiivornis  and 
Anarhynchns  of  New  Zealand.  The  latter  is  known  as  the  wry-billed  plover, 
and  has  its  bill  twisted  to  the  right.  Then  comes  the  long  array  of  dotterels, 
such  as  JEyialitis,  of  which  our  common  ring-dotterel  is  the  type.  The 
members  of  the  genus  jEgialitis  are  found  nearly  over  the  whole  world,  and 
perform  long  migrations  to  the  South  in  the  winter.  Their  four  pear-shaped 
eggs  are  laid  in  a  little  depression  in  the  sand  or  shingle,  and  the  nestlings 


WATTLED  PLOVERS— OYSTER-CATCHERS. 


271 


are  difficult  to  capture,  on  account  of  their  resemblance  to  the  surroundings 
iu  which  they  are  hatched  ;  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  eggs,  which  closely 
resemble  the  adjacent  shingle.  Some  of  the  other  dotterels,  such  as  the 
members  of  the  genus  fohthodromitB,  are  handsome  birds,  with  a  chestnut 
collar  across  the  chest.  The  true  dotterels  (Eudromias)  are  mountain-breeding 
birds,  and  our  English  species,  E.  morinellus,  is  the  only  one  of  the  group 
with  any  black  on  the  belly.  This,  however,  is  not  assumed  as  a  breeding- 
dress,  as  is  the  case  with  the  grey  and  golden  plovers. 

The  latter  birds  have  a  spangled  plumage,  and  don  a  black  breast  in 
summer,  passing  into  a  white-breasted  livery  in  winter.  The  grey  plover 
(Squatarola  helvetica}  differs  from  the  golden  plover  (Charadrms  pluvialis) 
in  having  a  hind  toe.  It  nests  on  the  tundra  or  barren  grounds  in  the 
Palrearctic  and  Nearctic  regions  beyond  the  limit  of  forest  growth,  and 
until  recently  its  eggs  were  amongst  the  rarest  in  collections.  Mr.  See- 
bohm  and  Mr.  Harvie  Brown,  however,  have  obtained  them  on  the  Lower 
Petchora  River,  and  Mr.  Trevor-Battye  and  Mr.  H.  J.  Pearson  on  Kolguev 
Island.  * 

Another  group  of  the  broad- winged  lapwings  is  represented  by  our  common 
pewit  (Vauelbis  vaiie-llus),  which  has  no  wattle  on  the  face  or  spur  on  the 
wing,  like  many  of  the  other  genera  of 
the  Charadriin&j  such  as  the  spur-winged 
plovers  of  Africa  (Hoploptcriis),  which  have 
a  formidable  spur  on  the  bend  of  the  wing, 
with  which  they  fight.  II.  splnosus  is  said 
to  be  the  species  which  attends  on  the  cro- 
codile, find  enters  its  mouth  to  clean  the 
teeth  of  the  monster.  Some  of  the  other 
genera  of  this  group  of  plovers  have  a 
facial  wattle,  but  no  spur  on  the  wing, 
while  in  the  genus  Xipliidioptcrus  we 
have  two  species,  one  Javan,  and  the  other 
West  African,  which  have  a  large  wing- 
spur  and  a  conspicuous  facial  lappet  as 
well. 

All  the  wattled  plovers  (sub-family  Lolnvanellince)  have  the  metatarsus  trans- 
versely scaled  in  front,  but  reticulated  behind.  They  are  nearly  all  broad- 
winged  birds  like  the  pewits  or  lapwings,  and  most  of  them  have  spurs  on 
the  wings,  and  wattles  or  lappets  on  the  face. 

We  now  come  to  a  group  of  the  Charadriinte,  where  there  is  no  swelling 
at  the  end  of  the  bill,  and  in  this  section  of  the  plovers  are  the  oyster- 
catchers  (Hiematopodinw)  and  the  turnstones  (Arenariince). 

All  the  oyster-catchers  have  the  metatarsus  reticulated  both  in  front  and 
behind,  and  the  angle  of  the  lower  mandible  is  placed  very  far  back,  the  end 
of  the  bill  being  compressed,  and  having  a  somewhat  sharp 
ridge.  Twelve  species  of  oyster-catchers  are  known,  most  of 
them  being  black  or  black  and  white  in  plumage.  They  are  found 


Fig.  32. — THE  COMMON  LAPWING 
(  Vandlus  va  nellus). 


in  all  parts  of  the  globe,  but  do  not  extend  very  far  north. 
They  breed  on  the  £ 


The  Oyster- 
catchers.  — 
Sub-family 
ffcemctiopodince. 


shores  and  on  the  sandy  beds  of  rivers, 
and  the  nest  is  a  little  depression  in  the  sand  or  moss.     The 
eggs  are  not  unlike  those  of  the  stone-plovers  or  thick-knees,  being  of  a  clay- 
brown  with  blackish  spots  or  scribblings. 

Only  one  genus,  Arenaria,  represents  this  sub-family  of  plovers,  which  is  a 


272 


A  VES—  ORDER  CPIA RA  DRI1FORMES. 


Fig.  33  —THE  COMMON  TURN-STONE  (Arenaria 
interpres). 


very  distinct  one.     There  is  no  dertral  swelling  to  (he  end  of  the  bill,  and  the 

metatarsus  is  transversely  sealed  in  front,  but  reticulated 

Tlie  Turn-stones,  behind,  while  there  is  no  connecting  web  between  the  toes, 

—Sub-family     as  in  the  oyster-catchers.      Two  species  of  turn-stone  are 

ArenariincK.       known. 

The  common  turn-stone  (A.  interpres)  is  one  of  the  most 
cosmopolitan  of  birds,  nesting  in  the  Arctic  regions  of  both  hemispheres,  and 
ranging  south  almost  as  far  as  land  extends.     The  male  is  a  very  handsome 
bird  in  the  nesting  plumage,  though 
the  females  and   young   birds   are 
not  so  brightly  coloured.     It  gains 
its  name  of  w  turn-stone"  from  its 
habit  of  turning  over  stones,  often 
of   considerable   size,   in  order    to 
reach  the  insects  underneath.      A 
second  species  is  found  in  Western 
North  America,  the  black  turn-stone 
(A.  melanocephcda). 

These  are  curious  birds,  peculiar 
to  the  Old  World,  where  they  are 
found  from  South- 
The  Pratincoles,  era     Europe    and 
Sub-order        Central     Asia     to 
Glareolce.         China,     south     to 
India     and     Aus- 
tralia.    They  have  all  long  wings  and  a  swallow-like  flight,  and  they  nest  in 
companies,  laying  eggs  which  are  unlike  those  of  plovers  or  snipes,  being  so 
thickly  scribbled  over  that  the  ground-colour  is  almost  invisible.     One  of 
them,  the  common  pratincole  (Glareola  pratincola),  has  occurred  in  England 
on  a  few  occasions.  The  pratincoles  have  the  claw  of  the  middle  toe  pectinated, 
as  in  the  coursers,  from  which  they  are  distinguished  by  their  long  wings. 

Although  allied  to  the  plovers  and  pratincoles,  and,  like  these  birds,  pos- 
sessing slit  or  schizorhinal  nostrils,  the  coursers  differ  from  them  in  having  no 

basipterygoid  pro- 
The  Coursers. —  cesses,  and  they  may 
— Sub-order  be  differentiated  from 
Cursorii.  the  former  by  their  pec- 
tinated middle  claw. 
They  have  both  aspects  of  the  meta- 
tarsus transversely  scaled.  Of  true  cour- 
sers (Cursorius)  there  are  five  species, 
the  best-known  of  which  is  the  cream- 
coloured  courser  (0.  gatticus),  which 
has  occasionally  wandered  to  England, 
though  its  natural  habitat  is  the  desert 
country  to  the  south  of  the  Mediterranean,  where  it  is  found  from  the 
Azores  and  the  Canary  Islands  eastwards  to  North-Western  India.  On 
the  island  of  Fuerteventura  it  breeds  in  large  numbers,  and  the  eggs,  till 
lately  very  rare,  are  now  in  the  collection  of  every  oologist.  Two  eggs  only 
are  laid,  on  the  bare  ground,  without  any  attempt  at  a  nest ;  they  are  stone- 
coloured,  with  numerous  dots  and  scribblings  of  brown,  and  are  scarcely 
distinguishable  from  the  surrounding  soil.  Three  species  are  found  in 


Fig.  34.— THE  CREAM-COLOURED  COJRSEB. 
(Cursorius  gallicus). 


STONE-  CURLE  WS—B  USTA  RDS. 


The  Stone  - 
Plovers. — 
Sub -order 
(Edicnemi. 


Africa,  and  one,  the  coromandel  courser  (0.  coromandelicus),  is  plentiful  in 
the  Indian  Peninsula.  Of  the  allied  genus  Rhinoptilus,  eight  species  are 
known,  all  Ethiopian,  excepting  one,  K.  bitorqiiat'us,  which  is  a  bush- 
frequenting  species  in  a  restricted  area  of  Central  India. 

These  birds,  with  their  great  yellow  eyes  and  stout  legs,  form  the  connect- 
ing group  between  the  plovers  and  the  bustards.     They  have  holorhinal 
nostrils  like  the  latter,  and  in  many  anatomical  characters 
are  more  like  the  latter  sub-order  than  the  Charadrii.     They 
are  found  throughout  the  temperate  and  tropical  portions  of 
the  Old  World,  and  re-occur  in  Central  and  South  America. 

The  common  stone-curlew,  thick-knee,  or  Norfolk  plover, 
is  found  on  barren  wolds  and  shingly  portions  of  the  coast 
in  many  parts  of  England.  It  occurs  in  similar  situations  throughout  Central 
and  Southern  Europe,  as  far  east  as  India.  It 
is  a  particularly  shy  bird,  and  on  the  approach 
of  danger,  it  sinks  its  body  on  the  ground,  and 
lies  quite  flat,  with  its  neck  stretched  out.  The 
little  nestlings,  which  are  clothed  with  greyish- 
buff  down,  also  endeavour  to  conceal  themselves 
in  like  manner.  The  eggs,  two  in  number,  are 
laid  on  the  bare  ground,  without  any  attempt  at 
a  nest,  and  are  stone-coloured,  with  brown 
and  grey  markings,  and  so  closely  resemble 
stones  that  they  are  very  difficult  to  find.  Of 
the  seven  other  species  of  stone-curlew  known, 
four  are  African  and  three  American.  In 
Australia  the  long-legged  thick-knee  (Burhiuus 
grallarius\  and  in  India  and  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago two  gigantic  species,  Esacus  recurvirostris, 
and  Orthorhamphus  maginrostris,  occur. 

Like  the  stone- curlew,  the  bustards  have  holorhinal  nostrils,  as  well  as  a 
split  or  schizognathous  palate.  The  breast-bone  has  two  notches  on  its 
posterior  margin,  there  is  no  oil-gland,  and  the  feathers 
have  a  distinct  after-shaft.  In  the  males  of  some  of  the  The  Bustards. — 
species  there  is  a  gular  pouch,  and  the  throat  is  capable  of  Sub-order  Otides. 
being  inflated  to  an  enormous  extent. 

The  bustards  differ  very  much  in  size,  some  of  them  being  scarcely  larger 
than  stone-curlews,  though  they  are  always  heavier  in  build.  The  male  of 
the  great  bustard  measures  more  than  three  feet  and  a  half  in  length,  and 
the  great  kori  bustard  of  Africa  is  over  four  feet  in  length,  while  some  of  the 
small  forms,  such  as  the  crested  bustards  of  Africa  (Lophotis),  only  measure  a 
foot  and  a  half  in  length. 

They  are  all  birds  of  the  deserts  and  open  wolds,  and  are  strictly  confined 
to  the  Old  World,  the  larger  number  being  found  in  Africa,  which  is  the 
home  of  six  genera  out  of  the  twelve  which  are  known.  India  has  two  genera 
of  florikins,  Houbaropsis  and  Sypheotis,  while  the  genus  Otis,  of  which  the 
great  bustard  is  the  type,  and  Tetrax,  containing  the  lesser  bustard  (T. 
tttrax),  are  found  only  in  Europe  and  Northern  Asia. 

The  great  bustard  (Otis  tar  da}  is  now  extinct  as  a  British  species,  but  was 

one  of  our  indigenous  birds  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century,  inhabiting 

Salisbury  Plain  and  other  open  wolds  in  England  from  the  borders  of  Scotland 

to  Dorset.      It  now  occurs  only  as  a  rare  visitor,    and  it  is  not  known 

19 


Fig.  35. — THE  STONE-CURLEW 
((Edicnemus  udicnemus). 


274  AVES— ORDER  GRUIFORMES. 


whether  the  native  British  bustards  occurred  in  former  times  as  migrants  or 
were  resident  in  this  country.  The  former  supposition  is  probably  correct, 
as  the  species  is  known  to  be  migratory  to  most  of  the  European  countries  in 
which  it  still  breeds.  In  the  nesting  season  it  retires  to  the  fields  of  tall 
grass  and  corn,  where  it  is  able  to  conceal  its  great  bulk,  and  it  is  said  that 
at  this  season  of  the  year  the  birds  moult  their  quills,  and  are  unable  to  fly. 

The  male  of  the  great  bustard  is  much  larger  than  the  female,  and  has, 
besides  his  brighter  coloration,  more  conspicuous  whiskers.  His  method  of 
showing  off,  when  courting  the  female,  is  one  of  the  most  curious  sights  in 
the  whole  of  nature.  He  commences  by  shivering  his  wings  and  lowering 
his  quills,  and  his  next  action  is  to  turn  up  his  tail  and  lay  it  flat  on  his  back, 
so  that  the  snow-white  under  tail-coverts  form  a  sort  of  frill.  Across  the 
flattened  tail  he  disposes  his  primary  quills  so  that  the  ends  of  these  cross 
each  other,  and  keep  the  tail  out  of  sight,  the  whole  proceeding  being  hidden 
by  ruffling  up  the  scapular  feathers  till  nothing  can  be  seen  of  the  tail  or  the 
primary  quills.  The  act  of  crossing  the  latter  across  the  back  naturally 
brings  the  fore-part  of  the  wing  into  an  extended  position,  and  the  inner 
secondaries,  which  are  pure  white,  are  thrown  up  as  a  frill  on  each  side  of 
the  back,  while  all  the  wing-coverts  are  more  or  less  inverted,  as  if  the  bird 
were  trying  to  turn  himself  inside  out,  the  long  parapteral  wing-coverts  being 
thrown  back,  so  as  to  secure  an  uninterrupted  view  of  the  white  frill  caused 
by  the  elevation  of  the  inner  secondaries  and  the  halo  of  the  under  tail-coverts. 
The  bird  then  lays  its  head  deep  down  between  the  shoulders,  so  that  the 
whiskers  stand  up  on  each  side,  and  then  proceeds  to  inflate  his  throat  and 
chest,  which  become  distended  to  an  enormous  degree.  He  then  shows 
himself  to  his  lady-love,  and  paces  slowly  in  front  of  her,  now  and  then 
springing  round  to  exhibit  the  white  under  tail-coverts.  This  curious  per- 
formance was  witnessed  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  by  Mr.  Pickhardt,  who 
has  mounted  the  group  of  bustards  for  the  gallery  in  the  Natural  History 
Museum. 

The  eggs  of  the  bustards  are  two  or  three  in  number,  of  an  olive-brown 
colour,  spotted  or  blotched  with  brown,  the  underlying  spots  being  grey,  the 
eggs  being  never  very  strongly  marked.  No  nest  is  made. 

In  this  assemblage  we  have  birds  of  very  varied  form  and  the  Cranes 
were  considered  in  former  times  to  be  allied  to  the  herons.  The  differ- 
ence in  the  structure  of  the  palate,  however,  shows  that 
The  Cranes. —  they  are  not  really  related,  as  the  herons  have  a  bridged 
Order  or  desmogriathous  palate,  whereas  in  the  cranes  and  their 

Gruiformes.  allies  the  maxillo-palatine  bones  do  not  coalesce  with  each 
other  or  with  the  vomer.  The  young,  likewise,  are  hatched 
covered  with  down,  and  can  take  care  of  themselves  soon  after  leaving  the 
egg,  while  the  nestlings  of  herons  have  to  remain  for  a  long  time  helpless, 
and  are  fed  by  the  parent  birds  in  the  nest.  There  are  also  many  other 
anatomical  and  osteological  characters  which  separate  the  cranes. 

They  are  stately  birds,  with  long  legs  and  generally  some  bright  orna- 
mental colour  on  the  head,  while  the  inner  secondaries  are  developed  into 
handsome  drooping  plumes.  With  the  exception  of  South 
The  True  Cranes.  America,  cranes  are  found  in  every  part  of  the  world,  and 

—Sub-order      Africa  possesses  three  out  of  the  nine  known  genera.     The 

Grues.  sarus  cranes  (Antigone)  are  found  in  India  and  Burma,  and 

one    species,    the    well-known    "native    companion"    (A. 

austmlasiana),  in  Australia.     This  is  a  peculiar  and  interesting  distribution, 


CRANES—  LIMPKINS. 


275 


as  there  is  a  large  Indian  bustard  (Eupodotis  edwardsi),  which  has  its  nearest 
ally  (E.  australis)  in  Australia.  As  a  rule,  however,  the  cranes  are  Northern 
birds,  five  species  nesting  in  the  Palrearctic  region.  In  many  of  them  the 
trachea  is  convoluted,  and  enters  a  cavity  in  the  fore-part  of  the  sternum. 

The  common  crane  (Grus  grus)  is  now  only  an  occasional  visitor  to  Great 
Britain,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  formerly  bred  in  England,  before  the 
drainage  of  the  meres  deprived  it  of  its  favourite 
breeding  haunts,  and  the  discovery  of  fossil  re- 
mains in  Ireland  shows  that  it  was  once  still  more 
widely  distributed  in  the  British  Islands.  The 
nesting-home  of  the  crane  is  at  present  in  the 
forest  morasses  of  North  and  Central  Europe, 
and  in  the  marshes  of  Southern  Spain.  It  is 
a  summer  visitor  to  Europe,  and  sometimes 
large  numbers  of  cranes  are  observed  on  migra- 
tion, flying  in  a  V  or  Y  formation,  and  trumpet- 
ing loudly.  Colonel  Irby  records  that  he  must 
on  one  occasion  have  seen,  at  least,  four  thousand 
pass  overhead  near  Gibraltar.  The  food  of  the 
crane  consists  of  corn  and  seeds  of  all  kinds,  as 
well  as  lizards  and  frogs,  and  in  India  the  cranes, 
which  arrive  from  the  North  to  winter,  do  great 
damage  to  the  water-melons.  The  eggs  are  two 
in  number,  brown,  with  a  few  spots  or  smudges  of 
darker  brown  and  underlying  spots  of  grey.  The 
nest  is  often  a  large  structure,  as  much  as  five 
feet  across,  and  is  built  among  sedge  and  rushes, 
sufficiently  short  to  enable  the  bird  when  standing  up  to  catch  sight  of  any 
intruder. 

The  limpkins  are  long-billed  birds,  having  the  appearance  of  large  rails,  of 
a  brown  colour,  spotted  with  white.  In  osteological  characters,  however,  they 
most  resemble  the  cranes,  and,  like  the  latter  birds,  they 
have  no  notches  in  the  hinder  margin  of  the  sternum.  The  The  Limpkins. — 
wings  are  rounded,  and  the  secondaries  are  as  long  as  the  Sub-order 
primaries,  the  first  of  the  latter  quills  being  sickle-shaped,  Arami. 
narrowed  and  incised  for  the  basal  two-thirds,  with  the  tip 
spatulate.  Two  species  of  the  genus  Aramus  are  known,  the  Florida  limpkin 
(A.  picbus)  extending  from  Southern  Florida  to  Central  America  and  the 
West  Indian  Islands,  while  the  South  American  limpkin  (A,  scolopaceiis)  is 
found  from  Paraguay  to  Guiana  and  Venezuela.  Mr.  W.  H.  Hudson,  the 
chronicler  of  bird-life  in  Argentina,  says  that  the  limpkins,  or  caraus,  as 
they  are  called  in  that  country,  are  more  nocturnal  than  the  rails,  and  take 
wing  more  readily,  as  they  have  greater  powers  of  flight.  In  their  gestures 
and  motions  on  the  ground  they  resemble  rails,  but  differ  strikingly  from  all 
Ilalline  birds  in  their  habit  of  flying,  when  disturbed,  to  some  open  place, 
where  they  walk  about  conspicuously,  watching  the  intruder.  "By  day," 
writes  Mr.  Hudson,  "  the  carau  is  a  dull  bird,  concealing  itself  in  dense  reed- 
beds  in  streams  and  marshes.  When  driven  up  he  rises  laboriously,  the  legs 
dangling  down,  and  mounts  vertically  to  a  considerable  height.  He  flies 
high,  the  wings  curved  upwards  and  violently  flapped  at  irregular  intervals  ; 
descending,  he  drops  suddenly  to  the  earth,  the  wings  motionless,  pointed 
up,  and  the  body  swaying  from  side  to  side,  so  that  the  'bird  presents  the 


Fig.  36.— THE  COMMON  CRANE 
(Grus  grus). 


AVES— ORDER  GRUIFORMES. 


appearance  of  a  falling  parachute.  On  smooth  ground  he  walks  faster  than 
a  man,  striking  out  his  feet  in  a  stately  manner,  and  jerking  the  tail,  and 
runs  rapidly  for  ten  or  twelve  yards  before  rising.  At  the  approach  of  night 
he  becomes  active,  uttering  long,  clear,  piercing  cries,  many  times  repeated, 
and  heard  distinctly  two  miles  away.  These  cries  are  most  melancholy,  and 
together  with  its  mourning  plumage  and  recluse  habits,  have  won  for  the 
courlans  several  pretty  vernacular  names.  It  is  called  the  "lamenting 
bird"  and  the  " crazy  widow,"  but  is  more  familiarly  known  as  the  carau. 
As  the  breeding  season  draws  near  they  become  exceedingly  clamorous,  mak- 
ing the  marshes  resound  day  and  night  with  their  long  wailing  cries.  The 
nest  is  built  among  the  rushes,  and  contains  ten  or  twelve  eggs  as  large  as 
turkeys',  slightly  elliptical,  sparsely  marked  with  blotches  of  pale  brown  and 
purple  on  a  dull  white  ground,  the  whole  egg  having  a  powdery  or  floury 
appearance." 

In  New  Caledonia  is  found  the  singular  bird  known  as  the  kagu  (Rhino- 

chetus  jiibatus),  the  only  representative  of  the  sub-order  Rhinoclietides.     It  is 

an  elegantly  coloured  grey  bird,  with  a  large  crest,  and  is 

The  Kagus. —     nocturnal  in  its  habits.     In  'internal  structure,  it  has  much 

Sub- order        that  is  crane-like  ;  but  it  differs  from  the  latter  group  of 

Rhinochetides      birds  by  possessing  powder-down  patches  on  each  side  of  the 

rump.     When  in  captivity,  the  kagu  exhibits  considerable 

dancing  powers,  in  which  feature  he  also  resembles  the  cranes. 

This  sub-order  is  represented  by  a  single  species,  Mesites  varieyata,  a  bird 

peculiar  to  the  eastern  slope  of  the  mountain-chain  which  traverses  the 

island  of  Madagascar.      Its  plumage  is  of  a  reddish-brown, 

The  Madagascar  and  it  looks  like  an  aberrant  kind  of  rail.     Like  the  kagu,  it 

Kagus. possesses  powder-down  patches,  but  instead  of  two,  there  are 

Sub-order        five  :  two  on  the  side  of  the  back,  one  on  the  sides  of  the 
Mesitides.        body,  and  two  on  the  belly.     It  is  said  to  build  its  nest  on 

the  ground,  but  little  is  known  of  its  habits. 

These  remarkable  birds  are  confined  to  South  and  Central  America.     They 
are   also  very  rail-like  in  appearance,  and  resemble  the  kagus  in    having 

powder-down  patches.    Two  species 

The  are   known,    the    South  American 

Sun-Bitterns.—   sun-bittern  (Eurypyga  lidias\  in- 

Sub-order        habiting     Amazonia,    Brazil,    and 

Eurypyyce.        Guiana,  and  the  large  sun-bittern 

(E.  major)  being  found  in  Central 

America  and  Colombia. 

The    plumage    of    the   sun-bittern    is   curiously 
variegated  ;  the  wings  are  beautifully  spotted,  and 
the  bird  is  fond  of  sitting  with  its  wings  outspread, 
as  if  sunning  itself.     The  nest  is  placed  in  a  tree, 
and  the  bird  has  another  heron-like  character  in 
having  to  feed  the  young  birds  in  the  nest  for  some 
time,  though  the  nestlings  are  covered  with  down, 
as  in  true  cranes.     The  eggs  are  said  to  resemble 
those  of  a  woodcock. 
(    The  members  of  this  sub-order  are  five  in  num- 
ber, all  confined  to  South  America.     They  possess  many  crane-like  features, 
,but^  differ  from  all  the  aberrant  gruiformes  which  we  have  been  consider- 
ing* in  their  domesticity,  as  they  are  often  tamed  by  the  natives  of  Brazil. 


Fig.  37.— THE  SUN-BITTERX 
(Eurypyrja  helias). 


TR  UMPE  TERS—SERIAMAS. 


277 


Tlie  Trumpeters. 
—Sub-order 

Phosphide. 


Fig.  38.— THE  COMMON  TRUMPETER 
(Psophia,   rejpitans). 


The  Seriamas.— 
Sub-order 

Dicholophi. 


The  nest  is  on  the  ground,  the  eggs  being  white,  a  peculiar  colour  for  a 
Crane-like  bird,  and  the  nestling  is  covered  with  down,  and  is  able  to  provide 
for  itself  soon  after  it  is  hatched.  The  birds  gain  their 
name  * 'Trumpeter"  from  their  peculiar  trumpet-like 

note,  and  no  doubt 
the  modification  of 
the  trachea  has  some- 
thing to  do  with  this,  as  the  windpipe 
is  enormously  long,  and  is  continued 
under  the  skin  of  the  abdomen  nearly 
to  the  anus.  The  Trumpeters  differ 
from  the  Cranes  in  having  oval  or 
holorhinal  nostrils,  and  their  plumage, 
instead  of  being  firm  and  harsh,  is 
particularly  soft.  They  are  residents 
in  the  parts  of  South  America  they 
inhabit,  and  have  not  any  great  powers 
of  flight.  They  live  at  large  in  the 
forests,  and  often  assemble  in  flocks  of  considerable  size. 

In  associating  the  Seriamas  with  the  Cranes,  we  are  following  the 
most  recent  conclusions  of  anatomists;  but  it  must  be  conceded  that 
they  are  very  aberrant  members  of  the  Gruiformes. 
In  some  respects  they  resemble  the  bustards,  and,  like 
them,  have  holorhinal  nostrils,  but  in  the  possession 
of  four  toes,  and  in  other  characters,  they  differ  so 
much  from  those  birds  that  in  our  opinion  there  is 
really  no  real  affinity  between  them.  Like  the  Cranes  and  the  other 
allied  forms  we  have  just  been  considering,  the  Seriamas  have  a  cleft  or 
schizognathous  palate,  and  their  mode  of  life 
presents  some  features  in  common  with  the 
Secretary- Bird  (Serpentarius  secretarius)  of 
Africa.  Recognising  this  fact,  some  ornitho- 
logists, myself  among  the  number,  have 
considered  the  Seriama  to  be  an  aberrant 
accipitrine  bird.  The  common  Seriama  is  an 
inhabitant  of  South-Eastern  Brazil ;  and  in 
Argentina  another  species  occurs,  Burmeister's 
Seriama  (Chunga  burmeisteri).  These  two 
represent  the  only  known  species  of  the  sub- 
order. The  resemblance  in  appearance  to  the 
secretary-bird  is  remarkable,  and  in  its  mode 
of  walk,  its  crested  head,  and  its  long  legs, 
there  is  much  that  reminds  us  of  the  latter 
bird,  which  has  a  curious  method  of  pounding 
its  food.  If  the  latter  be  a  rat,  it  springs 
into  the  air,  and  brings  down  both  feet  with 
all  its  force,  till  it  has  reduced  its  prey  to  a 
pulp.  This  is  also  done  by  the  Seriama.  Mr. 
Hudson  says  that  these  birds  live  on  the 

ground  among  the  high  grasses  of  the  Campos,  where  the  traveller  frequently 
hears  their  loud  screaming  cry  as  he  rides  along  the  tracks.  Their  food 
consists  principally  of  insects  and  caterpillars,  but  they  also  devour  berries 


Fig.  39.— THK  SBRIAPIA 
(Cariama  cristata). 


278 


A  VES— ORDER  ARDEIFORMES. 


and  reptiles.      They  nest  in  low  bushes,  the  eggs  being  two  In  number, 
rounded  and  spotted,  resembling  those  of  Cranes  and  Rails. 

Somewhere  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Seriamas  and  the  Cranes  and 

Kails  must  apparently  be  placed  some  extraordinary  forms  of  bird-life  which 

have  been  discovered  in  the  Miocene  deposits  of  Patagonia, 

The  Extinct  Birds     and    described     by    Dr.    Ameghino     under     the     order 

of  Patagonia         Stereornithes.     These  peculiar  creatures  are  only  known 

(Stereormthes).       from  their  fossil  remains>  and  they  were  at  first  supposed 

to  be  Struthious  Birds,  and  akin  to  the  Rheas.     Further 

information   is   required   concerning   them,  but  at  the    present  time,  my 

colleague,  Mr.  Andrews,  considers  that  they  are  totally  different  from  any 

ostrich-like  birds,  and  were  probably  gigantic  fore-runners  of  the  Seriama 

and  the  Crane-like  birds  of  modern  times. 

All  the  members  of  this  order  have  a  bridged  or  desmognathous  palate,  and 

the  nestlings  are  hatched  helpless,  and  are   fed   in   the 

The  Heron,—        nest  by  the  parent  birds  for  a  considerable  period.     Thus 

Order  they  differ   from    the    Cranes,    with    which   they  were 

Ardeiformes.         associated  in  the  older  classifications.      The  Heron-like 

birds  may  be  divided  into  three  great  groups,  viz.,  the 

Storks  (Ciconiidce),  the  Spoonbills  and  Ibises,  and  the  Herons. 

Although  in  outward  appearance  Storks  and  Herons  look  very  much  alike, 

there  are   several  characters   which   render  them  easily  separable.      For 

instance,  no  Stork  has  the  claw  of   the  third  or  middle 

The  Storks. —         toe   pectinated ;    that    is,    furnished    with    a    comb-like 

Family  Ciconiida.     process,  as  is  the  case  with  all  Herons.     Again,  the  hind 

toe  is  not  on  a  level  with  the  other  toes,  but  is  elevated 

above  it;   and  the  f.urcula,  or  "merry-thought,"   bone   shows  no  median 

projection  in  the  angle,  as  is  seen  in  the  true  Herons.     There  are  other 

anatomical  and  osteological  characters  which 

can    be  adduced  for   the   separation   of    the 

Storks  from   the    Herons    which    it   is   not 

necessary  to  enumerate  in  detail. 

In  this  Order  are  included  the  true  Storks 
(Ciconiidce),    the    Marabous,    or     Adjutants 
(Leptoptilus\    the    Open -bills    (Anastomus), 
and  the  Wood- Storks  or  Wood-Ibises  (Tan- 
talus),    the     latter    being 
The  Storks.—        generally    admitted    as    a 
Sub-order  distinct    sub-family,    Tan- 

Ciconii.  talince.      All    these    birds 

have  no  "powder-down" 
patches  on  the  sides  of  the  rump,  thus  differ- 
ing from  the  true  Herons  and  the  Hammer- 
heads (Scopi)  and  the  Shoe-billed  Storks 
(Balcenicipitidoe). 

The  best-known  representative  of  the 
Ciconii  is  the  White  Stork  (Ciconia  ciconia) 
of  Europe,  a  bird  which  occasionally  visits 
England,  but  is  to  be  more  easily  studied  on 
the  opposite  shores  of  the  Continent.  It  is  always  interesting  to  take  a 
country  walk  in  Holland  in  the  spring  and  see  the  Storks'  ne^ts,  which  are 
plentifully  distributed  in  the  Dutch  gardens,  where  the  birds  are  encouraged 


Fig.  40.— THE  WHITS  STORK 
(Ciconia  ciconia). 


STORKS.  279 


to  nest  by  the  erection  of  cradles  or  other  accommodation  (often  an  old  cart 
wheel)  erected  for  their  benefit.  In  most  places  frequented  by  tho  Storks  it 
is  considered  lucky  to  have  a  nest  on  the  premises,  and  the  latter  increases 
in  bulk  year  by  year  as  the  birds  return  to  their  nesting-places,  which 
are  often  on  the  tops  of  houses.  They  have  a  curious  habit  of  sitting 
motionless  for  hours  together,  often  on  one  leg,  as  if  absorbed  in  contempla- 
tion, uttering  occasionally  their  single  exclamation,  which  is  produced  by  the 
snapping  of  the  mandibles,  for  they  apparently  have  no  true  note  or  call. 

Before  migrating  to  spend  the  winter  months  in  Afriea  the  Storks  often 
assemble  in  large  flocks,  returning  toEurope  in  January  and  February,and  their 
first  halting-place  to  nest  seema  to  be  in  the  Mediterranean  countries,  especially 
in  Morocco,  where  they  are  strictly  protected.  Colonel  Irby  states  that  he 
was  told  by  a  Frenchman  that  "in  the  City  of  Morocco,  as  well  as  at  Ftz 
and  some  other  large  towns  in  the  Moorish  Empire,  there  are  regular  Storks' 
hospitals,  and  that  should  one  be  injured,  or  fall  from  the  nest,  it  is  sent  to 
this  institution,  or  rather  enclosure,  which  is  kept  up  by  subscription  from 
wealthy  Moors,  who  consider  the  Stork  a  sacred  bird."  The  late  M.  Favier, 
who  lived  for  some  years  in  Morocco,  writes  the  following  note,  which  gives  a 
very  good  idea  of  the  migrations  of  the  Stork  and  its  habits  in  this  favoured 
country.  He  says: — "The  Stork  is  seen  on  migration  in  vast  numbers 
around  Tangier  passing  to  Europe  during  January  and  February,  some  of  the 
birds  terminating  their  journey  by  remaining  to  breed  in  Morocco.  These  are 
the  first  to  depart  south,  returning  again  year  after  year  to  the  same  places, 
and  apparently  by  the  same  route  as  that  taken  in  their  gradual  departure. 

"Some  large  flights  pass  on  without  stopping;  those  which  migrate  in 
August  rest  awhile  on  their  way  south;  so  during  the  autumnal  migration 
(which  lasts,  like  the  spring,  for  about  a  month — the  latter  half  of  August 
and  the  first  part  of  September)  this  species  is  extremely  numerous,  and 
is  seen  round  the  environs  of  Tangier  in  all  directions  ;  they  are  very 
tame,  and  often  follow  close  behind  the  plough. 

"The  superstition  which  shelters  this  bird  from  molestation  by  the  natives 
is  the  belief  that  the  Storks  were  inspired  by  Allah  to  protect  the  harvest 
and  the  country  from  noxious  insects  and  reptiles,  and  that  the  birds 
themselves  (knowing  the  benefits  they  confer  on  man)  ask  in  return 
protection  for  their  offspring  by  building  their  nests  on  the  walls  of  towns 
and  houses,  and  that,  therefore,  anyone  who  kills  them  must  be  a  Kaffir,  i.e., 
not  a  true  believer  of  the  Prophet,  especially  as  the  birds  would  only  be 
killed  for  mischief,  and  not  for  food.  It  may  be  added  that  some  of  the 
Arabs  believe  that  the  Storks  originate  from  a  wicked  Kadi  and  his  family, 
who,  as  a  punishment  for  their  great  cruelty,  were  all  changed  into  these 
birds,  and  that  these  miserables  humble  themselves  to  appease  Allah,  and  in  the  § 
hope  of  some  day  regaining  their  human  form,  pray  without  ceasing  day  and 
night,  and,  whenever  they  rest,  prostrate  themselves  and  clean  their  bills." 

The  White  Stork  of  Europe  has  a  red  bill,  and  is  represented  in  Eastern 
Siberia  and  Japan  by  the  Black-billed  White  Stork  (Ciconia  boyciana),  and 
in  America  by  the  Maguari  Stork  (Euxenura  maguari),  which  has  a  greenish 
bill.  The  Black  Stork  (Ciconia  nigra]  is  another  European  bird  which  has 
occasionally  visited  England.  It  winters  in  Africa  and  in  the  Indian 
Peninsula,  and,  like  its  white  relative,  only  visits  Europe  in  the  summer, 
when  it  is  also  found  over  Northern  Asia.  It  differs  from  the  White 
Stork  in  being  a  forest  bird,  but  in  habits  and  food  ib  resembles  that 
species.  Indeed,  in  these  respects  all  Storks  are  very  similar. 


280  A  VES— ORDER  ARDEIFORMES. 


In  India  and  Africa  a  curious  species  occurs,  viz.,  the  White-necked  Stork 
(Dissura  episcopus),  which,  on  examination,  would  seem  to  have  a  double  tail, 
whence  its  Latin  name.  The  white  under  tail-coverts  are  longer  than  the 
black  tail-feathers,  and  are  stiffened  so  as  to  appear  like  rectrices  rather  than 
coverts.  The  same  curious  formation  occurs  in  one  of  the  American  Storks 
(Euxenura  maguari). 

The  Jabirus  are  the  largest  of  the  Storks,  standing  higher  on  their  legs 
than  even  the  Adjutants.  There  are  two  species  of  Jabiru  besides  the 
American  one  mentioned  above,  viz.,  Mycteria  senegalensis  of  Africa  and 
M.  australis  of  Australia.  They  have  a  very  peculiar  bill,  which  is  slightly 
upturned  at  the  end,  and  of  a  black  and  red  colour. 

Of  a  more  ungainly  form,  and  with  a  bare  and  scabious  head,  are  the 
Adjutants  (Leptoptilus).  They  are  very  large  birds,  and  as  fossil  remains 
have  been  found  in  the  Miocene  deposits  in  France,  we  may  conclude  that 
they  were  at  one  time  much  more  widely  distributed  than  they  are  now.  At 
present  one  species  of  Leptoptilus  is  African,  another  Indian,  and  a  third 
Javan.  They  all  possess  the  beautiful  soft  under  tail-coverts  known  as 
44  Marabou  "  feathers,  and  on  the  neck  they  have  a  bare  pendulous  pouch 
which  they  are  able  to  innate  ;  and  from  the  way  in  which  this  is  done  by 
the  birds  in  confinement,  it  would  appear  as  if  it  was  considered  an  ornamental 
appendage,  though  from  its  livid  colour  the  protrusion  of  this  naked  bag  is 
anything  but  ornamental.  In  India  the  Adjutants  are  protected  on  account 
of  their  usefulness  as  scavengers,  as  they  will  devour  almost  anything,  and 
they  may  often  be  seen  in  the  streets  of  the  towns.  In  aviaries  they  often 
stand  on  one  leg  for  hours  motionless,  or,  with  their  legs  stretched  forward 
under  them,  they  will  go  to  sleep  with  their  heavy  heads  resting  on  their 
crops.  Mr.  Eugene  Gates  says  that  he  noticed  enormous  numbers  of 
Adjutants  in  Pegu.  <4  Along  with  the  Pelicans,"  he  says,  "breeding  in  the 
same  trees,  were  innumerable  Adjutants.  One  can  hardly  realise  the  number 
of  these  birds  that  visit  Pegu  in  October,  unless,  as  I  have  done,  one  has  seen 
the  vast  armies  which  settle  on  the  plains  on  their  first  arrival.  I  have 
stood  on  a  bund  where  I  could  see  for  about  two  miles  around  me,  and  the 
whole  area  was  literally  covered  with  them.  Some  fifty  birds  stand  huddled 
together,  then  there  is  a  bare  spare  of  about  100  ft.,  and  then  another 
group  of  birds.  Their  numbers  are  incredible.  They  all  arrive  suddenly  in 
the  Pegu  plain  on  the  same  day,  and  after  resting  for  about  two  days,  they 
betake  themselves  to  the  forest,  where  I  had  the  pleasure  of  visiting  them. 
Certainly  almost  all  the  Indian  Adjutants  must  come  to  Pegu  to  breed. 
These  birds  utter  only  one  sound,  and  it  resembles  the  lowing  of  a  cow  when 
separated  from  her  calf.  It  was  the  only  sound  heard  in  these  gloomy 
forests."  Colonel  Bingham  found  the  nests  of  the  Indian  Adjutant  on  the 
Nedong  Hills  in  Tenasserim,  and  only  succeeded  in  reaching  the  rocks  on 
which  they  were  built  after  a  stiff  and  difficult  climb. 

These  birds  are  generally  known  as  the  "Shell-Ibises,"'  though  they  have 

no  connection  with  the  true  Ibises,  but  are  Storks  of  a  peculiar  type  ;    Mr. 

Leydecker  calls  them  "Shell-Storks,"  which  is  a  much 

The  Open-billed      more  appropriate  name  for  them,  as  their  food  consists 

Storks. — Genus        principally   of   molluscs,  for  the   breaking  of   which  the 

jinastomus.  bird's  "  nut-cracker  "-like  bill  is  distinctly  well  adapted. 

The  peculiar  gap  in  the  bill  is  not  seen  in  the  young  birds, 

but  seems  to  develop  as  the  birds  get  older. 

These  birds  have  also  generally  been  called  "Wood  Ibises,"  and  they  seem 


WOOD-STORKS—HAMMER-HEAD. 


281 


to  be  a  kind  of  connecting  link  between  the  Storks  and  the  Ibises,  though  in 
structure  they  resemble  the  former.     Three  species  are 
known — the  American  Wood-Stork  (Tantalus  loculator),  The  Wood- 

the  African  Pseudotantalus  ibis,  and  the  Indian  species,       Storks.— Family 
P.  leucocephalus.    Of  the  nesting  of  the  latter  bird  Lieut.  Tantahda. 

Burgess  has  given  the  following  account : — "In  a  village 
about  ten  miles  from  the  Godavery  river,  where  there  are  a  great  number  of 
large  banian  trees  both  outside  and  inside  the  walls,  I  found  a  community  of 
these  birds,  which  had  built  their  nests  on  them,  probably  to  the  number 
of  fifty.  The  trees  inside  the  walls  were  as  thickly  covered  with  nests  as 
those  outside,  and  the  birds,  which  appeared  docile  and  tame,  did  not  mind 
the  noise  of  the  people  passing  beneath  them.  When  I  visited  the  village, 
the  young  birds  were  all  well  fledged  and  most  of  them  able  to  fly.  The 
villagers  informed  me  that  the  old  birds  move  off"  to  the  river  in  the  very 
early  dawn,  and  having  caught  a  sufficient  supply  for  their  young,  return  at 
about  eight  or  nine  o'clock ;  a  second  expedition  is  made  in  the  afternoon. 
Some  idea  of  the  quantity  of  fish  caught  by  these  birds  may  be  gathered  from 
what  the  people  told  me,  that  numbers  of  fine  fish  were  dropped  by  the  old 
birds  when  feeding  their  young  and  were  eaten  by  them.  A  young  bird  of 
this  species,  which  I  shot  in  Sind,  disgorged  a  large  quantity  of  small  eels. 
The  nest  is  composed  of  small  sticks,  and  is  placed  at  the  top  of  the  trees,  and 
if  there  are  many  on  the  same  tree,  they  are  placed  pretty  close  together." 

In  many  of  its  characters  the  African  genus  Scopus,  which  represents  this 
sub-order,  is  intermediate  between  the  Storks  and  the  Herons.     In   the 
form  of  the  furcula,  without  any  median  projection,  it 
resembles  the  former,  and  it  also  wants  the  pectinated 
claw  of  the  Herons,  while  the  absence  of  powder-down 
patches  likewise  allies  it  to  the  Storks.     In  some  points 
of    its   anatomy  Scopus  is  Heron-like,  but  in  external 
appearance  it  is  unlike  any  member  of  the  above-mentioned  sub-orders, 
colour  of  the  plumage  is  a  sombre  brown,  but  the 
bird  has  a  fine  crest  and  a  curiously-compressed 
bill,    with   a   strong    dertral    hook   at   the  end. 
Both  the  inner  and  the  outer  toe  are  connected 
together  by  a  distinct  basal  web. 

But  it  is  in  its  nesting  habits  that  the  Hammer- 
head is  so  peculiar.  The  nest  is  the  work  of  a  pair 
of  birds,  and  is  placed  either  on  rocks  or  trees, 
sometimes  six  or  eight  being  found  within  a  short 
distance  of  each  other.  Sir  John  Kirk  found  one 
on  the  Zambesi,  6  ft.  in  diameter,  with  small 
openings  on  one  side.  The  nest  is  a  mass  of 
sticks,  and  the  bird  has  been  said  to  make 
three  distinct  chambers ;  but  in  South  Africa  the 
nests  are  described  as  being  for  the  most  part  a 
solid  mass  of  sticks,  sometimes  to  the  extent  of  a 
cart  load,  the  nest  being  often  decorated  with 
bones,  bits  of  crockery,  or  other  rubbish,  or  any 
bright  thing  which  the  bird  can  collect,  after  the 
manner  of  a  Bower  Bird  (Ptilonorhynchus). 

These  extraordinary  birds  are  represented,  as  in  the  preceding  instance, 
by  a  single  genus  Balceniceps,  which,  like  Scopus,  is  confined  to  the  Ethiopian 


The  Hammer- 
headed  Storks.— 
Sub-order  Scopi. 


The 


Fig,  41.— THE  HAMMER-HEAD 
(Scopus  u.mbrttta). 


282 


A  VES— ORDER  ARDEIFORMES. 


Fig.  42.— THR  SHOE-BILLED  STORK 
(Balceniceps  rex). 


region,  but   instead   of    being   widely   distributed   like  the   Hammer-head, 

the  Shoe-bill  is  confined  to  the  districts  of  the  Upper  Nile.     The  shape  of 

the  bill,  with  its  dertral  hook, 
The  Shoe-billed      is     sufficient     to     distinguish 

Storks. -Sub  order    Balceniceps  at  a  glance.      The 

Batenitipiiide*.       genus  further    possesses    two 

powder-down  patches   like  the 

Herons,  but  differs  from  the  latter  birds  in  the 

absence  of  any  pectination  on  the  middle  claw, 

and  in  its  Stork-like  furcula.     Taking  all  points 

of  its  anatomy  into  consideration,  the  balance  of 

evidence  seems  to  be  in  favour  of  the  alliance  of 

Balceniccps  with  the  Storks. 

Von   Heuglin  considered  the  "  Abu-mask  up  " 

or  Shoe-bill   to  be  a  kind  of  Marabou,  and  an 

inhabitant    of    the    Upper    Nile    regions,    such 

as   the   Saraf    River,    the    Lower    Kir    district, 

and  the  Gazelle  River,  and  the  countries  lying 

between.      It    is    everywhere    a    shy   bird   and 

decidedly   scarce,    its    habits    being    Stork-like, 

standing   on  one  leg  and  feeding  on  fish.      Its 

only  note  seems  to  be  a  snapping  of   the   bill 

like  that  of  a  Stork. 

One  of  the  chief  differences  between  the  Herons  and  the  Storks  is  the 

pectinated  claw  on  the  third  or  middle  toe,  and  another  difference  is  the  posi- 
tion of  the  hind  toe,  which,  in 
The  Herons.—        tne  Storks,  is  elevated  above 
Sub-order  the  level  of  the   other  toes, 

Herudiones.          and  in  the  Herons  is  on  the 
same    level    as    the    latter. 

The    median    process  on  the   furcula  has  been 

already   alluded    to.      The   Herodiones  may   be 

divided    roughly    into     the    Herons    and     the 

Bitterns.     The  former  have  twelve  tail-feathers, 

and  the  latter  ten. 

The   true   Herons  comprise   a   large  number 

of  genera,    all   more  of  less   closely   connected 

together,     but     differing     in    certain     constant 

peculiarities,  which  warrant  their  being  separated 

as  genera,  or,  at  least,  as  sub-genera.     Thus  the 

Purple  Heron  of  Europe  is  remarkable  for   its 

long  middle  toe,  which  is  as  long  as  the  tarsus, 

and  hence  it  is  known  as  Phoyx  purpurea. 

The  genus  Ardea,  on  the  other  hand,  has  the 

proportions  of  the  toes  different,  the  middle  toe 

being  shorter,  and  the  tarsus  longer  than  the 

middle  toe  and  claw.     Besides  the  pectinate  or 

comb-like  claw  on  the  middle  toe,  our  Common  Heron  (A.  cinerea)  has  the 

tip  of  the  bill  serrated  or  furnished  with  saw-like  notches  along  the  cutting 

edge  at  the  end  of  the  upper  mandible. 

The   Common   Heron  is  now  to  be  found  nesting  in   England  only  in 

certain  heronries  where  the  bird  ia  protected.     The  havoc  which  the  bird 


Fig.  43.— THE  COMMON  HBRON 
(Ardea  cinerea). 


NIGHT-HERONS—BOAT-BILLS.  283 


plays  among  tho  fish  in  preserved  waters  is  sufficient  excuse  for  its 
slaughter,  and  many  are  killed  on  account  of  the  damage  they  do.  Never- 
theless, the  Heron  is  an  extremely  handsome  ornament  to  our  waters,  and 
it  is  always  a  beautiful  sight  to  see  one  of  these  birds  standing  motionless  by 
a  pool  of  water,  or  flying  with  its  heavy  wings  and  outstretched  legs  high 
above  us  in  the  air.  The  nests  of  the  Common  Heron  are  bulky  structures, 
and,  as  a  rule,  are  built  on  trees,  though  occasionally,  where  trees  are  absent, 
they  will  be  built  on  bushes  or  even  on  the  ground.  The  eggs  are  of  a 
beautiful  greenish-blue  colour. 

When  in  full  nesting  plumage,  our  own  Ardea  cinerea  dons  some  long  crest 
feathers  arid  some  elongated  feathers  on  the  back,  but  in  these  features  it  is 
entirely  eclipsed  by  some  of  the  Egrets,  such  as  the  species  of  Herodias 
and  Garzetta,  which  have  beautiful  ornamental  plumes  on  the  breast  and 
lower  back  during  the  breeding  season.  The  long  dorsal  train  of  the  Little 
Egrets  (Garzetta  garzetta)  forms  the  material  with  which  the  English  ladies  of 
the  present  day  decorate  their  bonnets  and  hats.  Every  one  of  these 
plumes,  sold  as  "  osprey  "  feathers  by  the  dealers,  has  been  taken  from  the 
body  of  a  bird  killed  while  bringing  food  to  its  nestlings,  which  are  in  con- 
sequence left  to  starve.  It  is  scarcely  possible  that,  in  the  present  day, 
when  so  much  publicity  has  been  given  t©  the  fact  that  the  wearers  of  these 
plumes  are  responsible  for  the  slaughter  of  numberless  beautiful  Egrets, 
and  the  de  ith  of  the  young  ones  by  starvation,  any  Englishwoman  can  plead 
immunity  from  complicity  in  the  crime  of  consenting  to  the  murder  of  these 
pretty  birds;  and  one  is  forced  reluctantly,  seeing  that  the  plumes  are 
obtained  solely  for  the  English  market,  to  believe  that  our  people  love  to 
have  it  so,  and  that  they  would  rather  that  thousands  of  Egrets  were  killed 
than  that  their  bonnets  should  be  without  an  "osprey  "  plume. 

Passing  from  the  true  Herons  and  the  Egrets  to  the  Night-Herons,  we  find 
several  intermediate  forms,  such  as  the  lovely  A  garni  Heron  of  Guiana 
(Ayamia  agami),  and  the  Reef-Herons  (Demiegretta). 
In  the  latter  birds  we  meet  with  a  curious  fact,  viz.,  that  The  Night-Herons, 
they  have  two  forms,  a  white  and  a  grey  one,  and,  as  far  QenusNyctieoraz 
as  one  can  say  at  present,  the  white  form  goes  through  all 
the  changes  of  the  grey  one,  assuming  the  ornamental  plumes  of  the  breed- 
ing season ;  and  yet,  when  the  two  forms  cross,  as  they  often  seem  to  do, 
the  result  is  seen  in  any  amount  of  pied  birds.  The  same  phenomenon  is 
exhibited  in  an  American  Heron  (Dichromanassa  rufa),  where  one  form  of 
the  species  is  white  arid  the  other  rufous.  The  two  forms  breed  together, 
and  some  of  the  uestlings  will  be  white  and  others  rufous. 

The  Night-Herons  are  found  nearly  everywhere  on  the  globe,  and  the 
European  species,  Nyctieorax  nyctieorax,  occurs  in  the  temperate  and  tropical 
portions  of  the  Old  and  the  New  Worlds.  These  birds  breed  in  colonies, 
and  build  a  nest  of  a  framework  of  sticks,  in  which  the  eggs  lie  in  a  sort  of 
cradle.  One  may  travel  for  miles  through  a  marsh  without  suspecting  the 
presence  of  the  Night-Herons,  and  suddenly  come  upon  the  breeding 
place,  when  the  air  becomes  full  of  the  noisy  cries  of  the  birds,  as  they 
hover  over  their  nests,  and  evince  the  greatest  concern  at  the  invasion  of 
their  retreat. 

One  of  the  most  curious  of  the  Night-Herons  is  the  American  Boat-bill 
(Canchroma).  At  first  sight  the  remarkably  wide  and  shoe-shaped  bill  would 
suggest  an  affinity  with  the  Shoe-billed  Stork  (Balceniceps  rex),  but  the 
characters  of  the  bird  are  absolutely  Heron-like,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that 


284 


A  VES-  ORDER  ARDEIFORMES. 


Fig,  44.— THE  BOAT  BILLED  HERON 
(Canchroma  cochlearia). 


the  bird  is  an  exaggerated  form  of  Night-Heron,  its  plumage  also  suggesting 

the  propriety  of  this  alliance.     The  genus  stands,  in  fact,  between  the  true 

Night -Herons  (Nyctieorax)  and  the 
Mottled  Night-Herons  (Gorsachius)  of 
the  Indian  Region. 

Two  species  of  Boat-billed  Herons  are 
known — the  South  American  species 
C.  cochlearia,  which  is  found  from 
Brazil  to  Guiana,  Colombia,  and 
Ecuador,  and  the  Central  American 
species,  C.  zeledoni,  which  takes  its 
place  from  Panama  to  Mexico,  and  has 
a  tawny-coloured  breast  instead  of  a 
white  one.  They  are  nocturnal  birds, 
and  Mr.  Richmond  says  that  in  Costa 
Rica  he  found  C.  zeledoni  in  colonies, 
and  the  note  of  the  species  was  a 
"squawk,"  something  like  that  of  the 
Night-Heron. 

The  Bitterns  have  ten,  "tail-feathers 
?nd  the  end  of  the  bill  serrated.  In 
this  group  are  contained  the  Little 
Bitterns  (Ardetta),  the  Dwarf  Tiger 
Bitterns  of  South  America  (Zebrilus), 
and  the  Asiatic  Bitterns  (Ardeirallus  and 
Dupetor),  as  well  as  the  True  Bitterns 

(Botaurus).    Of  the  Little  Bitterns  ten  species  are  known,  and  the  distribution 

of  the  genus  is  almost  cosmopolitan.     The 

most  tyoical  species  is  the  Little  Bittern 

of  Eurooe  (Ardetta  minuta),  a  bird  which 

still  occasionally  finds  its  way  to  England, 

and  doubtless  formerly  bred  in  the  British 

Islands.     One  of  the  most  remarkable  of 

the    Little     Bitterns     is,    however,    the 

Argentine     species    (Ardetta    involucris), 

concerning    which   Mr.    W.    H.    Hudson 

tells  a  remarkable  story,  one  of  the  most 

interesting    of    all    histories  of  bird-life. 

Most  of  the   Bitterns  have   the  curious 

faculty    of    concealing    themselves    from 

observation   by  their  faculty   of    "reed- 
simulating,"    and   many   of    our  readers 

must  have  noticed  some  of  these  birds  in 

the  Zoological  Gardens   standing    stock- 
still,  and  evidently  imagining  that  by  so 

doing  they  were  invisible  to  the  intruder. 

The  Common  Bittern  (Botaurus  stellaris) 

will  not  only  do  this,  but  will  gradually 

and  slowly  turn  his  breast  to  any  observer 

if  the  latter  only  walks  slowly  away  from 

him,   under  the  evident  impression  that  by  so   doing  he   renders  himself 

invisible,  as,  indeed,  the  bird  would  be  if  he  were  in  his  native  reed-bed ; 


Fig.  45  — THR  LITTLK  BITTERN 
(Ardetta  minuta). 


LITTLE  BITTERNS.  285 


but,  as  he  has  a  background  of  green  bushes  or  wood-work,  his  efforts  at 
concealment  are  vain. 

The  notion  of  concealment  in  relation  to  natural  surroundings  is,  however, 
thoroughly  explained  by  Mr.  Hudson's  experiences.  He  writes  : — "  One  day 
in  November,  1870,  when  out  shooting,  I  noticed  a  Variegated  Bittern  stealing 
off  quickly  through  a  bed  of  rushes  thirty  or  forty  yards  from  me.  He  was 
a  foot  or  so  above  the  ground,  and  went  so  rapidly  that  he  appeared  to  glide 
through  the  rushes  without  touching  them.  I  fired,  but  afterwards  ascer- 
tained that  in  my  hurry  I  missed  my  aim.  The  bird,  however,  disappeared 
at  the  report,  and,  thinking  I  had  killed  him,  I  went  to  the  spot. 

"It  was  a  small  isolated  bed  of  rushes  I  had  seen  him  in  ;  the  mud  below, 
and  for  some  distance  round,  was  quite  bare  and  hard,  so  that  it  would  have 
been  impossible  for  the  bird  to  escape  without  being  perceived  ;  and  yet,  dead 
or  alive,  he  was  not  to  be  found.  After  vainly  searching  and  re-searching 
through  the  rushes  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  I  gave  over  the  quest  in  great 
disgust  and  bewilderment,  and,  after  reloading,  was  just  turning  to  go,  when, 
behold  !  there  stood  my  Heron  on  a  reed,  no  more  than  eight  inches  from, 
and  on  a  level  with,  my  knees.  He  was  perched,  the  body  erect,  and  the 
point  of  the  tail  touching  the  reed  grasped  by  its  feet,  the  long,  slender, 
tapering  neck  was  held  stiff,  straight,  and  vertically ;  and  the  head  and  beak, 
instead  of  being  carried  obliquely,  were  also  pointing  up.  There  was  not, 
from  his  feet  to  the  tip  of  his  beak,  a  perceptible  curve  or  inequality,  but 
the  whole  was  the  figure  (the  exact  counterpart)  of  a  straight,  tapering  rush  ; 
the  loose  plumage  arranged  to  fill  inequalities,  and  the  wings  pressed  into 
the  hollow  sides,  made  it  impossible  to  see  where  the  body  ended  and  the 
neck  began,  or  to  distinguish  hea-d  from  neck  or  beak  from  head.  This  was, 
of  course,  a  front  view  ;  and  the  entire  under-surface  of  the  bird  was  thus 
displayed  all  of  a  uniform  dull  yellow,  like  that  of  a  faded  rush.  I  regarded 
the  bird  wonderingly  for  some  time,  but  not  the  least  motion  did  it  make.  I 
thought  it  was  wounded  or  paralysed  with  fear,  and,  placing  my  hand  on  the 
point  of  its  beak,  forced  the  head  down  till  it  touched  the  back  ;  when  I 
withdrew  my  hand,  up  flew  the  head,  like  a  steel  spring,  to  its  first  position. 
I  repeated  the  experiment  many  times  with  the  same  result,  the  very  eyes  of 
the  bird  appearing  all  the  time  rigid  and  unwinking,  like  those  of  a  creature 
in  a  fit.  What  wonder  that  it  is  so  difficult — almost  impossible — to  discover  the 
bird  in  such  an  attitude.  But  how  happened  it  that,  while  repeatedly  walking 
round  the  bird  through  the  rushes,  I  had  not  caught  sight  of  the  striped  back 
and  the  broad,  dark-coloured  sides?  I  asked  myself  this  question,  and  stepped 
round  to  get  a  side  view,  when,  mirdbile  didu,  I  could  still  see  nothing  but  the 
rush-like  front  of  the  bird.  His  motions  on  the  perch  as  he  turned  slowly 
or  quickly  round,  still  keeping  the  edge  of  the  blade-like  body  before  me, 
corresponded  so  exactly  with  my  own  that  I  almost  doubted  that  I  had 
moved  at  all.  No  sooner  had  I  seen  the  finishing  part  of  this  marvellous 
instinct  of  self-preservation  (this  last  act  -making  the  whole  complete),  than 
such  a  degree  of  delight  and  admiration  possessed  me  as  I  have  never  before 
experienced  during  my  researches,  much  as  I  have  conversed  with  wild 
animals  in  the  wilderness,  and  many  and  perfect  as  are  the  instances  of 
adaptation  I  have  witnessed.  I  could  not  finish  admiring,  and  thought  that 
never  had  anything  so  beautiful  fallen  in  my  way  before,  for  even  the  sublime 
cloud-seeking  instinct  of  the  White  Egret  and  the  typical  Herons  seemed 
less  admirable  than  this,  and  for  some  time  I  continued  experimenting, 
pressing  down  the  bird's  head  and  trying  to  bend  him  by  main  force  into 


286  A  VES— ORDER  ARDEIFORMES. 


some  other  position  ;  but  the  strange  rigidity  remained  unrelaxed,  the  fixed 
attitude  unchanged.  I  also  found,  as  I  walked  round  him,  that  as  soon  as  I 
got  to  the  opposite  side,  and  he  could  no  longer  twist  himself  on  his  perch, 
he  whirled  his  body  with  great  rapidity  the  other  way,  instantly  presenting 
the  same  front  as  before. 

"  Finally  I  plucked  him  forcibly  from  the  rush  and  perched  him  on  my 
hand,  upon  which  he  flew  away  ;  but  he  flew  only  fifty  or  sixty  yards  off,  and 
dropped  into  the  dry  grass.  Here  he  again  put  in  practice  the  same  instinct 
so  ably,  that  I  groped  about  for  ten  or  twelve  minutes  before  refinding  him, 
and  was  astonished  that  a  creature,  to  all  appearance  so  weak  and  frail, 
should  have  strength  and  endurance  sufficient  to  keep  its  body  rigid  and  in 
one  attitude  for  so  long  a  time." 

This  habit  of  concealing  themselves  among  surroundings  to  which  their 
plumage  assimilates  in  colour  seems  to  be  a  characteristic  of  all  the  Bitterns, 
as  I  have  seen  our  Common  Bittern  (  Botaitriis  stellftris)  attempting  to  perform 
this  feat  in  an  aviary,  and  the  Tiger  Bitterns  (Tigrisoma)  also  remain  in  a 
rigid  position  for  hours  together. 

It  should  be  mentioned  that  nearly  all  the  Herons  lay  eggs  of  a  beautiful 
greenish-blue  colour,  while  those  of  many  of  the  Bitterns  are  white,  and 
that  of  the  Common  Bittern  is  yellowish  brown. 

Although  agreeing  with  the  Storks  in  the  form  of  the  furcula,  the  members 

of  this  sub-order  differ  from  them  and  from  the  Herons  in  several  important 

osteological    characters,    the    principal    one    being    the 

The  Spoon-bills       schizorhinal  or  "split"  nostril.     The  Spoon-bills  are  such 

and  Ibises. — Sub-     extraordinary  looking  birds,  that  there  is  no  possibility  of 

order  Platalece.       their  being  mistaken  for  any  of  the  other  long-legged 

Herons  or  Storks,  from  all  of  which  they  are  distinguished 

by  their  flattened  and  spoon-shaped  bill.     They  are  found  in  nearly  every 

part  of  the  globe,  but  do  not  extend  very  far  north,  and   six  species  are 

known,  viz.,  four  species  of  Platalece,  one  of 
Platibis,  confined  to  Australia,  and  one  of 
Ajaja,  viz.,  the  Rosy  Spoon-bill  of  the  New 
World  (Ajaja  ojaja). 

The  Common  Spoon-bill  used  to  breed  in  the 
marshes  of  our  eastern  counties,  but  has  not 
been  known  to  do  so  for  the  last  three  hundred 
years.  Now  the  species  is  only  an  accidental 
visitor,  but  it  still  nests  on  the  Horster  Meer 
in  Holland,  where  its  breeding  places  are  strictly 
protected.  The  nests  are  made  of  dead  reeds 
lined  with  dry  grass,  and  are  placed  on  the 
tussocks  of  grass  with  a  few  sticks  as  a  founda- 
tion ;  a  few  nests  being  built  low  down  in  the 
alder  trees.  On  the  Danube  the  Spoon-bills 
nest  in  company  with  Egrets  and  other  Herons, 
Fig.  46.-THR  COMMON  SPOON-BILI,  and  the  following  interesting  account  of  a  visit 
(Platalece  kucerodea),  to  one  of  these  breeding-places  is  given  in  Mr. 

Barkley's  work,  "Bulgaria   Before  the  War." 

He  found  a  colony  on  an  island  a  few  miles  below  Rustchuk,  and  he  describes 
the  scene  as  follows : — "  Pushing  our  small  boat  into  a  narrow  creek,  we  took 
off  our  shoes  and  stockings,  and,  turning  up  our  trousers,  picked  our  way 
through  the  tangled  boughs  in  the  direction  of  the  sound,  which  evidently 


SPOON-BILLS—IBISES.  287 


proceeded  from  the  centre  of  the  island,  and  I  shall  not  easily  forget  the 
sight  we  beheld  when  we  reached  it. 

"  There,  on  the  pressed-down  boughs  of  the  willows,  only  a  few  feet  above 
the  water,  were  hundreds  of  great  flat  nests  of  the  various  kinds  of  Herons, 
Spoon-bills,  Egrets,  Bitterns,  etc.,  all  huddled  together  in  one  confused 
mass,  and  the  entire  colony  reeking  with  the  most  indescribably  filthy 
smell. 

"It  was  rather  late  for  eggs,  as  most  of  them  were  hatched  off;  but  was 
just  the  time  to  observe  the  doings  of  the  children  of  these  sedate,  quiet, 
peaceful-looking  birds,  and  I  must  say  that  I  never  yet  beheld  such  a  collec- 
tion of  little  fiends,  nor  a  more  hideous  set. 

'k  Their  bodies  were  of  the  smallest  proportions,  while  every  other  part  of 
them— their  wings,  legs,  necks,  and  beaks — were  of  the  longest.  Most  of 
them  had  no  feathers,  and  all  seemed  possessed  with  one  idea,  and  that  was 
either  to  limb  a  sraall  brother  or  swallow  him  whole,  and  all  kept  up  either 
a  shriek  of  fear  or  pain  or  a  yell  of  rage.  Floating  on  the  top  of  the  putrid 
water  were  masses  of  dead  birds,  some  with  legs  torn  off,  others  without 
heads  or  wings.  Most  of  them  were  dead,  but  others  were  dragging  their 
maimed  carcases  about  in  a  ghastly  manner.  So  intent  were  they  on  their 
fiendish  pastime  that  they  took  little  notice  of  us,  and  dragged  and  clawed 
themselves  about  after  their  weaker  brethren  at  our  very  feet,  whilst  the  old 
parent  bird  sat  looking  on  from  the  topmost  twigs  as  if  fratricide  were  the 
proper  moral  pastime  of  the  young.  A  big  Spoon-bill  would  chase  a  small 
Egret  from  bough  to  bough  till  at  last  he  tired  it  out,  and  then  seizing  it 
with  one  claw,  would  take  hold  of  its  leg  or  wing  and  tear  it  from  the  poor 
victim,  or  else,  getting  its  head  in  its  m<~'uth,  would  try  to  swallow  it  whole, 
and  gulp  and  gulp  till  so  much  of  the  little  one  was  down  its  throat  that  it 
was  itself  choked,  and  would  turn  over  on  its  back,  kicking  and  struggling, 
to  be  in  turn  seized  by  a  brother  and  torn  limb  from  limb. 

"All  uttered  up  some  hideous  scream,  and  all  kept  clambering  and 
dragging  themselves  about  from  bough  to  bough,  either  hunting  or  being 
hunted,  and  from  what  we  saw  I  am  sure  that  nine-tenths  of  all  hatched  in 
that  colony  came  to  an  untimely  end  before  they  could  fly.  We  did  not  stay 
long  to  watch  them,  but  quickly  securing  some  eggs  from  the  few  nests  that 
were  not  hatched  off  we  beat  a  retreat,  with  our  opinions  of  the  beautiful, 
gentle-looking  birds  greatly  changed." 

The  Ibises  are  easily  distinguished  from  the  Spoon-bills  by  the  shape  of 
their  bills,  which  are  long  and  curved,  and  have  the  nasal  groove  extending 
nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  bill,  which  is  soft,  except- 
ing at  the  extreme  tip.     The  bill  in  some  of  the  Ibises         The  Ibises.— 
is  indeed  very  like  that  of  a  Curlew  (Numenius),  and  one       Family  Ibidida. 
genus  of  the  Charadrii formes,  Ibidorliynchus,  is  so  like  an 
Ibis,  that  externally  its  characters  would  ally  it  to  the  latter  group  of  birds 
rather  than  to  the  Waders,  to  which,  as   its   internal  Etructure  shows,  it 
actually  belongs. 

The  most  interesting  of  all  the  Ibises  is  undoubtedly  the  Sacred  Ibis  of  the 
Egyptians.  As  the  ancient  paintings  show,  the  bird  was  a  great  feature  in 
Egyptian  life,  and  the  mummies  of  these  birds  which  are  found  in  the 
temples  show  that  it  was  regarded  with  great  veneration  by  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  The  species  still  inhabits  the  Upper  Nile  regions,  and  many 
writers  state  that  it  is  never  found  in  Egypt  at  the  present  day.  This, 
however,  is  not  the  case,  as  the  British  Museum  has  several  specimens 


288 


A  VES— ORDER  PHCENICOPTERIFORMES. 


Fiij.  47.— THK  SACRBD  IEIS 
(Ibis  cethiopica). 


procured  in  Egypt,   one  of  them  having   been  shot  near  Damietta  about 
twelve  years  ago.     We  know  ako  that  the  species  extends  to  the  Persian 
Gulf,   its  winter    home   being   in   Eastern   and 
Southern  Africa. 

There  are  no  less  than  twenty  different  genera 
of  Ibises,  and  many  of  them  are  remarkable  for 
highly  developed  crests  and  ornamental  plumes, 
while  in  the  Sacred  Ibis  and  its  allies  the  head 
and  neck  are  bare.  The  Glossy  Ibises  (Plegadis) 
are  among  the  commonest  and  best  known  of  the 
whole  family,  as  one  of  them,  P.  falcinellus,  has 
visited  England  on  many  occasions.  This  species 
breeds  in  numbers  on  the  marshes  of  the  lower 
Danube,  as  well  as  in  similar  places  in  Africa 
and  India,  and  the  egg  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  of  any  of  the  Heron-like  birds,  being 
of  a  deep  greenish-blue,  darker  and  richer  in 
tint  than  the  eggs  of  any  species  of  Herons. 

We  now  approach  the  great  group  of  swimming 
birds,  such  as  the  Ducks,  the  Pelicans,  and  their 
allies ;  but,  before  arriving  at  the  consideration 

of  these  well-marked  orders,  there  intervenes  a  remarkable 

The  Flamingoes.—    form  of  bird>  the  Flamingo.     In  its  long  legs  and  long 

Order  neck  it  might  well  be  taken  for  a  kind  of  Heron  or  Stork ; 

Phcenicopteri-        and,   indeed,   until    recent   years,   the    position  of    the 
formes.  Flamingoes  was  considered  to  be  in  close  proximity  to 

the  last-named   birds.     They  are,  however,  more  nearly 
allied  to   the   Ducks  and  Geese,   having  a  desmognathous  or   "bridged" 
palate  ;  while  the  young  are  hatched  covered  with  down,  and  are  able  to  run 
about  in  a  few  hours  and  obtain  food  for  them- 
selves.    These  features  they  possess  in  common 
with  the  Ducks  and  Geese  and  the  Screamers, 
and  these  three  groups  were  united  by  Huxley 
into  one  natural  order,  Chenomorphce. 

The  Flamingoes  resemble  the  Ducks  and 
Geese  in  having  the  sides  of  the  bill  laminated, 
an  arrangement  which  enables  them  to  sift  their 
food  in  the  way  which  every  one  of  our  readers 
must  have  seen  tame  Ducks  do  in  a  farmyard  or 
on  a  lake.  Besides  many  osteological  characters, 
the  Flamingoes  present  an  external  appearance 
unique  among  birds.  The  legs  are  abnormally 
long,  the  metatarsus  being  three  times  as 
long  as  the  femur,  and  the  anterior  toes  fully 
webbed.  The  neck  is  also  extremely  long,  the 
cervical  vertebrae  being  eighteen  or  nineteen  in 
number.  The  bill  is  decurved  in  a  remarkable 
manner ;  but  in  the  nestling,  which  is  covered 
with  greyish-white  down,  the  bill  is  straight, 
as  in  any  other  Duck-like  bird. 

The  most  curious  feature  in  the  economy  of  the  Flamingo  is  its  nest,  which 
is  built  of  mud.     For  a  long  time  it  was  supposed  that  the  birds  sat  upon 


Fig.  48.— TriF!  COMMON  FLAMINGO 
(Phoenieopterus  roseuti). 


FLAMINGOES.  289 


their  single  egg,  with  the  legs  straddled  on  each  side  of  them.  This  idea 
was,  however,  dissipated  by  Mr.  Abel  Chapman  in  1883,  when  he  visited  the 
Marismas  of  the  Guadalquivir,  in  Spain,  and  found  out  the  nesting  habits  of 
the  Flamingo.  He  writes  : — "One  cannot  go  far  into  the  Marisma  without 
seeing  that  extraordinary  fowl  the  Flamingo,  certainly  the  most  characteristic 
bird  of  the  wilderness.  In  herds  of  300  to  500,  several  of  which  are  often 
in  sight  at  once,  they  stand  feeding  in  the  open  water,  all  their  heads  under, 
greedily  tearing  up  the  grasses  and  water-plants  from  the  bottom.  On 
approaching  them,  which  can  only  be  done  by  extreme  caution,  their  silence 
is  first  broken  by  the  sentries,  who  commence  walking  away  with  low  croaks, 
then  the  whole  five  hundred  necks  rise  at  once  to  the  full  extent,  every  bird 
gaggling  his  loudest  as  they  walk  obliquely  away,  looking  back  over  their 
shoulders  as  though  to  take  stock  of  the  extent  of  the  danger.  Pushing  <a 
few  yards  forward,  up  they  all  rise,  and  a  more  beautiful  sight  cannot  be 
imagined  than  the  simultaneous  spreading  of  their  thousand  crimson  wings, 
flashing  against  the  sky  like  a  gleam  of  rosy  light.  Then  one  descends  to 
the  practical,  and  a  volley  of  slugs  cuts  a  lane  through  their  phalanx. 

"In  many  respects  these  birds  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  Geese.  Like 
them  Flamingoes  feed  by  day,  and  great  quantities  of  grass,  etc.,  are 
always  floating  about  the  muddy  water  where  a  herd  has  been  feeding. 
Their  cry  is  almost  indistinguishable  from  the  gaggling  of  "Geese,  and  they 
fly  in  the  same  catenanan  formations.  In  size  Flamingoes  vary  greatly. 
The  largest  I  have  measured  was  fully  6  ft.  5  in.,  whilst  others  (old  red  birds) 
barely  reached  5  ft."  He  thus  describes  the  finding  of  the  nests: — "On 
reaching  the  spot  we  found  a  perfect  mass  of  nests  ;  the  low  mud  plateau 
was  crowded  with  them  as  thickly  as  the  space  permitted.  These  nests  had 
little  or  no  height ;  some  were  raised  2  or  3  in. ,  a  few  might  be  5  or  6  in. ; 
but  the  majority  were  merely  circular  bulwarks  of  mud,  with  the  impression 
of  the  bird's  legs  distinctly  marked  on  it.  The  general  aspect  of  the  plateau 
was  not  unlike  a  large  table  covered  with  plates.  In  the  centre  was  a  deep 
hole  full  of  muddy  water,  which,  from  the  'gouged'  appearance  of  its  sides, 
appeared  to  be  used  as  a  reservoir  for  nest-making  materials.  Scattered  all 
round  this  main  colony  were  numerous  single  nests  rising  out  of  the  water, 
and  evidently  built  up  from  the  bottom.  Here  and  there  two  or  three  or 
more  of  these  were  joined  together — 'semi-detached,'  so  to  speak.  These 
separate  nests  rose  6  or  8  in.  above  the  water  level,  and  were  about  15  in. 
across.  The  water  was  about  12  or  15  in.  deep.  None  of  these  nests 
as  yet  contained  eggs,  and  though  I  returned  to  the  '  pajarera '  on  the  latest 
day  I  was  in  its  neighbourhood  (llth  May),  they  still  remained  empty.  On 
both  occasions  many  hundreds  of  Flamingoes  were  sitting  on  the  nests,  and  on 
the  llth  we  had  a  good  view  of  them  at  close  quarters.  Linked  arm  in  arm 
with  Felipe,  and  crouching  low  in  the  water,  to  look  as  little  human  as 
possible,  we  approached  within  some  70  yds.  before  their  sentries  showed 
signs  of  alarm,  and,  at  that  distance,  we  observed  the  sitting  birds  as  distinctly 
as  one  need  wish.  Their  long  red  legs  doubled  under  their  bodies,  the  knees 
projecting  as  far  as,  or  beyond,  the  tail,  and  their  graceful  necks  neatly 
curled  away  among  their  back  feathers,  like  a  sitting  swan,  with  their  heads 
resting  on  their  breasts — all  these  points  were  unmistakable.  Indeed,  it  is 
hardly  necessary  to  point  out  that  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  (the  nest 
being  hardly  raised  above  the  level  of  the  flat  mud)  no  other  position  was 
possible." 

Of  Flamingoes  six  species  are  known,  and  they  are  found  in  the  temperate 
20 


290 


A  VES— ORDER  ANSERIFORMES. 


and  tropical  portions  of  both  the  Old  and  New  Worlds.  Three  species  belong 
to  the  genus  Phcenicopterus — Phceniconaias  has  one  species,  P.  minor,  found  in 
Africa  and  North- Western  India  ;  and  Phcenicoparrus  inhabits  the  Andes  of 
Chili  and  Peru  and  has  two  species,  P.  andinus  and  P.  jamesi. 

In  Miocene  times  several  forms  of  birds  allied  to  the  Flamingoes  existed 
in  Europe,  and  have  been  classed  by  Mr.  Lydekker  under  the  extinct  genus 
Palceolodus.  He  states  that  they  were  smaller  than  the  Flamingoes  of  the 
present  day,  and  had  shorter  and  stouter  legs,  while  it  is  probable  also  that 
their  bill  was  not  deflected. 

Although  agreeing  in  many  characters  with  the  Ducks  and  the  Geese,  the 
Screamers  have  one  peculiarity  which  separates  them  from  all  chenomorphine 
birds,  in  that  they  have  no  uncinate  processes  to  the  ribs, 
The  Screamers.—     and  no  laminae  on.  the  sides  of  the  bill.     The  toes  are  long 
Sub-order  and  almost  devoid  of  web,  and  the  general  appearance  of 

Palamedea.  the    birds    is    gallinaceous.       Two    genera    are   known, 

Palamedea  and  Chauna.  The  genus  Palamedea  is  recog- 
nised by  the  long  horn  which  it  carries  on  its  forehead.  Beyond  this  it  has 
no  crest  on  the  head,  and  has  fourteen  tail-feathers.  Only  one  species. 
P.  cornnta,  is  known,  and  this  is  an 
inhabitant  of  Guiana,  Amazonia,  Vene- 
zuela, Ecuador,  and  Bolivia.  The  general 
plumage  is  black,  with  a  white  belly, 
and  the  wing  carries  two  spurs,  the 
anterior  one  of  which  is  much  the 
longer.  Very  little  has  been  recorded 
of  the  habits  of  the  Horned  Screamer, 
but  Mr.  Edward  Bartlett  noticed  the 
species  about  the  lakes  in  the  Upper 
Amazons,  and  the  habits  are  probably 
very  similar  to  those  of  the  next  species. 

The  genus  Chauna  differs  from  Pala- 
medea in  having  a  crested  head,  naked 
lores,  no  horn  on  the  forehead,  and  in 

possessing  twelve  tail-feathers  instead  of  fourteen.     Two 

The  Crested  species   of    Chauna    are  known — the   Crested   Screamer 

Screamer  (C.    cristata)   and  the  Derbian   Screamer   (C.   chavaria). 

(Chauna  cristate).      The   latter   is  found  in  Venezuela  and  Colombia,  while 
the  Crested  Screamer  inhabits  Argentina  and  the  neigh- 
bouring provinces  of  Southern  Brazil.     In  Mr.  Hudson's  well-known  work 
on  Argentine  ornithology  we  find  the  following  notes  on  the  species  : — 

"The  Crested  Screamer,  like  most  of  the  larger  Birds  and  Mammals  in 
every  part  of  the  globe  to  which  European  emigration  is  attracted,  is 
probably  doomed  to  rapid  extermination.  My  observations  of  the  bird  in 
that  portion  of  the  Pampas  where  it  is  most  abundant  date  back  some  years, 
to  a  time  when  the  inhabitants  were  few  and  mainly  of  Spanish  race— never 
the  destroyers  of  bird-life.  The  conditions  had  become  extremely  favourable 
to  this  species.  It  is  partially  aquatic  in  its  habits,  and  in  desert  places  is 
usually  found  in  marshes,  wading  in  the  shallow  water,  and  occasionally 
swimming  to  feed  on  the  seeds  and  succulent  leaves  of  water-loving  plants. 
After  the  old  giant  grasses  of  the  Pampas  had  been  eaten  up  by  the  cattle, 
and  the  sweet  grasses  of  Europe  had  taken  their  place,  the  Screamers  took 
kindly  to  that  new  food,  preferring  the  clovers,  and  seemed  as  terrestrial  in 


Fig.  49. — TUB  HORNKB  SCREAMER 
(Palamedea  co/nuta). 


SCREAMERS.  291 


their  feeding  habits  as  Upland  Geese.  Their  food  was  abundant,  and  they 
were  never  persecuted:  by  the  natives.  Their  flesh  is  very  dark,  coarse- 
grained, but  good  to  eat,  with  a  flavour  resembling  that  of  the  Wild  Duck  ; 
and  there  is  a  great  deal  of  meat  on  a  bird  with  a  body  larger  than  that  of  a 
Swan.  Yet  no  person  ever  thought  of  killing  or  eating  the  Chaja,  and  the  birds 
were  permitted  to  increase  to  a  marvellous  extent.  It  was  a  common  thing 
a  few  years  ago  in  the  dry  season  to  see  them  congregated  in  thousands,  and 
so  little  afraid  of  man  were  they,  that  I  have  often  ridden  through  large 
scattered  flocks  without  making  the  birds  take  wing.  A  curious  thing  about 
the  Screamer  is  that  it  pairs  for  life,  and  yet  is  one  of  the  most  social  of  birds. 
But  if  a  large  flock  is  closely  looked  at,  the  birds  are  invariably  seen 
methodically  ranged  in  pairs.  Another  curious  thing  is  that,  notwithstanding 
the  formidable  weapons  they  possess — each  wing  armed  with  two  large  spurs 
— they  are  extremely  pacific  in  temper.  I  have  never  been  able  to  detect 
even  the  slightest  approach  to  a  quarrel  among  them  ;  yet  it  is  hard  to 
believe  that  they  do  not  fight  sometimes,  since  weapons  of  offence  are 
usually  found  correlated  with  the  disposition  to  use  them.  Captive  birds, 
however,  can  be  made  to  fight ;  and  I  have  known  Guachos  take  them  for  the 
pleasure  of  witnessing  their  battles.  They  are  very  easily  tamed,  and  in  that 
state  seem  to  show  greater  docility  and  intelligence  than  any  of  our  domestic 
birds,  and  become  so  attached  to  their  home  that  it  is  quite  safe  to  allow 
them  to  fly  about  at  will.  They  associate,  but  do  not  quarrel,  with  the 
poultry.  They  are  quick  to  distinguish  strangers  from  the  people  of  the 
house,  showing  considerable  suspicion  of  them,  and  sometimes  raising  a  loud 
alarm  at  a  stranger's  approach.  Towards  dogs  and  cats  they  are  often 
unfriendly  ;  and  when  breeding  it  is  dangerous  for  a  strange  person  to 
approach  the  nest,  as  they  will  sometimes  attack  him  with  the  greatest  fury. 

"  The  Screamer  is  a  very  heavy  bird,  and  rises  from  the  ground  laboriously, 
the  wings,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Swan,  making  a  loud  noise.  Nevertheless, 
it  loves  soaring,  and  will  rise  in  an  immense  spiral  circle  until  it  wholly 
disappears  from  sight  in  the  zenith,  even  in  the  brightest  weather  ;  and 
considering  its  great  bulk  and  dark  colour,  the  height  it  ultimately  attains 
must  be  very  great.  On  sunny  windless  days,  especially  in  winter  and 
spring,  they  often  spend  hours  at  a  time  in  these  sublime  aerial  exercises, 
slowly  floating  round  and  round  in  vast  circles,  and  singing  at  intervals. 
How  so  heavy  and  comparatively  short-winged  a  bird  can  sustain  itself  for 
such  long  periods  in  the  thin  upper  air  to  which  it  rises  has  not  yet  been 
explained.  The  voice  is  very  powerful.  When  disturbed,  or  when  the  nest 
is  approached,  both  birds  utter  at  intervals  a  loud  alarm-cry,  resembling  in 
sound  the  anger-cry  of  the  Peacock,  but  twice  as  loud.  At  other  times  its 
voice  is  exercised  in  a  kind  of  singing  performance,  in  which  male  and  female 
join,  and  which  produces  the  effect  of  harmony.  The  male  begins,  the 
female  takes  up  her  part,  and  then  with  marvellous  strength  and  spirit  they 
pour  forth  a  torrent  of  strangely-contrasted  sounds — some  bassoon-like  in 
their  depth  and  volume,  some  like  drum-beats,  and  others  long,  clear,  and 
ringing.  It  is  the  loudest  animal  sound  of  the  Pampas,  and  its  jubilant 
martial  character  strongly  affects  the  mind  in  that  silent,  melancholy 
wilderness.  The  Screamer  sings  all  the  year  round  at  all  hours,  both  on  the 
ground  and  when  soaring;  when  in  pairs,  the  two  birds  invariably  sing 
together,  and  when  in  flocks  they  sing  in  concert.  At  night  they  are  heard 
about  nine  o'clock  in  the  evening,  and  again  just  before  dawn.  It  is  not 
unusual,  however,  to  hear  them  singing  at  other  hours.  The  nest  is  a  large 


292  A  VES— ORDER  ANSERIFORMES. 


fabric  placed  among  the  low  rushes  and  water-lilies,  and  is  sometimes  seen 
floating  on  the  water,  away  from  its  moorings.  The  eggs  are  five,  pointed  at 
one  end,  pure  white,  and  in  size  like  the  eggs  of  the  domestic  Goose.  The 
young  are  clothed  in  yellow  down  like  Goslings,  and  follow  the  parents  about 
from  the  date  of  hatching." 

Mr.  Lydekker,  when  in  Argentina,  found  the  Screamer  nesting  on  a 
lagoon,  and  saw  the  parent  birds  swimming  about  amongst  the  Ducks. 
On  his  approach  they  fled  to  the  banks,  but  soon  returned  to  the  water. 
They  had  evidently  young  birds  on  the  lagoon.  This  aquatic  feature  in  the 
Screamers  is  of  the  highest  interest,  as  confirming  the  anserine  affinities 
which  their  anatomy  demonstrates. 

These  well-known  birds  are  easily  recognised  by  their  external  characters, 

their  semi-flattened  bills,  shortish  legs,  and  fully-webbed 

The  Geese  and       feet    distinguishing    them     from     the     Screamers    and 

Ducks.— Sub-         Flamingoes,    while,   like    the    latter    birds,    they    have 

order  Anseres.         uncinated  processes  to  the  ribs.      Count  Salvador!,  who 

has  recently  monographed  the  sub-order  Anseres  in  the 

" Catalogue"  of  the  Birds  in  the  British  Museum,  divides  it  into  no  less  than 

eleven  sub-families  belonging  to  the  single  family  Anatidce.     To  these  we 

can  only  refer  in  passing. 

The  Swans  a.re  such  well-known  birds  that  very  little  description  of  them 

is  necessary.     Among  the  Duck  tribe  they  are  easily  recognisable  by  their 

abnormally  developed  neck,  which  equals,  or  even  exceeds, 

The  Swans.—        the  body  of  the  bird  in  length.     There  is  no  lobe  to  the 

Sub-family  hind  toe,  a  feature  which  allies  the  Swans  to  the  Geese, 

Cygnince.  but   separates   them  from   the   majority  of   the   Ducks. 

There  are  three  genera  of  Swans,  viz.,  Cygnus,  containing 

the  Swans  with  which  we  are  most  familiar  ;  Chenopis,  the  Black  Swan  of 

Australia,  with  ornamental  scapulars  a"nd  inner  secondaries  ;  and  Coscoroba, 

the  Chilian  Swan,  which  has  feathered  lobes,  and  is  as  much  a  Goose  in 

appearance  as  it  is  a  Swan  in  reality. 

The  Mute  Swan  is  the  familiar  species  which  swims  about  on  our  rivers 
and  lakes.  In  most  parts  of  the  British  Islands  the  Swan  may  be  regarded 

as  a  semi  domesticated  bird, 
but  in  many  places  on  the 
Continent  it  is  an  absolutely 
wild  species.  It  is  to  this 
Swan  that  the  Polish  Swan 
(Cygnus  immutabilis),  with  its 
white  cygnets,  must  be  re- 
ferred, as  Count  Salvador!, 
and  all  the  best  of  recent 
observers,  consider  ifc  to  be 
only  a  domestic  variety  of 
the  Mute  Swan.  Othor  well- 
known  species  of  Cygnus  are 
the  Whooper  (C.  musicus) 

Fig.  50.-THK  MUTB  SWAN  (Cygnus  olor).  and      Bewick's      Swan      (C. 

bewicki),     the      latter     bird 

nesting  in  Arctic  Europe,  where  it  makes  a  large  nest  composed  entirely  of 
moss.  It  visits  us  in  some  numbers  during  the  winter  months.  These 
British  species  of  Swans  are  distinguished  by  the  size  and  the  colour  of  their 


SWANS-SPUR-WINGED  GEESE.  293 


bills.  Australia  has  one  species,  the  Black  Swan  (Chenopis  atrata),  and 
finally  we  have  the  Coscoroba  Swan  (Coscoroba  Candida)  which  is  found  from 
Chili  and  Patagonia  to  Argentina  and  Uruguay.  Of  this  species  Mr.  W.  H. 
Hudson  writes : — "In  their  habits,  language,  and  flight  they  differ  much  from 
the  Black-necked  Swan,  and  the  country  people  call  them  Ganso  (Goose), 
probably  on  account  of  their  Goose-like  habit  of  sometimes  feeding  away 
from  the  water,  or  because  their  flesh  has  the  flavour  of  Wild  Goose.  As  a 
rule,  they  go  in  small  parties  of  five  or  six  individuals,  but  sometimes  flocks 
numbering  two  or  three  hundred  are  seen  in  the  cold  season.  Their 
migrations  are  very  irregular,  and  sometimes  they  are  exceedingly  abundant 
in  a  certain  district  one  year  and  absent  from  it  the  next.  When  disturbed 
they  utter  a  loud,  musical,  trumpeting  cry  in  three  notes,  the  last  with  a 
falling  inflection  ;  and,  their  wings  being  much  longer  proportionately  than 
in  the  black-necked  species,  they  rise  with  greater  ease,  and  have  a  much 
freer  and  an  almost  soundless  flight." 

The  Semipalmated  Goose  (Anseranas  semipalmata)  is  the  sole  representative 
of  a  distinct  sub-family  Anseranatinw,  with  the  toes  only  half- webbed,  and 
the  hind  toe  very  long,  and  on  a  level  with  the  other  toes.  It  is  an  inhabitant 
of  Australia  and  Tasmania,  and  is  still  plentiful  in  some  districts,  though  it 
has  disappeared  from  many  places  where  it  once  was  numerous.  Gould  says 
that,  in  Northern  Australia  "it  occurs  in  such  countless  multitudes  that  it 
forms  one  of  the  chief  articles  of  food  of  the  aborigines,  and  was  of  the 
utmost  value  to  Leichardt  and  his  party  during  their  adventurous 
journey  from  Moreton  Bay  to  Port  Essington,  as  shown  in  numerous  parts 
of  his  interesting  account  of  the  expedition.  So  dense  are  the  flocks  that 
occur  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  country,  that  the  natives  are  able  to 
procure  numbers  of  them  by  spearing,"  and,  says  Leichardt,  "it  seemed 
that  they  only  spear  them  when  flying,  and  always  crouch  down  when  they 
see  a  flight  of  them  approaching  ;  the  Geese,  however,  know  their  enemies  so 
well  that  they  immediately  turn  when  they  see  a  native  rise  and  put  his  spear 
into  his  throwing-stick  ;  some  of  my  companions-asserted  that  they  had  seen 
them  hit  their  object  at  the  almost  incredible  distance  of  200  yds." — an 
assertion  which  Gould  says  he  could  readily  believe,  from  what  he  has 
himself  witnessed.  This  Goose  has  a  very  remarkable  trachea,  nearly  5  in. 
in  length,  and  mostly  lying  outside  the  pectoral  muscle  under  the  skin. 

The  next  sub-family  of  the  Geese  consists  of  the  Spur- winged  Geese  (sub- 
family Plectropterince),  and  several  allied  forms.  They  have  fully  webbed 
feet,  a  very  long  hind  toe,  and  long  tail-feathers.  The  true  Spur-winged 
Geese  (Plectropterus)  have  the  lores  naked  and  caruncles  on  the  forehead  and 
base  of  the  bill,  while  on  the  wing  they  carry  a  formidable  spur,  from  which 
feature  they  derive  their  popular  name.  There  are  four  species  of  Spur- 
winged  Geese,  all  confined  to  Africa,  admitted  by  Count  Salvadori,  the  best 
authority  on  the  Anseres,  but  even  he  is  obliged  to  allow  that  there  may 
really  exist  but  a  single  species  after  all. 

Only  one  other  genus  with  bare  lores  and  caruncles  on  the  face  is  known, 
and  this  is  the  genus  Cairina,  with  the  single  species  G.  moschata,  the 
Muscovy  Duck  of  Tropical  America.  Another  prominent  form  of  the 
Plectropterince  is  the  Knobbed  Goose  (Sarcidiornis),  of  which  there  are  two 
species,  S.  melanonota  of.  India  and  Africa,  and  $.  carunculata  of  Southern 
Brazil  and  Argentina. 

We  remember  seeing  the  "Comb  Duck,"  as  Indian  naturalists  call  the 
Indian  Sarcidiornis,  on  one  occasion  during  our  journey  through  the 


294  A  VES— ORDER  ANSERIFORMES. 


North-West  Provinces,  and  that  was  at  Futtehpur  Sikri,  near  Agra,  where  a 
male  was  perched  on  the  lofty  entrance  gateway.  The  testimony  of  Mr..  A. 
O.  Hume  and  other  Indian  naturalists  is  to  the  effect  that  the  "Co-mb 
Duck  "  breeds  principally  in  trees,  and  the  la*te  Mr.  A.  Anderson  states  that 
the  eggs  are  generally  to  be  found  in  holes  of  old  desiduous  trees,  but  he  has 
also  found  the  birds  frequenting  old  ruined  forts.  He  says: — "I  was 
present  at  the  capture  of  a  female  Nukta  on  her  nest,  which  yielded  the 
extraordinary  number  of  forty  eggs.  Of  course  it  is  just  possible, 
though  highly  improbable,  that  this  may  have  been  the  joint  produce  of  two 
birds  ;  but  the  emaciated  condition  of  the  one  captured,  coupled  with  the 
fact  that  one  egg  was  an  abnormally  small  one,  and  evidently  her  last  effort, 
does  not  favour  the  supposition.  The  tree  selected  was  an  ancient  banyan 
(Ficus  indicus),  which  overlooked  a  large  sheet  of  water  several  miles  round. 
The  nest-hole  was  at  an  elevation  of  some  20  ft.,  3  ft.  deep  and  2  in 
circumference."  One  of  the  genera  of  the  Plectropterince  is  a  very  interesting 
form,  viz.,  the  Pink-headed  Duck  (Rhodonessa  caryophyllacea).  The  appear- 
ance of  a  delicate  pink  head  in  such  a  family  as  the  Anatidce.  is  one  of  the 
most  curious  phenomena  in  the  whole  class  of  birds.  Its  range  is  confined  to 
Behar  and  Bengal,  to  the  north  of  the  Ganges  and  west  of  the  Brahmapootra, 
whence  it  ranges  north  to  Nepal,  east  to  Burma,  and  south  to  Madras. 

Some  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  present  sub-family  are  the  Dwarf 
Geese  (Nettopus)  or  "Cotton-Teal,"  as  they  are  generally  called.  They  are 
little  Geese  of  about  the  size  of  a  Bantam  fowl,  only  found  in  the  tropics  of 
the  Old  World,  in  Africa,  India,  and  China,  and  thence  south  to  Australia. 
The  Indian  species,  N.  coromandelianus,  nests  generally  in  holes  of  trees,  but 
sometimes  it  is  said  to  make  "a  semi-floating  nest  on  the  water,  among  the 
rushes  or  lotus-leaves,  of  weeds,  grass,  etc  ,  all  together,  filled  up  several 
inches  above  the  water-line."  The  late  Mr.  A.  Anderson  observes : — "I  once 
had  the  opportunity  of  watching  a  pair  in  the  act  of  selecting  their  habitation. 
They  invariably  flew  into  the  tree  together ;  and  while  the  female  used  to 
enter  the  hole,  to  reconnoitre  as  it  were,  the  male  sat  on  a  bough  watching 
for  her  exit.  No  sooner  did  she  make  her  appearance  than  they  both  flew 
away  together,  giving  utterance  to  a  peculiar  cackling  sound,  which  has  been 
pronounced  to  be  like  the  words  'Fix  bayonets.'  Their  visits  used  to  be 
repeated  at  intervals  of  every  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes.  The  Drake  never 
went  into  the  hole  ;  and  I  am  therefore  inclined  to  believe  that  he  does  not 
lend  his  aid  in  the  performance  of  the  duties  of  incubation."  One  nest 
taken  by  Mr.  iSpry  at  Bredaon  in  August  contained  twelve  eggs.  It  was 
in  a  hole  at  no  great  height,  but  it  was  3^  ft.  deep,  and  only  large  enough  to 
admit  of  ingress  and  egress  ;  the  contents  had  to  be  removed  by  means  of  an 
iron  spoon,  something  like  a  soup-ladle  with  an  extra  long  handle. 

The  Summer  Duck  (^Ex  sponsa)  of  North  America,  and  the  beautiful 
Mandarin  Duck  (j*Ex  galericulata)  of  China  compose  the  g^enus  JEx,  which  is 
the  last  of  the  Plectropterince. 

The  genus  Cereopsis  is  the  sole  representative  of  this  sub-family,  and  is 

distinguished  by  its  shorter  hind  toe  and  shorter  tail-feathers.     The  bill  is 

high  at  the  base,  and  there  is  no  metallic  wing-speculum. 

The  C^eopsis  The  chief  peculiarity  of  the  Cereopsis  Goose  is  the  posses- 
Geese.— Sub-  sion  of  a  cere  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  which  character 
family  Cereopsinee.  separates  it  from  the  true  Geese.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of 
Australia,  and  is  often  seen  in  captivity  ;  and  it  has  been 
known  to  breed  in  our  Zoological  Gardens.  As  Mr.  Gould  says,  however,  it 


GEESE.  295 


is  by  no  means  a  desirable  addition  to  the  farmyard,  for  it  is  so  pugnacious 
that  it  not  only  drives  all  other  birds  before  it,  but  readily  attacks  pigs,  dogs, 
or  any  other  animal  that  may  approach  it,  and  often  inflicts  severe  wounds 
with  its  hard  and  sharp  bill. 

Remains  of  an  extinct  Goose  (Cnemiornis  calcitrans)  have  been  discovered 
in  New  Zealand,  and  Count  Salvadori  has  placed  it  in  the  vicinity  of  Cereopsis. 
It  was  a  larger  bird  than  the  latter,  and  was  apparently  flightless,  as  there  is 
no  keel  to  the  sternum. 

The  characters  of  this  sub-family  are  almost  exactly  the  same  as  those 
given  for  the  sub-family  Cereopsince,  excepting  that  there  is  no  cere. 
There  are  at  least  six  well-marked  genera,  of  which  the 

most  beautiful  are  perhaps  the  Snow- Geese  (Chen),  though     The  True  Geese. 

some  of  the  Brent  Geese  are  also  handsome  birds.     The  Sub-family  ' 

true  Geese  (Anser)  are  found  in  all  the  northern  parts  of  Anserine. 

the  Old  and  New  Worlds,  breeding  in  the  high  north,  and 
migrating  south  in  winter,  often  in  vast  numbers.  The  Grey  Geese  (Anser) 
are  nearly  all  of  them  British,  the  best-known  being  the  Grey  Lag-Goose 
(A.  anser\  the  White-fronted  Goose  (A,  albifrons),  the  Bean  Goose  (A. 
f'tbalis),  and  the  Pink-footed  Goose  (A.  brachyrhynchus).  All  the  true  Gsese 
have  the  serrations  or  saw-like  edges  of  the  upper  mandible  visible  from  the 
outside,  and  the  cutting  edge  of  the  mandible  is  sinuated,  whereas  in  the 
Brent  Geese  (Branta)  the  cutting  edge  is  straight,  and  the  serrations  are  not 
visible  from  the  outside. 

These  are,  like  the  True  Geese,  also  birds  of  the  Arctic  portions  of  the 
Old  and  New  Worlds,  where  they  breed  in  large  numbers ;   and,  as  they 
moult  their  quills  before  com- 
ing south,   they  are  trapped    The  Brent  Geese.— 
by  the  natives  in  numbers.        Qwcaa£ranfa. 
Mr.  Trevor- Battye  describes 
the  capture  of  more  than  three  thousand  Brent 
Geese  on  the  island  of  Kolguev,  the  birds  being 
driven  by  the  Samoyeds  in  boats  towards  the 
shore,  where  a  large  circle  of  net  is  prepared  for 
them,  and  the  birds  are  thus  trapped  and  killed. 
One  of  the  handsomest  of  the  Geese,  and, 
indeed,   of  all  water-fowl,   is  the  Red-breasted 
Goose  (Branta  ruficollis),  which  breeds  in  Siberia, 
winters  in  great  numbers  on  the  Caspian  Sea, 
and  has  occasionally  come  over  to  England.     It 
is  remarkable  for  having  been  drawn  on  their 
monuments  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  even 
Fig  51.-THERED-BREASTED  Goes*    at  the  present  epoch  it  seems  to  be  met  with 
(Branta  ruficollis).  sometimes  in  Egypt. 

Count    Salvadori's    next    sub-family    is    the 

Chenonettince,  containing  the  Magellanic  Geese  and  their  allies,  the  Blue- 
winged  Geese  (Cyanochen)  and  the  Maned  Goose  (Chenonetta). 

In  this  group  of  Geese  the  hind  toe  is  narrowly  lobed 

and  the  bill  is  rather  short  and  Goose-like,  as  opposed  to     The  Upland  Geese, 
the  somewhat  flat  and  broad  bill  of  the  Ducks  which  form         —Sub-family 
the  next ,  sub-family  ^ina^mce.  The  Upland  Geese  (Cloephaga)         Chenonettincs. 
are  all  inhabitants  of  South  America,  where  they  range 
from  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  Southern  Brazil  to  Chili,  Patagonia,  and  the  Falkland 


296  A  VES-ORDER  ANSERIFORMES. 


Islands.  Mr.  Hudson  describes  C.  inornata,  the  Barred  Upland  Goose,  as 
migrating  northwards  along  the  eastern  coast  of  Argentina  in  April  and  May. 
*•  Their  great  camping-grounds,"  he  writes,  "are  the  valleys  of  the  rivers 
Negro  and  Colorado,  where  they  are  often  so  numerous  as  to  denude  the  low- 
grounds  of  the  tender  winter  clovers  and  grasses,  and  to  cause  serious  loss 
to  the  sheep-breeders.  They  also  visit  the  cultivated  fields  to  devour  the 
young  wheat,  and  are  intelligent  enough  to  distinguish  between  a  real  human 
enemy  and  the  ragged  men  of  straw,  miscalled  scarecrows,  set  up  by  the 
farmers  to  frighten  them.  While  committing  their  depredations  they  are 
exceedingly  wary  and  difficult  to  shoot ;  but  at  night,  when  they  congregate 
by  the  waterside,  they  give  the  sportsman  a  better  chance.  They  are  social 
birds,  always  going  in  large  fiocks,  and  are  very  loquacious,  the  female 
having  a  deep,  hanking  note,  while  the  male  responds  with  a  clear  whistling, 
like  that  of  the  Sanderling  etherialised." 

No  less  than  nineteen  genera  are  admitted  by  Count  Salvador!  as  belonging 

to  this  sub-family.      Among  them  are  the  Tree-Ducks  (Dendrocygna),  the 

Sheld-ducks    (Tadorna   and    Casarca),    the    Wild   Ducks 

The  True  Ducks. (Anas),  the  Wigeons    (Mareca),  the   Teal  (Nettion  and 

Sub-family  Querquedida),  the   Pin-tails  (Dafila)  and   the  Shovelers 

Anatina.  (Spatula),    besides     many   less-known    forms    of    Duck. 

The  ways  of  the  Ducks  are  all  very  similar,  and  there  is 

not  much  to  say  in  detail  about  their  habits,  beyond  the  fact  that  some  are 

frequenters  of    inland  waters,  while  others  are  more  maritime  in  their 

haunts. 

The  Sheld-ducks  are  very  handsome  birds,  of  varied  plumage,  and  with  a 
metallic  patch  or  speculum  in  the  wings.  This  is  a  character  which  is  found 
in  most  of  the  Ducks,  and  many  species  are  determined  by  the  colour  of  the 
wing-speculum.  Another  curious  feature  of  the  Ducks  is  that,  after  the 
young  are  hatched,  the  males  put  off  their  bright  plumage  and  assume  a 
dull-coloured  brown  dress  like  that  of  the  hen  birds.  This  plumage  is  very 
difficult  to  determine,  as  the  male  birds  during  the  moult  are  practically 
helpless,  and  have  no  quills  to  fly  with,  so  that  they  retire  into  privacy,  and 
very  few  specimens  are  procured  at  this  stage  of  a  Duck's  existence.  I  am 
unable  to  say  from  direct  observation  whether  this  hen-like  summer  plumage, 

which  only  lasts  a  few  weeks,  is  assumed 
by  all  Ducks  ;  but  I  have  reason  to  sus- 
pect that  there  are  few  species  which  do 
not  possess  such  a  stage. 

The  beautiful  Sheld-duck  is  a  bur- 
rower,  sometimes  having  its  nest  as  far 
as  5  ft.  from  the  mouth  of  the  hole, 
while  it  has  been  known  to  penetrate 
as  far  as  12  ft.  into  the  earth.  These 
holes  are  often  burrowed  by  the  birds 
themselves,  but  quite  as  frequently  a 
rabbit-burrow  is  made  use  of.  The 
Fig.  52.— THK  COMMON  SHELD-DUCK  Sheld-duck  often  builds  upon  cliffs  at 

(Tadorna  tadorna).  such    a    height   that   it   is    evident    the 

parent  bird  must  carry  the  young  ones 

down  to  the  water,  as  must  be  the  case  also  with  the  Common  Mallard 
when  it  builds  its  nest  in  a  tree,  as  it  often  does. 

Of    these    Ducks    there  are  four  sub  -  families,  all  with  the  hind  toe 


SCO  TERS—DI VING-D  UCKS. 


297 


broadly   lobed.       The    Scoters    (Fuligulince)   have    the   bill    more   or   less 
depressed  and   the  tail-feathers  not  stiffened.     A  large  number  of   genera 
is  represented   in  this   sub-family,   which   includes  such 
forms  as  the  Pochards  (Nyroca),  the  Scaups  (Fidiqula),     ,_,     _.  . 
the     Steamer     Ducks     (Tachyeres),     the     Golden -Eyes     The  Diving  Ducks, 
(Clangula),  the  Long-tailed  Ducks  (Harelda),  the  Harle- 
quins   (Cosmonetta),    the    Scoters   (CfcWemia),    and   the  Eiders   (Somateria), 
and  their  allies.     They  are  mostly  sea-ducks,  and  some  of  them,  like  the 
Harlequin  Duck  and  Steller's  Eider  (Heniconetta  stelleri)  are  very  handsome 
birds.     The  stiff-tailed  Diving  Ducks  (sub-family  Erismaturince)  differ  from 
the  Fuligulince  in  their  narrow  tail-feathers,  which  are  much  stiffened.     Only 
four    genera    are    admitted,     Thalassiornis,     Nomonyx,    Erismatura,    and 
Biziura.     The  latter  is  a  curious  Australian  form,  with  a  pendant  lobe  on 
the  chin,  and  twenty-four  tail-feathers. 

In  these  birds  the  tail  is  long  and  stiffened,  and  the  general  look  of  the 
birds  is  very  much  like  that  of  the  Mergansers,  but  they 
have  no  serrations  on  the  edges  of  the  mandibles.     They         The  Torrent- 
are  found  only  in  the  Andes  from  Ecuador  to  Chili,  fre-     Ducks-Sub-family 
quenting  the  torrents  of  the  high  mountains,  and  being         Merganettina. 
very  difficult  of  observation. 

la  this  last  sub-family  we  find  only  the  Smew  (Mergus  'albellus)  and  the 
Mergansers  (Lophodytes  and  Merganser).     In  the  latter  birds  the  tooth-like 
serrations  are  very  different  from  those  of  any  other  of 
the  Ducks,  being  strongly  inclined  backwards  at  the  tips.     The  Mergansers.— 
These  are  not,  however,  real  teeth,  though  they  have  the  Sub-family 

appearance  of  so  being,  but  are  merely  serrations  along  Mergina. 

the  edge  of  the  mandible,  so  that  in  the  skeleton  there  is 
no  appearance  of  any  indentation  on  the  bone  of  the  bill.     Thus  they  are 
very    different     birds     from    the 
extinct    Hesperornis,    which    had 
real  teeth,  though  they  are  inter- 
esting as  being  the   nearest  ap- 
proach which  we  can  show  at  the 
present  day  to  the  toothed  birds 
of  ancient  times. 

Seven  species  of  the  genus 
Merganser  are  known,  and  they 
are  found  in  the  Pakearctic  and 
Nearctic  regions,  but  are  absent 
in  the  Ethiopian  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  Indian  Region.  One 
species  is  isolated  in  the  Auckland 
Islands,  viz  ,  M.  australis,  and 
another  in  South -Eastern  Brazil, 
M.  brasiliamis.  The  Red-breasted 


Fig.  53.— THE  RED  BREASTED  MKRGAKSER 
(Merganser  serrator). 


Merganser  is  smaller  than  the  Goosander  (M.  merganser) ,  and  nests  in  Scotland 
and  Ireland.  Like  the  other  Mergansers  it  is  an  expert  diver,  and  it  feeds 
principally  on  fish.  On  this  account  they  are  somewhat  persecuted. 

These  birds,  often  called  the  Steganopodes,  have  the  hind  toe  or  hallux 
united  to  the  second  toe  by  a  web,  so  that  all  four  toes  are  webbed.  All 
the  Pelecanoid  birds  have  the  palate  bridged  or  "desmognathous,"  and  there 
are  no  basipterygoid  processes  in  the  palate.  There  are  five  sub-orders,  viz., 


298 


A  VES  -  ORDER  PELECANIFORMES. 


Fig.  54.—  THE  YELLOW-BILLED 
TROPIC-BIRD  (Phaeton  flavirostris). 


the   Tropic-Birds  (Phaethontes),  the   Gannets   (Sulce),  the  Cormorants  and 

Darters  (Phalacrocoraces),   the   Pelecans   (Pelecani),  and  the  Frigate-Birds 

(Fregati}.      As  their  name  implies,  the  Tropic-Birds  are 

The  Pelicans  and      inhabitants  of  the  tropics.     They  are  often  an  interest- 

their  Allies.—        ing  feature  of  a  sea-voyage, 
Order  as  they  fly,  high  in  the  air, 

Pelecaniformes.  round  and  round  the  steamer, 
with  a  beating  flight,  as  if 
everything  depended  on  the  haste  they  made. 
The  osteological  and  anatomical  characters  which 
distinguish  them  from  the  other  Pelican-like 
birds  are  many,  but  their  external  form  suffici- 
ently distinguishes  them,  their  lengthened  tail 
being  especially  remarkable.  The  bill  is  nearly 
straight,  and  not  hooked  as  in  the  allied  forms, 
neither  is  there  any  perceptible  pouch.  One  of 
the  best  accounts  of  the  habits  of  the  Tropic- 
Birds  is  that  given  by  Mr.  W.  E.  D.  Scott  on  P. 
flavirostris,  as  observed  by  him  in  Jamaica. 
He  writes: — "Of  fifteen  specimens  procured 
on  the  27th  of  February  five  were  shot, 
eight  were  taken  in  a  cave  which  opened  by 
a  small  mouth  from  the  cliff,  and  two  were 
secured  in  holes  in  the  cliff.  The  cave  where  the  birds  were  found  had 
a  very  small  entrance,  about  large  enough  for  a  man  to  crawl  into,  in  the 
face  of  the  cliff.  This  was  approachable  only  in  the  calmest  weather,  in 
a  boat.  The  entrance  led  at  once  into  a  spacious  chamber  of  irregular  shape. 
Going  directly  back  from  the  mouth  the  cavern  was  some  60  ft.  deep. 
It  was  at  its  widest  point  some  70  or  80  ft.,  and  oval  in  shape  as  a 
whole.  The  bottom  was  covered  with  coarse  sand  and  gravel,  and  boulders 
of  varying  size,  evidently  having  fallen  from  above,  were  scattered  thickly 
over  this  floor,  except  at  the  extreme  back  of  the  cavern  furthest  from  the 
sea.  The  height  of  the  roof  or  ceiling,  which  was  of  an  uneven,  rough 
surface,  was  about  25  ft.,  and  many  bats  were  hanging  wherever  the 
projections  or  inequalities  afforded  them  opportunity.  Toward  the  back 
of  this  chamber  five  birds  were  secured,  each  one  sitting  on  a  single  egg. 
The  place  chosen  for  the  nesting  site — for  this  is  all  it  can  be  termed — was  in 
all  these  cases  where  two  boulders  on  the  gravelly  floor  lay  close  together, 
just  leaving  room  on  the  ground  for  the  birds  to  crawl  between  them.  Two 
birds  were  obtained  in  like  situations  that  had  not  laid,  and  may  have  been 
simply  resting.  The  females  were,  in  every  case,  the  birds  that  were  sitting 
on  the  eggs,  and  it  was  quite  evident,  upon  dissection,  that  the  single  egg 
forms  the  complement  in  these  cases.  The  birds  taken  from  the  holes  in  the 
cliff,  and  also  those  taken  in  this  cave,  were  very  tame,  and  were  captured 
readily  without  attempting  to  escape.  Later  on  the  same  day  a  bird  was 
found,  with  a  single  egg  laid  at  the  bottom  of  one  of  the  holes  in  the  face  of 
the  cliff. 

'  *  In  breeding  the  birds  seem  eminently  gregarious,  and  the  colonies  at 
different  points  often  reach  an  aggregate  of  at  least  fifty  pairs.  At  sea,  far 
out  of  sight  of  land,  the  birds  are  much  more  solitary  in  their  habits,  single 
birds  being  frequently  met  with,  and  it  has  been  rare  in  my  experience  to 
meet  with  more  than  four  individuals  together  in  such  locations." 


GANNETS-CORMORANTS.  299 


The  Gannets  are  distributed  over  the  seas  of  the  greater  part  of  the  world, 
and  are  easily  recognisable  both  from  their  internal  and  external  characters. 

Like  the  Tropic-Birds,  they  have  a  nearly 
straight  bill  without  any  hook  in  it,  and  there 
is  a  small  and  scarcely  perceptible  pouch, 
though  much  of  the  face  and  throat  is  bare. 

During   the   breeding   season   the   Gannets 
leave  their  fishing  grounds  to  a  great  extent, 
and  our  own  species  resorts  to  certain  rocky 
places  on  our  coast,  of  which  Ailsa  Craig  and 
the  Bass  Rock  are  the  best 
known,  and  there  builds  a       The  Gannets. — 
rough   nest   of    sticks    and       Sub-order  Sulce. 
seaweed,  and  lays  a  single 
chalky- white    egg.       This    chalky   egg     is     a 
peculiarity   of    nearly   every   member   of   the 
Pelican-like  birds,  and   in  the  Gannets  and 
Cormorants    it    is    a    distinct    feature.        On 
scrubbing  the  egg,  however,  with  a  brush,  the 
Fig.  55.—  THM  COMMON  GANNET        chalky  surface  can  be   removed,  and  the  egg 
(Dysporus  bassanus).  appears    of    a   delicate   blue,    like   that   of    a 

Heron.     The  flight  of  a  Gannet  is  very  fine, 

and  the  birds  are  capable  of  covering  great  distances  in  a  very  short  space 
of  time,  while  it  is  certain  that  during  the  nesting  season  the  parent  birds 
have  to  go  far  afield  to  their  fishing  grounds  to  procure  food  for  the  young. 
Only  one  egg  is  laid,  and  the  young  birds  are  at  first  naked,  and  of  a  slaty- 
black  colour.  They  then  become  covered  with  a  thick  coating  of  white  down, 
and  afterwards  attain  their  first  full  plumage,  which  is  greyish-brown  with 
white  spots,  but  it  is  believed  that  five  moults  are  required  before  the  birds 
attain  their  full  white  plumage. 

Although  agreeing  in  osteological  characters  with  the  preceding  groups, 
the  Cormorants  and  Darters  have  certain  evident  peculi- 
arities which  separate  them  from  the  Gannets  and  Tropic-     The  Cormorants.— 
Birds.     The  bill  is  more  raptorial,  and  is  furnished  with  Sub-order 

a  hook  at  the  end,  and  the  tail-feathers  are  more  stiffened       Phalacrocoraces. 
than  in  these  birds.     This  is  especially  the  case  with  the 
Darters.     There  is,  however,  no  perceptible  pouch  externally. 

In  the  British  Islands  we  have  two  representatives  of  the  sub-order,  the 
Common  Cormorant  (Phalacrocorax  carbo)  and  the  Shag  (P.  graculus).  The 
former  is  the  larger  bird  of  the  two,  and  has  fourteen  tail-feathers  ;  while 
the  Shag  is  smaller  and  greener,  and  has  only  twelve  tail-feathers.  In  this 
way  the  young  birds  of  the  two  species,  which  are  brown,  can  always  be 
distinguished.  Cormorants  are  found  nearly  everywhere  on  the  face  of  the 
globe,  and  are  particularly  numerous  in  New  Zealand  and  the  adjacent 
islands. 

Cormorants  are  great  fish- eaters,  and  they  are  consequently  excellent 
swimmers  and  divers.  They  often  nest  on  trees  in  inland  places,  but  as 
a  rule  their  nest  is  placed  on  the  rocks  adjoining  the  sea.  The  young  are 
hatched  perfectly  naked,  and  are  ugly  little  black  morsels,  like  the  nestlings 
of  the  Gannet ;  but  they  are  afterwards  covered  with  dense  down  of  a  sooty- 
brown  colour,  and  their  first  full  plumage  is  brown,  with  a  white  under- 
surface.  In  the  breeding  plumage  the  old  birds  generally  don  a  crest,  and 


300  A  VES— ORDER  PELECANIFORMES. 


our  Common  Cormorant  has  white  filamentous  plumes  distributed  over  the 
head  and  neck,  as  well  as  an  ornamental  white  patch  just  above  the  thighs. 

The  way  in  which  Cormorants  and  Shags  feed 
their  young  is  very  curious,  and  is  well  described 
by  Sir  Walter  Buller.  Writing  of  the  Pied  Shag 
of  New  Zealand  (P.  varius),  he  says  : — 

"  We  found  the  Shags  in  great  force,  and  it 
was  most  interesting  to  watch  the  operations  of 
both  old  and  young  birds.  There  were  80  or 
100  nests,  many  of  which  were  vacant  owing  to 
the  lateness  of  our  visit,  the  breeding  having 
commenced  in  October.  The  nests  are  large, 
round  structures,  composed,  as  already  men- 
tioned, of  dry  sticks  aud  twigs  and  other  loose 
materials,  bound  together  by  means  of  a  peculiar 
kind  of  Kelp,  for  which  the  Shags  may  be 
observed  diving  in  the  sea,  sometimes  in  four 
fathoms  of  water.  They  have  a  somewhat  com- 

.-  P^  appearance,   and  are   usually   placed  in  a 

(Phalacrocorax carbu).  thick    fork    among    the    branches    or    between 

two  limbs  of  a  tree  lying  close  together.  In 
each  of  those  still  tenanted  there  were  two  fully-fledged  young  birds,  and 
these  youthful  Shags  kept  up  a  constant  *  squirling '  noise,  accompanied  by  a 
perpetual  swaying  of  the  head  from  side  to  side  in  an  impatient  sort  of  way. 
The  old  bird  comes  up  from  the  sea  with  her  gullet  full  of  small  fish,  and 
takes  up  her  station  on  a  branch  adjoining  to  or  overlooking  the  nest.  The 
young  birds,  after  craning  their  necks  almost  to  dislocation,  quit  their  nest 
and  mount  up  alongside  the  parent,  when  the  peculiar  feeding  operation 
commences.  The  mother  bends  down  her  head  in  a  loving  way,  opens  wide 
her  mandibles,  and  the  young  Shag,  with  an  impatient  guttural  note,  thrusts 
his  head  right  down  the  parental  throat  and  draws  forth  from  the  pouch, 
after  much  fumbling  about,  the  first  instalment  of  his  dinner.  No  sooner 
has  he  swallowed  this  than  he  begins  to  coax  for  more,  caressing  the  mother's 
throat  and  neck  with  his  bill  in  a  very  amusing  fashion.  The  old  bird  waits 
till  she  has  recovered  the  discomfort  of  the  last  feed,  then  opens  her  mouth 
again,  and  the  action  is  repeated,  first  by  one  young  Shag^  then  by  the  other. 
When  the  pouch  is  emptied,  the  mother  spreads  her  ample  wings  and  goes 
off  for  a  fresh  supply  of  auas,  whilst  her  offspring  shuffle  themselves  back 
again  into  their  nests  to  await  her  return.  But  this  feeding  process  and  the 
squirling  cries  which  hera.ld  it  are  going  on  at  the  same  time  all  over  the 
camp,  and  as  a  consequence  there  is  a  perfect  din  of  voices.  In  the  midst 
of  these  may  be  heard  deep  guttural  cries;  but  these  are  probably  the 
occasional  scoldings  of  the  old  birds  to  repress  the  inconsiderate  eagerness  of 
their  young  ones,  for  during  the  operation  of  feeding  there  is  a  good  deal 
of  apparent  squabbling  among  the  young  fraternity  for  the  first  attention, 
accompanied  by  a  vigorous  fluttering  and  flapping  of  the  wings.  In  one  of 
the  nests,  where  the  young  birds  were  not  sufficiently  advanced  to  leave  it, 
I  observed  that  the  occupants,  during  the  intervals  when  their  parents  were 
absent,  kept  up  an  incessant  flapping  of  their  wings  and  swaying  of  their 
long  necks,  first  to  one  side,  then  to  the  other,  with  a  never-ceasing  cry  as  if 
in  great  bodily  distress. " 

Although  at  first  sight  bearing  considerable  resemblance  to  the  Cormorants, 


DAR  TERS— PELICANS. 


301 


the   Darters    present    many  striking  differences.       They   are    often   called 
"  Snake-Birds,"  as  they  are  able  to  submerge  their  bodies 
and  swim   along  with   only   their  snake-like  heads  and        The  Darters.— 
necks  protruding  above  the  water.     Cormorants,  it  may       Family  Plotidce, 
be   remarked,  are  said  to  be  able  to  do  the  same.     Then 
the  Darters  have  a  "kink"  in  the  neck,  which  the  Cormorants  have  not; 
and  this  "  kink  "  is  arranged  in  a  sort  of  set  spring-like  manner,  so  that  when 
the  bird  spears  a  fish,  its  neck  goes  off  with  a  jerk,  and  the  fish  is  transfixed 
by  its  bill  in  a  second.    We  were  much  interested  in 
watching  a  Darter  and  a  Cormorant  in  the  "Fish- 
House  "   at  the    Zoological    Gardens,   and  it   was 
curious  to  see  the  way  in  which   these -two  birds 
differed  in  their  mode  of  catching  fish.     The  Darter, 
when  let  out  of  his  cage,  plunged  into  the  water  and 
swam  about  for  a  little  time,  then  he  sank  his  body 
below  the  surface,  keeping  his  head  and  neck  above 
it,  but,  perceiving  some  fish  swimming  at  the  bottom 
of  the  tank,  it  simply  sank  below  the  water  and  then 
went  for  them  with  a  few  rapid  strokes.     No  fish 
had  a  chance.     The  Darter  simply  let  the  spring  on 
his  neck  go,  and  unerringly  speared  his  victim  as 
with  a  lance.     It  was  curious  to  notice  that,  whereas 
the  Cormorant  often  swallowed  his  fish  under  water, 
the  Darter  invariably  brought  them  to  the  surface, 
shook  them  off  his  bill,  and  then  swallowed  them. 

The  Darters  are  tropical  birds,  being  found  in 
America,  Africa,  India,  and  Australia,  and  one 
species  penetrates  the  Palsearctic  region;  for  the 
African  Darter  (Plotus  levaillanti}  breeds  on  the  Lake  of  Antioch,  where 
Canon  Tristram  found  the  nests.  The  bird,  he  says,  merely  seems  to  tread 
down  a  tuft  of  coarse  grass  or  rushes,  or  press  down  the  centre  of  a  little 
bush.  A  curious  habit  of  the  Darter,  and  likewise  of  the  Cormorants,  is  to 
sit  motionless  in  the  sun  with  extended  wings,  as  if  the  bird  were  "hang- 
ing itself  out  to  dry."  A  captured  Heron  or  Bittern  is  an  awkward 
customer  to  carry  home,  if  not  dead,  for  the  bird  will  reserve  all  its 
strength  for  a  final  effort  to  lance  its  bill  at  the  eye  of  its  captor,  as  I  once 
had  occasion  to  experience  when  carrying  home  a  young  Heron,  which  did 
its  best  to  make  a  deadly  thrust  at  my  face.  So  with  the  Darter  and  its 
formidable  bill,  for  Mr.  Thomas  Ayrea  writes  that  a  wounded  African  Darter 
(P.  levaillanti)  made  a  sudden  dart  at  his  eye,  and  it  was  only  by  the  merest 
instinct  of  self-preservation  that  he  put  up  his  hand  to  receive  the  thrust. 
The  upper  mandible  pierced  with  great  force  the  bone  of  his  thumb,  and  the 
bill,  being  serrated,  stuck  among  the  muscles,  and  he  had  a  hard  job  to  pull 
it  out. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  enumerate  the  characters,  osteological  and  other- 
wise, which  distinguish  Pelicans,  because   their   external  appearance  is  so 
peculiar  that  they  are   easily  recognisable   birds.      The 
bulky  body,  the  long  bill,  hooked  at  the  end  and  hav-       The  Pelicans.— 
ing  a-n   enormous   gular  pouch,    are   sufficient    external     Sub-orderflefewwi. 
characters  to  distinguish  the  Pelicans,  so  that  we  need 
not  waste  many  words  on  them.      In  ancient  times  they  were  even  more 
widely  distributed,  and  lived  in  England,  like  the  Flamingoes  to  which  we 


Fig.  57.— THE  DARTER 
(Plotus  anhinga). 


302 


AVES -ORDER  PELECANIFORMES. 


Fig.  58.— THK  ROSEATE  PELICAN 
(PeUcanm  onocrotalus). 


have  alluded  above  (p.  288).  They  are  birds  which  are  found  in  the  temperate 
and  tropical  portions  of  both  hemispheres,  and  in  America  the  Knob- billed 
Pelican  (P.  erythrorhynchus)  has  a  remarkable  bony  excrescence  on  the 
upper  mandible,  which  is  put  on  during  the  breeding  season,  and  afterwards 

falls  off.  Nearly  every  species  assumes  a 
patch  of  yellow  or  brown  colour  on  the 
chest  during  the  nesting  season,  at  which 
time,  too,  a  crest  is  generally  donned. 

On  the  habits  of  the  Roseate  Pelican  in 
the  delta  of  the  Danube  the  following  note 
has  been  published  by  Messrs.  Slntenis  : — 
"The  islands  where  they  breed  are 
more  or  less  composed  of  reed-fragments, 
often  without  any  fresh  vegetation,  often 
also  bordered  by  green  rushes  and  other 
high  plants.  The  aspect  of  the  large  white 
eggs  shining  through  the  green  aft  round 
is  very  charming  when  seen  from  the 
middle  of  the  lake ;  but  when  closely 
inspected,  the  places  look  very  dirty  and 
slovenly.  The  smell  was  bearable,  the 
process  of  fermentation  and  putrefaction 
being  generally  over — a  sign  that  the  birds 
had  not  laid  since  the  7th  instant.  Gener- 
ally there  were  two  eggs  in  a  nest ;  but 
there  were  also  plenty  of  single  ones. 
Nearly  half  as  many  eggs  as  were  lying  on  the  islands  were  floating  on  the 
surrounding  water.  The  latter  keeps  sending  up  air-bubbles,  by  which  it  is 
kept  in  constant  commotion,  no  doubt  caused  by  the  substances  putrefying 
at  the  bottom.  The  eggs  were  in  all  stages  of  hatching ;  but  in  most  of 
them  the  young  birds  were  fully  developed,  so  that  we  had  a  trouble  to  find 
a  number  which  could  yet  be  blown.  The  eggs  which  our  chasseur  had  taken 
on  the  7th  were,  on  the  average,  far  less  advanced  ;  and  it  does  not  seem  to 
us  at  all  improbable  that  the  heat  of  the  sun  may  have  had  some  influence 
upon  the  abandoned  eggs,  at  least  to  a  certain  extent." 

Of  the  breeding  of  the  spotted-billed  Pelican  in  Burma  (P.  manillensis),  Mr. 
Eugene  Oates  gives  a  very  interesting  account : — "The  whole  forest  consisted 
of  very  large  trees,  but  a  portion — about  one  in  twenty — was  made  up  of 
wood-oil  trees,  gigantic  fellows  150  ft.  high  and  more,  and  with  a  smooth, 
branchless  trunk  of  80  to  100  ft.  These  are  the  trees  selected  by  the 
Pelicans.  I  was  out  one  day  till  3  P.M.,  continually  moving,  and  must  have 
walked  at  least  twenty  miles  in  various  directions,  but  never  from  first  to 
last  was  I  out  of  sight  of  either  a  Pelican's  or  Adjutant's  nest.  From  what 
I  saw,  and  from  what  the  Burmans  told  me,  I  compute  the  breeding- place 
of  these  birds  to  extend  over  an  area  about  twenty  miles  long  and  five 
broad. 

"  With  regard  to  the  Pelicans,  I  noticed  that  no  tree  contained  Ies3  than 
three  nests,  and  seldom  more  than  fifteen.  Some  birds  select  the  upper 
branches,  placing  their  nests  on  the  nearly  horizontal  branches  of  the  tree, 
not  far  from  the  trunk.  In  all  cases  the  nests  on  one  branch  touch  each 
other,  and  when  these  nests  are  on  a  horizontal  branch  they  looked  like  an 
enormous  string  of  beads. 


FRIG  A  TE- BIRDS.  303 


"Judging  from  the  size  of  the  bird,  1  should  say  the  nest  is  about 
2  ft.  in  diameter,  and,  -when  in  a  fork,  to  be  18  in.  deep.  Others  on  flat 
branches  are  shallower.  They  are  composed  entirely  of  twiga  and  small 
branches,  and  I  could  detect  no  lining  in  those  nests  which  were  thrown 
down  to  me. 

"The  eggs  are  invariably  three  in  number,  and  on  the  llth  November  all 
I  took  were  either  fresh  or  only  slightly  incubated.  The  female  bird  sits 
very  closely,  and  frequently  I  found  that  the  bird  would  not  fly  off  her  eggs 
till  I  fired  a  gun.  It  was  a  most  ludicrous  sight  to  see  the  sitting  birds 
stretch  neck  and  head  out  of  the  nest  to  have  a  look  at  us,  as  often  happened. 

"Notwithstanding  the  millions  of  birds  which  breed  in  this  forest,  a  most 
wonderful  silence  prevails.  The  Pelican  seems  to  be  perfectly  mute,  and  the 
Adjutants  only  bellow  at  intervals.  The  only  sound  which  is  consequently 
heard — and  after  a  time  even  this  sound  passes  unnoticed — is  a  sort  of  ^^Eolian 
harp  caused  by  the  movement  of  the  wings  of  innumerable  birds  high  in  air." 

In  certain  particulars  the  Frigate-Birds,   of  which  there  are  only  two, 
are  closely  allied  to  the  Pelicans.      Like  the  latter  birds,  they  have  the 
clavicle  anchylosed  to  the  sternum,  and  other  osteological 
characters  in  common,  while  they  also  have  a  large  gular        The  Frigate- 
pouch.      Besides    this,    they  are    remarkable    for    their     Birds.— Sub-order 
hooked    and     almost    raptorial    bill,    and    their     habits  Fregati. 

partake  of  those  of  the  Birds  of  Prey  to  a  great  extent. 
The  flight  of  the  Frigate-Birds  is  wonderful,  and  can  be  sustained  for  an 
extraordinary  length  of  time  ;  while  the  birds  have  a  complete  arrangement 
of  air-cells  beneath  the  skin  which  they  are  able  to  inflate  at  will.  Mr. 
Palmer,  who  collected  birds  for  the  Hon.  Walter  Rothschild  in  Laysan  and 
the  adjacent  islets,  has  given 
some  interesting  notes  on  the 
habits  of  the  Frigate-Birds.  In 
his  diary  of  20th  June  he  writes  : 
— "While  walking  in  Laysan  I 
turned  some  of  the  Frigate-Birds 
which  had  young  off  their  nests. 
Scarcely  had  I  pushed  one  off 
when  another  Frigate-Bird  would 
rush  up,  seize  the  young  one,  fly 
off,  and  eat  it.  Sometimes  the 
parent  bird  would  give  chase,  Fig.  59.— THE  GREAT  FRIGATE-BIRDS  (Fregata  aquila). 
but  it  always  ended  in  one  or  the 

other  eating  the  young  bird.  I  could  scarcely  believe  my  own  eyes,  so  I 
tried  several ;  but  they  would  even  take  young  birds  out  of  the  nest  which 
were  almost  fully  feathered."  Again  from  Liasinsky  Island  he  writes: — 
"The  Frigate-Birds  have  their  nests  on  the  scrub  round  the  lake.  It  is 
very  interesting  to  watch  them  getting  their  food.  In  the  daytime  they  soar 
about  all  over  the  island,  and  every  now  and  then  one  of  them  picks  up  a 
young  Tern.  Then  a  number  of  others  chase  him,  and  keep  taking  the  prey 
one  from  the  other  till  at  last  it  is  eaten  or  drops  to  the  ground.  But  they 
generally  make  for  the  sea  with  their  prey,  as  it  is  easier  for  them  to  pick  up 
on  the  sea  than  on  land.  When  soaring  they  hardly  seem  to  move  a 
wing,  and  sometimes  I  have  seen  them  cleaning  and  picking  their  feathers 
as  they  floated  along  in  the  air.  In  the  evening,  just  before  sunset,  they 
hover  close  round  the  island,  waiting  for  the  Petrels  and  other  birds  to  come 


304  AVES— ORDER  CATHARTIDIFORMES. 


home  with  food,  when  they  give  chase,  and  do  not  leave  the  unfortunate 
bird  until  it  has  disgorged  some,  if  not  all,  of  its  food.  I  have  seen  a  Petrel 
when  thus  chased  drop  on  the  water  from  sheer  exhaustion  ;  but  even  then 
the  Frigate-Bird  would  not  leave  it  till  it  had  disgorged." 

These  very  aberrant  kinds  of  Birds  of  Prey  are  strictly  American,  being 

represented  in  both  North  and  South  America  by  the  Turkey  Vultures,  and 

in.  the  Andes  by  the  Condors.     They  differ  so  much  from 

The  Turkey          ordinary  Accipitrine  birds  in  their  anatomy  and  osteology 

Vultures.— Order      that  they  are  now  by  common  consent  kept  separate  from 

Cathartidifunnes.       the  latter,  and  some  ornithologists  have  even  gone  so  far 

as  to  suggest  that  they  are  more  nearly  allied  to  the  Storks, 

and  even  to  the  Hornbills.     Although  not  true  Birds  of  Prey,  I  think  that 

there  can  be  no  doubt  that  they  find  their  nearest  allies  in  the  Vultures  of 

the  Old  World,  which  they  much  resemble  in  their   habits.      They   have, 

however,  a  very  peculiar  nostril,  the  septum  of  which  is  perforated,  so  that  it 

can  be  seen  through.     The  hind  toe  is  small,  but  is  raised  above  the  level 

of  the  other  toes,  and  it  is  connected   with  the  flexor  perforans  diyitorum 

tendon. 

The  great  Condor  of  the  Andes  is  the  largest  and  most  striking  of  the 
Turkey  Vultures,  but  the  best-known  are  the  smaller  kinds  such  as  the 
Cathartes  aura  of  North  America.  In  Captain  Bendire's  work  on  the  Life- 
histories  of  North  American  Birds,  we  find  the  following  notes  on  the  habits 
of  the  species  from  Dr.  \V.  L.  Ralph  : — "In  Florida  they  are  abundant  and 
appear  to  decrease  but  little  in  numbers.  When  not  molested  they  become 
very  tame,  and  in  many  of  the  Southern  cities  and  villages  they  can  be  seen 
walking  around  the  streets  or  roosting  on  the  house-tops  with  as  little 
concern  as  domestic  animals. 

"Although  they  eat  carrion,  these  birds  prefer  fresh  meat,  and  the  reason  of 
their  eating  it  when  decayed  is  that  they  cannot  kill  game  themselves  and 
their  bills  are  not  strong  enough  to  tear  the  tough  skin  of  many  animals 
until  it  becomes  soft  from  decomposition.  I  have  often  had  Ducks  and  other 
game,  which  I  had  hung  in  trees  to  keep  from  carnivorous  animals,  eaten  by 
them.  When  they  find  a  dead  animal  they  will  not  leave  it  until  all  but 
the  bones  and  other  hard  parts  have  been  consumed,  and  if  it  be  a  large  one, 
or  if  it  have  a  tough  skin,  they  will  often  remain  near  it  for  days,  roosting  by 
night  in  the  trees  near  by.  After  they  have  eaten — and  sometimes  they  will 
gorge  themselves  until  the  food  will  run  off  their  mouths  when  they  move — 
they  will,  if  they  are  not  too  full  to  fly,  roost  in  the  nearest  trees  until  their 
meal  is  partly  digested,  and  then  commence  eating  again.  Many  times  I 
have  seen  these  birds  in  company  with  the  Black  Vulture  floating  down  a 
stream  on  a  dead  alligator,  cow,  or  other  large  animal,  crowded  so  closely 
together  that  they  could  hardly  keep  their  balance,  and  followed  by  a  number 
on  the  wing.  I  have  never  seen  them  fight  very  much  when  feeding,  but 
they  will  scold  and  peck  at  one  another,  and  sometimes  two  birds  will  get 
hold  of  the  same  piece' of  meat  and  pull  against  each  other  until  it  breaks,  or 
until  the  weaker  one  has  to  give  it  up." 

In  this  order  are  included   the  Secretary  Birds,  the 
The  Birds  of         Vultures,  Hawks,  and  Ospreys.      The  characters  of  the 

prey>— Order         Secretary  Birds  are  detailed  below,  and  their  peculiarities 

Jiccipitriformcs.       emphasised,  but   the   Ospreys   (Pandiones)  form  a  well- 
characterised  intermediate  group  between  the  Vultures 
and  Hawks  (Accipitres),  and  the  Owls  (Striges),  possessing  certain  features 


SEC  RET  A  R  Y  BIRDS— BIRDS  OF  PRE  K 


305 


The  Secretary 
Birds.  —  Sub-order 

Serpentarii. 


which  are  characteristic  of  the  latter,  especially  in  the  proportions  of  the 
skeleton. 

That  these  are  Birds  of  Prey  there  can  be  little  doubt,  but  they  are 
decidedly  aberrant,  and  were  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  Accipitres  by 
Professor  Huxley.  They  have  abnormally  long  legs,  and 
an  equally  abnormal  tail,  with  the  centre  feathers  much 
elongated,  while  from  behind  the  head  rises  the  crest  of 
pointed  feathers,  from  which  the  bird  gets  its  name  of 
"Secretary,"  on  account  of  some  fancied  resemblance  to 
a  secretary,  who  is  supposed  to  carry  quill  pens  behind  his  ear.  There  are 
other  peculiar  anatomical  and  osteological  features  which  separate  the 
Secretary  from  the  other  Raptorial  birds. 
Several  ornithologists,  amongst  them  myself, 
have  perceived  certain  characteristics  in  the 
Seriama  (antea,  p.  277)  which  suggest  an  affinity 
with  the  Secretary  ;  and,  if  the  Seriama  is 
admitted  to  be  a  kind  of  Crane,  it  is  also 
certain  that  it  possesses  certain  Accipitrine 
characters  which  are  difficult  to  account  for. 
The  external  appearance  of  the  two  birds  is  not 
unlike,  and  there  is  one  very  curious  habit 
which  they  possess  in  common,  viz.,  the  way  in 
which  they  attack  their  prey,  by  striking  it  with 
rapid  beats  of  their  long  legs,  both  of  which  are 
brought  down  with  terrific  force,  until  the  object 
is  beaten  to  a  pulp.  Another  character  which 
those  birds  possess  in  common,  is  the  fact  that 
both  the  outer  and  inner  toe  are  connected  by 
a  web,  which  is  one  of  the  features  of  the 
Caracaraa,  to  which,  in  my  opinion,  the  Secretary 
is  distantly  related. 

Serpentarius  is  an  African  genus,  and  the  single  species  is  therefore  strictly 
Ethiopian,  but  in  ancient  times  the  Secretary  lived  in  Central  Europe,  aa 
its  remains,  like  those  of  the  African  Touracous,  have  been  found  in  France. 
The  Secretary  is  a  pugnacious  bird,  so  that  frequently  serious  fights  take 
place  between  two  males  for  the  possession  of  a  female,  and  the  bony  knob 
which  they  carry  on  the  carpal  joint  of  the  wing  is  doubtless  an  offensive 
weapon.  When  attacking  a  Cobra,  the  Secretary  defends  itself  by  holding 
its  wing  in  front  of  it  as  a  shield,  and  strikes  the  snake  down  by  vigorous 
blows  of  its  feet.  On  account  of  its  usefulness  in  destroying  venomous 
snakes  it  is  protected  in  all  parts  of  Africa,  and  as  many  as  three  large 
snakes  have  been  tiken  from  the  stomach  of  one  of  these  birds,  besides 
lizards  and  tortoises,  and  a  quantity  of  grasshoppers  and  other  insects  ; 
while  it  will  frequently  kill  a  large  snake  by  carrying  it  high  in  the  air  and 
dropping  it  to  the  ground.  The  eggs  are  two,  rarely  three,  in  number,  and 
white. 

These  are  the  true  Haptorial  or  Accipitrine  Birds  of 
authors.  They  may  be  divided  into  two  great  families, 
the  Vultures  (Vulturidce)  and  the  Hawks  (Falconidce)  . 
The  Vultures  are  mostly  carrion-eaters,  and  are  found 
in  the  tropical  portions  of  the  Old  World,  the  so-called 
"Vultures"  of  the  New  World  having  been  already  separated  off  aa  the 


Fig.  60.—  THE  SECRETARY  BIRD 
(Serpentarius  secretrius). 


The  Birds  of 
Prey.—  Sub-order 


306 


A  VES-  ORDER  A  CCIPITRIFORMES 


Cathartidiformes  (ante'a,  p.  304).  Although  so  different  from  their  American 
allies,  the  habits  of  the  Old  World  Vultures  are  very  similar.  They  have  a 
bare  head  and  neck,  scantily  clothed  with  down  or  plumes  ;  but  these  parts 
are  never  fully  clothed  with  feathers  as  in  the  true  Birds  of  Prey. 

The  genera  of  the  Tulturidce  are  six  in  number,  viz. ,  the  Black  Vultures 
(Vultur),  the  Griffons  (Gyps  and  Pseudogyps),  the  Eared  Vultures  (Otogyps), 
the  White-headed  Vultures  (Lopkogyps),  and  the  Scavenger  Vultures 
(Neophron). 

The  Black  Vulture  is  the  only  representative  of  the  genus  Vultur.  It  ia 
found  in  the  Mediterranean  countries,  whence  it  ranges  through  Central 
Asia  to  the  Himalayas,  and  even  to  China.  It 
is  a  large  bird,  nearly  4  ft.  in  length,  and  is 
entirely  black  or  dark  brown,  with  a  pad  of 
thick,  velvety  down  on  the  crown  and  a  ruff  of 
brown  down  on  the  neck.  It  is  more  solitary 
in  its  habits  than  the  Griffons ;  and  in  Spain, 
according  to  Colonel  Irby,  the  species  breeds  in 
trees,  and  not  in  colonies,  laying  only  one  egg 
about  the  beginning  of  April.  It  acts  the  part 
of  a  King  Vulture  towards  the  Griffons,  and 
drives  the  latter  away  from  any  carcase  which 
they  may  be  feeding  upon. 

Four,  or  perhaps  five,  species  of  Griffons  are 
known,  the  most  familiar  being  the  Gypsfulvus 
of  Southern  Europe.  Colonel 
The  Griffon          Irby    gives    an    interesting 
Vultures.— Genus     account    of    the   species   in 
Gyps.  Spain.     It  is  very  plentiful 

near  Gibraltar,  and  nests  in 
colonies,  not  exceeding  thirty-five  pairs,  in 
holes,  or  rather  in  caves  in  the  perpendicular 
crags  or  "lajas"  which  are  found  in  many  of 
the  Sierras.  The  eggs,  according  to  Captain 
Willoughby  Verner,  are  white  when  fresh  laid,  but  soon  become  stained  and 
often  covered  with  mud  and  blood.  He  says: — "Anyone  who  has  seen  a 
party  of  Griffons  on  damp  soil,  churning  up  the  ground  with  their  feet 
around  a  carcase,  can  easily  understand  the  eggs  becoming  soiled."  Colonel 
Irby  observes : — "How  the  numbers  which  inhabit  Audalucia  get  sufficient 
to  eat  is  a  puzzle  to  me.  They  must  be  able  to  fast  for  some  days,  or  else 
travel  immense  distances  for  their  food,  as  in  the  winter  and  spring  it  is 
unusual  to  see  dead  animals  about ;  but  in  the  hot  parching  months  vast 
quantities  of  cattle  die  of  thirst  and  want  of  pasture.  A  bull  fight  is  a  sort 
of  harvest  to  Vultures,  which  flock  in  great  numbers  to  revel  on  the  carcases 
of  the  unfortunate  horses  that  have  been  so  cruelly  killed." 

Of  the  Scavenger  Vultures  there  are  four  species,  the  best-known  being  the 

Egyptian  Vulture  (Neophron  percnopterus).     The  members  of  this  genus  are 

smaller  than  the  generality  of  Vultures,  and  have  a  long 

The  Scavenger       curved  bill  with  a  longitudinal   nostril.     The  Egyptian 

Vultures. —          Vulture  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  Mediterranean  countries 
Genus  Neophron.       and  Africa.     In  India  it  is  replaced  by  a  nearly  allied 
form  with  a  yellow  bill,  known  as  N.  ginginianus.     In 
Africa  two  brown  species,  N.  pileatus  and  N.  monachus,  occur. 


Fig.  61.— TUB  BLACK  VULTURE 
(  Vultur  monachuis). 


SCAVENGER   VULTURES—  CAR  AC AR  AS. 


307 


The  Egyptian  Scavenger  Vulture  is  a  more  than  ordinarily  foul  feeder, 
even  for  one  of  its  kind,  and  frequents  human  habitations,  where  it  devours 
all  kinds  of  offal  and  excrement,  but  it  will  at  other  times  devour  lizards, 
snakes,  and  small  rodents,  as  well  as  worms,  insects,  and  even  fruit. 
According  to  the  late  C.  J.  Andersson,  it  is  said  to  devour  ostrich  eggs,  by 
carrying  a  stone  up  into  the  air  and  dropping  it  upon  them.  The  nest  is 
generally  placed  on  cliffs,  but  sometimes  on  trees. 

Of  the  True  Hawks  there  are  five  sub-families,  the  Caracaras  (Polybormce\ 
the  Long-legged  Hawks  (Accipitrince),  the  Buzzards  (Buteonince),  the  Eagles 
(Aquilince\  and  the  Falcons  (Falconince). 

Of  the  Caracaras  there  are  but  two  genera,  Polyborus  and  Ibycter.  They 
are  distinguished  from  the  other  Hawks  by  having  the  outer  and  inner  toe 
connected  to  the  middle  one  by  a  mem- 
brane or  web.  In  all  the  other  sub- 
families there  is  a  web  only  between 
the  base  of  the  outer  and  middle  toes. 
Polyborus  has  but  two  species,  P.  tharus, 
of  South  America,  which  is  found  from 
the  Straits  of  Magellan  to  Amazonia,  and 
P.  cheriway,  which  occurs  from  Ecuador 
and  Guiana,  through  Central  America, 
into  the  Southern  United  States. 

Mr.  W.  H.  Hudson  has  given  a  long 
and  interesting  account  of  the  habits  of 
the  "Carancho,"  as  the  Polyborus  is 
called  in  Argentina.  It  is  too  long  to  be 
given  in  its  entirety,  but  we  cannot  refrain 
from  making  a  few  extracts: — "The 
Caranchos  pair  for  life,  and  may  there- 
fore be  called  social  birds.  They  also 
often  live  and  hunt  in  families  of  the 
parents  and  young  birds  until  the  following 
spring,  and  at  all  times  several  individuals 
will  readily  combine  to  attack  their  prey,  but  they  never  live  or  move  about 
in  flocks.  Each  couple  has  its  own  home  or  resting-place,  which  they  will 
continue  to  use  for  an  indefinite  time,  roosting  on  the  same  branch  and 
occupying  the  same  nest  year  after  year ;  while  at  all  times  the  two  birds  are 
seen  constantly  together,  and  seem  very  much  attached.  Azara  relates  that 
he  once  saw  a  male  pounce  down  on  a  frog,  and,  carrying  it  to  a  tree,  call 
his  mate  to  him  and  make  her  a  present  of  it.  It  was  not  a  very  magnificent 
present,  but  the  action  seems  to  show  that  the  bird  possesses  some  commend- 
able qualities  which  are  seldom  seen  in  the  Raptorial  family.  Without  doubt 
it  is  a  carrion-eater,  but  only,  I  believe,  when  it  cannot  get  fresh  provisions; 
for,  when  famished,  it  will  eat  anything  rather  than  study  its  dignity  and 
suffer  hunger  like  the  nobler  Eagle.  I  have  frequently  seen  one  or  two  or 
three  of  them  together  on  the  ground,  under  a  column  of  winged  ants, 
eagerly  feasting  on  the  falling  insects.  To  eat  putrid  meat  it  must  be  very 
hungry  indeed.  It  is,  however,  amazingly  fond  of  freshly-killed  flesh  ;  and, 
when  a  cow  ia  slaughtered  at  an  estancia-house,  the  Carancho  quickly 
appears  on  the  scene  to  claim  his  share,  and,  catching  up  the  first  thing  he 
can  lift,  he  carries  it  off  before  the  dogs  can  deprive  him  of  it.  When  he 
has  risen  to  a  height  of  five  or  six  yards  in  the  air  he  drops  the  meat  from 


Fig.  62  —THE  BRAZILIAN  CARACARA 
(Polyborus  iharus). 


308  A  VES  -  ORDER  A  CCIPITRIFORMES. 


his  beak,  and  dexterously  catches  it  in  his  claws  without  pausing  or 
swerving  in  his  flight.  It  is  singular  that  the  bird  seems  quite  incapable  of 
lifting  anything  from  the  ground  with  the  claws,  the  beak  being  invariably 
used,  even  when  the  prey  is  an  animal  which  it  might  seem  dangerous  to 
lift  in  this  way.  I  once  saw  one  of  these  birds  swoop  down  on  a  rat 
from  a  distance* of  about  40  ft.,  and  rise  with  its  struggling  and  squealing 
prey  to  a  height  of  20  ft.,  then  drop  it  from  its  beak  and  gracefully  catch  it 
in  its  talons.  Yet,  when  it  pursues  and  overtakes  a  bird  in  the  air,  it 
invariably  uses  the  claws  in  the  same  way  as  other  Hawks.  This  I  have 
frequently  observed,  and  I  give  the  two  following  anecdotes  to  show  that 
even  birds,  which  one  would  inngine  to  be  quite  safe  from  the  Carancho,  are 
on  some  occasions  attacked  by  it.  In  the  first  case,  the  bird  attacked  was 
the  Spur-winged  Lapwing,  the  irreconcilable  enemy  of  the  Carancho  and  its 
bold  and  persistent  persecutor.  The  very  sight  of  this  Hawk  rouses  the 
Lapwings  to  a  frenzy  of  excitement,  and  springing  aloft,  they  hasten  to  meet 
it  in  mid-air,  screaming  loudly  and  continuing  to  harry  it  until  it  leaves  their 
ground,  after  which  they  return,  and,  ranged  in  triplets,  perform  their 
triumphal  dances,  accompanied  with  loud  drumming  notes.  But  if  their 
hated  foe  alights  on  the  ground,  or  on  some  elevation  near  them,  they  hover 
about  him,  and  first  one,  then  another,  rushes  down  with  the  greatest  violence, 
and  gliding  near  him,  turns  the  bend  of  its  wing  so  that  the  spur  appears 
almost  to  graze  his  head.  While  one  bird  is  descending,  others  are  rising 
upwards  to  renew  their  charges ;  and  this  persecution  continues  until  they 
have  driven  him  away,  or  become  exhausted  with  their  fruitless  efforts.  The 
Carancho,  however,  takes  little  notice  of  his  tormentors ;  only  when  the 
Plover  comes  very  close,  evidently  bent  on  piercing  his  skull  with  its  sharp 
weapon,  he  quickly  dodges  his  head,  after  which  he  resumes  his  indifferent 
demeanour  until  the  rush  of  the  succeeding  bird  takes  place. 

"  While  out  riding  one  day  a  Carancho  flew  past  me  attended  by  about 
thirty  Lapwings,  combined  to  hunt  him  from  their  ground,  for  it  was  near 
the  breeding  season,  when  their  jealous  irascible  temper  is  most  excited. 
All  at  once,  just  as  a  Lapwing  swept  close  by  and  then  passed  on  before  it, 
the  Hawk  quickened  its  flight  in  the  most  wonderful  manner  and  was  seen 
in  hot  pursuit  of  its  tormentor.  The  angry  hectoring  cries  of  the  Lapwings 
instantly  changed  to  piercing  screams  of  terror,  which,  in  a  very  short  time, 
brought  a  crowd  numbering  between  two  and  three  hundred  birds  to  the 
rescue.  Now,  I  thought,  the  hunted  bird  will  escape,  for  it  twisted  and 
turned  rapidly  about,  trying  to  lose  itself  amongst  its  fellows,  all  hovering 
in  a  compact  cloud  about  it  and  screaming  their  loudest.  But  the  Carancho 
was  not  to  be  shaken  off;  he  was  never  more  than  a  yard  behind  his  quarry, 
and  I  was  near  enough  to  distinguish  the  piteous  screams  of  the  chased  Lap- 
wing amidst  all  the  tumult,  as  of  a  bird  already  captive.  At  the  end  of  about 
a  minute  it  was  seized  in  the  Carancho's  talons,  and,  still  violently  scfeamrng, 
borne  away.  The  cloud  of  Lapwings  followed  for  some  distance,  but 
presently  they  all  returned  to  the  fatal  spot  where  the  contest  had  taken 
place  ;  and  for  an  hour  afterwards  they  continued  soaring  about  in  separate 

bodies,  screaming  all  the  time  with  an  unusual  note  in 
The  Long-legged     tneir  voices  as  of  fear  or  grief,  and  holding  excited  con- 
Hawks.— Sub-        claves  on  the  ground,  to  all  appearance  as  greatly  dis- 
txm&jAccipitrina.     turbed   in   their  minds  as  an   equal  number  of  highly 

emotional  human  beings  would   be  in  the   event  of  a 
similar  disaster  overtaking  them." 


GYMNOGENES— HARRIERS.  309 


Only  the  outer  and  middle  toes  are  united  by  a  membrane  in  this  sub- 
family, but  the  legs  are  very  long,  the  thigh  (tibio-tarsus)  and  the  leg 
(tarso-metatarsus)  being  nearly  as  long  as  one  another.  The  birds  included  in 
this  group  are  the  Gymnogenes,  Harriers,  Gos-Hawks,  and  Sparrow-Hawks. 

These  curious  crested  Hawks  are  Ethiopian,  one  species  being  found  in 
tropical   Africa   and  another  in   Madagascar.      They   are   grey  birds   with 
a    well  -  developed    crest,    and    a    bare    face    of    a    light    yellow    colour. 
The  structure  of  the  leg  is  peculiar,  for  the  tibio-tarsal 
joint  is  flexible,  and  the  bird  has  the  power  of  putting  its     The  Gymnogenes. 
leg  out  of  joint,  as  it  were,  and  placing  the  tarsus  at  a         — Genus  Poly- 
backward  angle,  instead  of  forwards,  as  in  ordinary  Birds  boroides. 

of  Prey.  The  Neotropical  genus  Geranospizias  is  also 
said  to  possess  the  same  faculty.  In  the  Gymnogene  this  power  of  twisting 
its  leg  about,  as  on  a  pivot,  is  said  by  observers  to  be  of  use  to  the  bird  in 
drawing  out  frogs  from  the  marsh  holes.  Its  food  appears  to  consist  chiefly 
of  lizards  and  frogs,  and  also  of  insects  ;  and  Mr.  Ayres  says  that  in  Natal 
it  frequents  lands  on  which  the  grass  has  been  recently  burnt,  stalking  over 
the  ground  like  a  Bustard. 

The  Harriers  are  long-legged  birds,  differing  from  the  Sparrow-Hawks  and 
Gos-Hawks  in  having  the  hinder  aspect  of  the  tarsus  reticulate  and  in 
having  an  oval  nostril.  They  have  also  a  ruff  round  the 
face  similar  to  that  of  the  Owls,  and  on  this  account  they  The  Harriers.— 
have  often  been  considered  to  be  a  connecting  link  be-  Genus  Circus. 
tween  the  Hawks  and  the  Owls.  This  character,  however, 
is  of  secondary  importance  compared  with  the  development  of  their  long  legs, 
which,  in  our  opinion,  allies  them  to  the  Sparrow-Hawks.  Some  sixteen 
species  of  the  Harriers  are  known,  and  they  inhabit  the  temperate  and 
tropical  portions  of  both  hemispheres.  They  do  not  range  into  the  arctic 
regions,  and  those  which  breed  in  northern  localities  migrate  south  in 
winter,  often  in  large  numbers.  The  habits  of  all  the  Harriers  are  very  much 
the  same  in  different  countries.  The  nest  is  built  on  the  ground,  and  the 
eggs  are  white,  with  occasionally  a  few  brown  markings  ;  they  appear  bluish 
inside  when  held  up  to  the  light.  They  are  not  birds  of  bold  and  rapid 
flight  like  the  Sparrow-Hawks  or  Eagles,  but  are  great  robbers  of  other 
birds'  eggs  and  young,  feeding  also  on  small  mammals,  reptiles,  fish,  and 
insects.  Mr.  Seebohm  speaks  of  the  Marsh  Harrier  (Circus  ceruginosus)  as 
being  "usually  seen  passing  slowly  over  its  swampy  haunts  a  few  feet  from  the 
earth,  quartering  the  ground  much  as  a  well-trained  dog  searching  for  game. 
Its'flight  is  somewhat  slow  and  laboured,  performed  with  measured  beats  of 
the  wings,  varied  by  gliding  motions  as  it  surveys  the  ground  below.  It  will 
beat  over  its  hunting-ground,  returning  backwards  and  forwards,  as  if 
diligently  searching  every  spot  likely  to  contain  its  prey.  Now  and  then  it 
is  seen  to  drop  somewhat  slowly  to  the  earth  to  secure  a  frog  or  a  mole, 
which  it  will  either  eat  at  once  or  convey  to  some  distance." 

Of  Montagu's  Harrier  (Circus  pygargus)  Colonel  Irby  records  the  finding 
of  a  regular  colony  near  Lixus,  in  Morocco.  With  his  telescope  he  could  see 
the  sitting  hen  birds  dotted  about  the  marsh.  The  North  American  Hen- 
Harrier  (Circus  hudsonius)  has  similar  habits  to  those  of  the  European 
species,  but  is  not  such  an  egg- destroy  ing  bird,  and  is  looked  upon  as  a 
beneficial  Hawk,  as  it  devours  great  quantities  of  meadow-mice  and  ground 
squirrels,  as  well  as  noxious  insects,  such  as  locusts  and  destructive  ground- 
crickets.  The  flight  of  this  Harrier  is  described  as  graceful,  and  at  certain 


310  A  VES— ORDER  A  CCIPITRIFORMES. 


times  the  males  perform  aerial  evolutions.  The  male  never  assists  the 
female  in  the  duties  of  incubation,  but  diligently  supplies  his  mate  with  food. 
Mr.  John  Clark  informed  Captain  Bendire  that  he  has  seen  the  female  rise 
from  the  nest  to  welcome  the  male  with  shrill  cries  when  he  came  in 
sight,  and  then  take  the  prey  from  his  talons  and  fly  back  with  it  to  the 
nest. 

Intermediate  between  the  Harriers  and  the  Go<-Hawks  comes  the  genus 
Micrastur,  containing  the  Harrier- Hawks  of  Tropical  America.  These  are 
birds  which  have  the  stout  build  of  a  Gos-Hawk  combined  with  the  facial 
ruflf  of  the  Harriers,  and,  as  in  the  last-named  genus  of  birds,  the  tarsus  is 
reticulated  behind.  Then  follow  several  genera  of  Gos-Hawks,  such  as 
Geranospizias  of  Tropical  America,  Urotriorchis  of  Africa,  and  Erythrocnema, 
again  a  New  World  form,  so  closely  allied  to  the  Chanting  Gos-Hawks  of 
Africa  (Melierax)  that  the  two  genera  are  scarcely  distinguishable. 

Two  species  of  this  genus  are  known,  one,  E.  unicinda,  inhabiting  South 

America  from  Brazil  to  Chili,  and  the  other,   E.  harrisi,  being  found  in 

Central  America,  north  to  the  Southern  United  States. 

The  Red-thighed      Little  has  been  recorded  of  the  habits  of  the  Red-thighed 

Gos-HawkSi —  Gos-Hawks,  but  Captain  Bendire  says  that  they  appear 
Genus  to  be  lazy  and  sluggish  birds,  with  a  slow  and  not  graceful 

Erythrocnema.  flight.  They  build  in  low  trees,  and  the  nest  is  a  poorly 
constructed  affair,  so  that  on  one  occasion  Captain  Bendire 
declares  that  he  could  see  the  eggs  through  the  bottom  of  the  nest. 

These  birds  are  confined  to  the  ^Ethiopian  Region,  and  they  are  called 
"Chanting"  Gos-Hawks  on  account  of  their  supposed 

The  Chanting         utterance    of    a    song.      Le    Vaillant    is    the    principal 

Gos-Hawks.—  authority  for  this  statement,  but  like  many  other  records 
Genus  Meherax.  of  this  traveller's,  it  is  open  to  doubt ;  and  Mr.  Layard 
says  that  he  never  heard  anything  of  the  sort  in 
South  Africa. 

The  preceding  genera  possess  a  bony  tubercle  in  their  nostrils,  but 
the  true  Gos-Hawks  (Astur)  have  not  this  peculiarity.  On  the  contrary, 
they  have  an  oval  nostril  with  no  tubercle.  They  are  remarkable  for  their 
stout  and  heavy  bill,  accompanied  by  stout  legs  and  short  toes.  They  are  of 
all  sizes,  some  of  them  being  as  big  as  a  Buzzard,  while  others  are  scarcely 
larger  than  a  Thrush. 

The  Common  Gos-Hawk  is  a  bird  of  the  woods  and  forests,  where  it  builds  a 

nest  of  great  size,  which  it  lines  with  roots  and  moss,  but  does  not  use  green 

leaves  as  many  birds  of  prey  do.     The  great  size  of  the 

The  Common         nest  is  probably  due  to  the  additions  made  by  the  birds 

Gos-Hawk. —  from  year  to  year.  The  eggs  are  pale  greenish  white,  and 
Astur  palumbarius.  are  oniy  very  rarely  marked  with  faint  brown  spots.  The 
Gos-Hawk  is  a  most  useful  bird  to  the  falconer,  as  it  is  an 
adept  at  taking  rabbits,  but  it  belongs  to  the  group  of  short- winged  Hawks  and 
cannot  fly  down  its  prey  like  an  Eagle  or  a  Falcon.  Seebohm  observes  : — *'  In 
spite  of  his  comparatively  short  wings,  he  is  a  bird  of  very  powerful  flight. 
and  of  undaunted  courage.  He  disdains  to  eat  carrion,  and  will  scarcely 
stoop  to  catch  a  sitting  bird.  He  hunts  on  the  wing,  and  nothing  is  safe 
from  his  attacks,  from  a  sparrow  to  a  grouse,  or  from  a  mouse  to  a  young 
roe.  In  summer  he  confines  himself  principally  to  the  woods  and  the  open 
places  in  their  immediate  neighbourhood  ;  but  late  in  autumn  and  winter  he 
extends  the  range  of  his  hunting-grounds,  pursuing  partridges  and  hares,  and 


COS- HA  WKS—SPARROW-HA  WKS. 


The  Sparrow- 
Hawks. — Genus 

Accipiter. 


making   raids   on   the   pigeons   belonging   to  the   farmers,    and   sometimes 
snatching  the  game  from  under  the  very  nose  of  the  sportsman." 

The  Gos-Hawks  are  about  forty  in  number,  and  many  of  them,  though 
small,  are  of  beautiful  plumage,  such  as  the  Fijian  Astur  torquatus  and  its 
allies,  which  are  pale  grey  birds  with  a  rufous  collar  round  their  necks  and 
vinous  coloured  breasts.  This  group  inhabits  the  Australian  region,  more 
especially  the  Moluccas,  and  the  Papaan  Islands.  Another  group  is  that  of 
the  Indian  Shikra  (Astur  badius),  which  has  allied  species  in  Burma,  Africa, 
and  South-Eastern  Europe.  They  are  all  small  birds  with  prettily  barred 
breasts.  One  of  the  most  interesting,  however,  is  the  White  Gos-Hawk  of 
Australia,  a  pure  white  species,  which  looks  like  an  albino.  Astur  novae, 
hollandice,  as  it  is  called,  is  confined  to  the  Australian  continent,  with  a- 
representative  species,  A.  leucosomus,  in  New  Guinea. 

This  is  also  a  numerously  represented  genus  of   Hawks  ;    the  difference 
between  the  Sparrow-Hawks  and  the  Gos-Hawks  consisting  principally  in 
the  smaller  bills  and  longer   toes  of   the  former  birds. 
Like  the  Gos-Hawks,  the  members  of  the  genus  Accipiter 
are  found  over  the  greater  part  of  the  world,  and  both 
small  and  large  species  are  met  with.     They  are  generally 
of   slight  build,    but  use   their   short   wings   with   great 
dexterity,  doubling  in  their  flight  in  the  most  rapid  manner,  and  snatching 
their  prey  with  a  sudden  plunge,  seldom  attempting  to  seize  it  in  the  open. 

In  our  English  Sparrow-Hawk  the  female  is  a  much  larger  bird  than  the 
male,  and  is  much  the  more  powerful  bird  of  the  two,  though  nothing  can 
well  exceed  the  spirit  and  dash  of 
the  little  male  Sparrow-Hawk.  The 
chief  food  of  the  species  consists  of 
small  birds,  but  it  takes  Blackbirds, 
Partridges,  and,  according  to  Mr. 
Seebohm,  even  Wood-Pigeons.  It 
is  a  very  determined  marauder  on 
the  Pheasant  coops,  and  catches  a 
number  of  young  birds  of  all  sorts, 
feeding  its  own  young  on  these. 
The  nest  is  somewhat  large,  and, 
unlike  that  of  most  of  the  smaller 
Birds  of  Prey,  which  generally  ap- 
propriate the  nest  of  some  other 
bird,  the  Sparrow-Hawk  builds  its 
own  nest.  The  eggs  of  the  species 
of  Accipiter  are  invariably  more 
handsome  than  those  of  the  Gos-Hawks,  and  some  of  the  eggs  of  our  own 
species  are  beautifully  marbled  with  reddish  brown. 

The  largest  of  the  Sparrow-Hawks  is  the  Pied  Sparrow-Hawk  of  Africa, 
which  is  nearly  2  ft.  in  length. 

With  this  sub-family  we  commence  the  description  of  the  shorter  legged 
Hawks,  wherein  the  tibio-tarsus  is  always  longer  than 
the  tarso-metatarsus.  The  first  of  the  three  sub-families 
is  that  of  the  Buteonince.  or  Buzzards.  And  here  we  find 
a  character  which  runs  through  them  all,  and  is  very 
constant,  viz.,  that  the  hinder  aspect  of  the  tarsus  is 
scaled,  and  not  reticulated.  This  we  believe  to  be  the  principal  character- 


Fig.  €3. — THE  FEMALE  SPARROW-HAWK 
(Accipiter  nisus). 


The  Buzzards.— 
Sub-family 

Buteonince. 


312  A  VES-  ORDER  A  CCIPITRIFORMES. 


istic  of  the  Buzzards,  which  on  the  one  hand  are  allied  to  the  Gos-Hawks, 
and  on  the  other  to  the  Eagles,  the  difference  between  the  latter  and  the 
Buzzards  being  by  no  means  strongly  marked. 

At  the  head  of  the  Buteoninw  we  find  the  genus  Erythrotriorchis,  or 
Rufous  Buzzard-Hawks,  of  which  there  are  two  species,  one,  E.  radiatus, 
found  in  Australia,  and  the  other,  E.  dorian,  inhabiting  New  Guinea.  They 
are  very  rare  birds,  and  but  little  has  been  recorded  concerning  their  habits. 

Of  the  succeeding  genera,  Buteogallus  and  Tachytriorchis,  also  very  little  is 
known.  They  are  Neotropical  forms ;  but  T.  abbreviatus  and  T.  albicaudatus 
occur  in  the  Southern  United  States,  and  some  good  accounts  of  their  nesting 
have  been  published  by  Captain  Bendire  in  his  excellent  work  on  the  '*  Life- 
Histories  of  North  American  Birds."  The  latter  species  visits  Southern 
Texas  during  the  summer,  and  migrates  south  in  winter,  visiting  South 
America  as  far 'as  Argentina  in  companies.  In  the  winter  Mr.  W.  H. 
Hudson  has  known  them  to  become  so  reduced  in  flesh  that,  after  every  cold 
rain  or  severe  frost,  numbers  would  be  found  dead  under  the  trees  where 
they  roosted,  and  in  that  way  most  of  them  perished  before  the  return  of 
spring.  Captain  B.  F.  Goss  found  the  species  breeding  abundantly  near 
Corpus  Christi,  in  Texas,  in  the  spring  of  1882.  His  note  to  Captain  Bendire 
is  as  follows: — "I  found  the  favourite  breeding-places  of  the  White-tailed 
Hawk  to  be  a  strip  of  open  bushy  land,  lying  between  the  thick  line  of 
timber  and  chaparral  along  the  coast  and  the  open  prairie.  Any  bush  rising  a 
little  above  the  surrounding  level  seemed  a  suitable  nesting  site,  and  no 
attempt  was  made  to  conceal  the  nest.  In  most  places  it  was  very  prominent, 
and  could  be  seen  for  a  long  distance.  I  examined  fifteen,  and  they  were  all 
placed  in  low  bushes,  generally  not  higher  than  6  ft.  In  a  few  cases  I  hid  to 
stand  upon  the  waggon  to  reach  them.  They  were  composed  of  sticks,  dry 
weeds,  and  grasses,  a  coarse,  dry  grass  entering  largely  into  the  composition 
of  most  of  them.  They  were  poorly  constructed,  but  moderately  hollowed, 
and  usually  lined  with  a  few  green  twigs  or  leaves.  Taken  as  a  whole, 
the  nests  looked  ragged  in  outline  and  slovenly  in  finish.  About  one  nest  in 
four  contained  three  eggs  ;  the  rest  but  two.  These  Hawks  are  wary,  and 
difficult  of  approach  at  all  times.  They  would  leave  their  nests  as  soon  as  we 
came  in  sight,  sometimes  when  still  half  a  mile  away,  and  generally  they  kept 
entirely  out  of  sight.  An  occasional  pair  sailed  high  over  our  heads,  uttering 
a  faint  cry  while  we  were  at  their  nest.  Only  a  single  one  came  within 
reach  of  our  guns."  Both  of  the  genera  Heterospizias  and  Tachytriorchis 
differ  from  the  typical  Buzzards  in  their  shorter  tails,  the  wings  reaching 
beyond  the  tip  of  the  latter. 

The  genus  Buteo  contains  about  twenty  species,  of  which  our  European 

Common  Buzzard  (Buteo  buteo)  is  the  type.     They  are  almost  identical  in 

their  mode  of  life  one  with  another,  and  mostly  resemble 

The  True  Buzzards,     small  Eagles  in  their  habits.     They  are,  as  a  rule,  useful 

— Genus  Buteo.  birds,  as  they  feed  upon  rats  and  mice,  insects,  and  small 
reptiles,  which  they  pounce  upon  from  a  sitting  position  ; 
hence  they  do  not  often  capture  birds,  as  they  do  not  take  their  prey  on  the 
wing.  The  nest  of  the  Common  Buzzard  is  a  somewhat  large  structure,  built  in 
a  tree,  and  is  flat  at  the  top  and  lined  with  fresh  green  leaves.  The  eggs 
are  three  or  four  in  number,  white,  or  bluish  white  in  colour,  the  markings 
being  blotches  or  streaks  of  a  rich  brown  colour,  which  are  often  absent. 

Of  the  utility  of  the  Buzzards  to  the  farmer  and  agriculturist  very  good 
proof  is  given  in  Dr.  A.  K.  Fisher's  work  on  the  "Hawks  and  Owls  of  the 


HARPIES-EAGLES.  313 


United  States  in  relation  to  Agriculture,"  where  tables  of  the  food  found  in 
the  stomachs  of  the  Buzzards  are  given,  from  which  it  appears  that  large 
numbers  of  small  mammals  and  insects,  especially  locusts,  are  devoured  by 
these  Birds  of  Prey,  and  that  very  few  small  birds  are  captured  by  them, 
though  the  larger  kinds  of  Buzzards  will  occasionally  take  a  Duck  or  a 
Partridge. 

In  the  Buteonince  are  also  contained  some  other  forms  of  Buzzards,  such  as 
the  genera  Asturina  and  Urubitinga,  the  habits  of  which  call  for  little  special 
notice  here,  though  some  of  the  latter  are  very  handsome  birds  of  nearly 
pure  white  plumage.  They  are  neotropical  in  habitat,  as  are  also  the 
Harpies,  with  which  the  Buzzards  conclude.  It  is  generally  the  fashion  to 
speak  of  the  Harpies  as  Eagles,  instead  of  Buzzards,  but  the  way  in  which 
the  hinder  aspect  of  the  tarsus  is  plated,  instead  of  being  reticulated,  is 
sufficient  to  show  that  these  great  birds  are  really  members  of  the  sub-family 
Buteonince. 

There     are     three     genera     of     Harpies  —  Harpyhaliaetus,     with     one 
species,  H.  coronatus,  a   grey  bird   found   in  South   America  ;    Morphnus, 
also    with    a    single   species,    M.    guianensis,    found    in 
Amazonia    and    Guiana    as    far   west   as   Panama  ;    and  The  Harpy 

Thrasaetus,  with  the  true  Harpy,  T.  harpyia,  as  its  type,  (Tkrascetus 

a  species  found  over  the  greater  part  of  Southern  and  harpyia). 

Central  America  as  far  north  as  Mexico.  The  Harpy  is 
one  of  the  most  splendid,  as  it  is  the  most  powerful,  of  all  the  Birds  of 
Prey.  Like  the  other  Harpies  it  possesses  a  very  long  crest,  which  it  usually 
keeps  raised,  adding  to  its  fierce  appearance.  It  is  said  to  kill  calves  and 
animals  of  far  greater  bulk  than  itself,  and  Dr.  Felix  Oswald  says  that  "  in 
the  Oaxaca  district  in  Mexico,  the  '  Lobo  volante,'  or  '  Winged  Wolf,'  attacks 
and  kills  heavy  old  turkey-cocks,  young  fawns,  sloths,  full-grown  foxes  and 
badgers,  middle-sized  pigs,  and  even  the  black  Sapajou  monkey  (Ateles 
paniscus).  The  nest  is  built  in  the  highest  forest-trees,  especially  the 
Adansonia  and  the  Pinus  balsamifera.  The  more  inaccessible  rocks  of  the 
foot-hills  are  also  commonly  chosen  for  a  breeding  place,  and  it  is  not  easy  to 
distinguish  the  compactly-built  eyrie  on  the  highest  branches  of  a  wild  fig 
tree  from  the  dark-coloured  clusters  of  the  Mexican  mistletoe  (  Piscum  rubrum) 
which  are  seen  in  the  same  tree-tops.  The  process  of  incubation  is  generally 
finished  by  the  middle  of  March,  if  not  sooner,  and  from  that  time  to  the  end 
of  June  the  rapacity  of  the  old  birds  is  the  terror  of  the  tropical  fauna,  for 
their  hunting  expeditions,  which  later  in  the  year  are  restricted  to  the  early 
morning  hours,  now  occupy  them  the  larger  part  of  the  day." 

In    this    sub-family   the    tibio-tarsus    is    much    longer   than    the   tarso- 
metatarsus,  as  it  was  in  the  Buteonince,  but  in  all  the  Eagles  the  hinder  aspect 
of   the   tarsus   is   reticulated,    not   plated.      The   bill   is 
festooned  but  not  toothed,  as  it  is  in  the  Falcons,  which        The  Eagles. — 
follow  later.      There  are  two  genera  with  wedge-shaped  Sub-family 

tails,  Gypaetus  and    Uroaetus.     In  the   former  genus   is  Aquilince. 

found  the  species  generally  called  the  Bearded  "  Vulture, " 
on  account  of  the  tuft  of  bristly  feathers  which  is  grown  on  its  chin. 
The  Bearded  Eagle  (Gypaetus  barbatus)  extends  from  Southern  Europe 
throughout  Central  Asia  to  the  Himalayas,  but  has  become  very  rare, 
if,  indeed,  not  wholly  extinct,  in  Switzerland,  where  it  was  once  a 
well-known  bird.  The  Lcemmergeier,  as  it  is  also  called,  is  still  found  in 
some  of  the  other  mountain  ranges  of  Southern  Europe,  and  in  the 


A  VES-  ORDER  A  CCIPITRIFORMES. 


Himalayas  it  is  by  no  means  uncommon.  I  have  myself  more  than  once 
seen  one  of  these  magnificent  birds  flying  over  within  30  yds.  of  my  head, 
and  turning  his  head  down  from  side  to  side,  taking  stock  of  everything 
below  him.  His  pale  yellow  eye,  which  is  surrounded  by  a  red  ring,  and 
his  bearded  chin  were  plainly  seen.  The  flight  of  a  Lsemmergeier  is 
grand  in  the  extreme.  The  bird,  however,  has  many  of  the  habits  of  a 
Scavenger  Vulture,  and  resembles  Neophron  in  some  of  its  ways,  though  it 
does  not  seem  to  be  such  a  foul  feeder.  The  species  has  been  known  to  follow 
camps,  and  it  is  not  infrequently  to  be  met  with  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
villages  in  the  north-western  Himalayas  and  Tibet.  Not  only  in  the 
Mediterranean  countries,  but  in  the  Himalayas  also,  the  bird  is  known  as 
the  "bone-breaker,"  and  it  undoubtedly  has  the  curious  habit  of  devouring 
bones.  Von  Tschudi  says  that  five  bullock's  ribs  2  in.  thick  and  from  6  to  9 
in.  long,  a  lump  of  hair,  and  the  leg  of  a  young  goat,  from  the  knee  to  the 
foot,  were  found  in  the  stomach  of  one  of  these  Bearded  Eagles,  while  in 
another  the  large  hip-bone  of  a  cow,  the  skin  and  fore-quarters  of  a  chamois, 
many  smaller  bones,  etc.,  were  discovered.  It  is  also  said  to  drive  the 
chamois  and  goats  over  the  precipices,  and  devour  the  bodies  when  they 
have  fallen  below.  The  weak  feet  and  claws  of  the  Lsemmergeier  are 
vulturine,  and  not  like  those  of  True  Eagles,  and  it  is  certain  that  the  bird 
could  not  capture  any  large  prey  with  its  talons.  Its  method  of  breaking 
the  bones  which  it  delights  in,  is  to  take  them  up  in  the  air  to  a  great 
height  and  then  let  them  drop  on  a  rock,  and  it  was  doubtless  in  this  way 
that  ^Eschylus  was  killed  more  than  2000  years  ago,  an  "Eagle,"  te.,  a 
Lsemmergeier,  having  dropped  a  Tortoise  on  his  bald  head,  mistaking  the 
latter  for  a  rock.  "  Marrow  bones,"  says  Mr.  Hudleston,  "are  the  dainties  the 
Lsemmergeier  loves  the  best ;  and  when  the  other  Vultures  have  picked  the 
flesh  off  any  animal,  he  comes  in  at  the  end  of  the  feast  and  swallows  the 
bones,  or  breaks  them  and  swallows  the  pieces,  if  he  cannot  get  the  marrow 
out  otherwise.  I  once  saw  a  mature  bird  of  this  species  which  had  evidently 
swallowed  a  bone,  or  something  ^uncommonly  indigestible,  close  to  the 
abattoir  at  Athens.  He  was  in  a  very  uncomfortable  attitude,  and  appeared 
to  be  leaning  on  his  long  tail  for  support."  A  second  species  of  Lsemmergeier 
(Gypaetus  ossifragus)  is  found  in  the  mountains  of  North-Eastern  Africa. 

We  now  come  to  the  true  Eagles  (Aquila)  of  which  our  Golden  Eagle  is  the 
type,  while  the  Bearded  Eagles  are  connected  with  the  typical  Eagles  by  means 
of  the  Wedge-tailed  Eagle  of  Australia  ( Uroaetus  audax),  a  bird  which  has 
the  aspect  of  a  true  Eagle,  but  has  at  the  same  time  the  wedge-shaped  tail 
of  a  Lsemmergeier. 

In  this  genus  occur  some  of  the  best-known  Birds  of  Prey,  such  as  the 

Golden   Eagle    (AqiiUa  chrysaetus),    the   Imperial    Eagle   (A.   heliaca),   the 

Tawny  Eagle    (A.  rapax],  and   the   Spotted   Eagle  (A. 

The  True  Eagles.—     maculata).    When  on  the  wing  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the 

Genus  Aquila.  Eagles  are  birds  of  magnificent  appearance,  and  I  have 
seen  nothing  grander  in  my  experience  of  bird-life  than 
a  pair  of  Eagles  circling  above  the  Himalayas  and  screaming  in  protest 
against  an  approaching  storm,  as  it  made  its  way  up  the  valley.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  many  ways  Eagles  are  little  more  than  large  Buzzards, 
and  a  great  deal  of  unnecessary  romance  has  been  shed  around  them.  Of 
the  Imperial  Eagle,  Mr.  A.  O.  Hume  writes  that  he  considers  it  no  better 
than  a  great  hulking  Kite.  In  India,  he  says,  it  is  an  ignoble  feeder,  and  he 
has  generally  found  the  birds  gorged  with  carrion.  After  a  good  meal,  they 


CRESTED  EAGLES-SERPENT-EAGLES.  315 


will  sit  stupidly  on  a  tree,  or  any  little  mud  pillar,  and  permit  you  to 
walk  within  thirty  yards  of  them,  but,  before  feeding,  they  are  somewhat 
wary,  and  can  by  no  means  always  be  secured,  even  when  seen  sitting.  On 
more  than  one  occasion  he  found  desert  rats  (Gerbillus  erythrurus)  in  their 
crops,  and  he  once  shot  one  of  a  pair,  which  were  busy  on  the  line  of  rails  at 
Etawah,  devouring  a  Bandicoot  rat  (Mus  bandicota\  which  some  passing 
train  had  cut  in  two.  Occasionally,  but  rarely,  they  had  eaten  snails  and 
other  birds.  Once  he  shot  a  male,  which  was  dancing  about  on  the  ground 
in  such  an  astounding  fashion  that  he  killed  it  to  see  what  the  matter  was. 
The  bird  proved  to  have  been  choking,  and  it  had  swallowed  a  whole  dry 
shin-bone  and  foot  of  an  antelope.  The  bone,  apparently,  could  not  be  got 
down  altogether,  and  in  trying  to  void  it,  the  sharp  points  of  the  hoof  had 
stuck  into  the  back  of  the  palate. 

There  are  many  other  kinds  of  Eagles,  such  as  the  Buzzard-Eagles 
(Arckibuteo),  and  the  members  of  the  genus  jEutolmaetus,  of  which  Bonelli's 
Eagle  (E.  fasciatus)  is  the  type,  and  the  Booted  Eagle  of  Southern  Europe 
(E.  pennatus)  is  another  well-known  member  of  the  genus.  Lophotriorchis 
is  another  remarkable  form,  with  a  well-developed  crest.  It  has  one  species, 
L.  kieneri,  found  in  India  and  the  Malay  Archipelago,  while  the  only  other 
species  occurs  in  the  mountains  of  Colombia  in  South  America,  a  very 
interesting  fact  in  geographical  distribution.  One  of  the  most  curious  of 
Eagles  is  the  Birds'-nesting  Eagle  (Neopus  malaiensis)  of  India  and  the 
Malayan  countries  and  islands.  Ic  is  a  black  bird,  with  powerful  talons  which 
are  nearly  straight.  It  spends  its  time  hunting  for  eggs  and  nestlings,  and  is 
continually  on  the  wing,  like  a  Kite.  "It  subsists,"  says  Colonel  Legge, 
"as  far  as  can  be  observed,  entirely  by  birds'-nesting,  and  is  not  content 
with  the  eggs  and  young  birds,  which  its  keen  sight  espies  among  the 
branches  of  the  forest  trees,  but  even  seizes  the  nest  in  its  talons,  decamps 
with  it,  and  often  examines  the  contents  as  it  sails  lazily  along."  Part  of 
a  bird's  nest  has  been  found  in  this  Eagle's  stomach. 

The  Crested  Eagles  (Spizaetus)  of  the  Indian  Region  and  the  Black  Eagle 
of  Africa  (Lophoaetus  occipitalis)  complete  the  list  of  feathered-legged  Eagles. 
All  the  rest  belong  to  the  bare-legged  section  which  have  the  tibio-tarsus 
unfeathered.  To  this  section  belong  the  Sea-Eagles  and  their  allies,  the 
Serpent-Eigles.  Of  the  latter  there  are  many  species  in  Africa  and  in  the 
Indian  Region,  the  best-known  being  the  members  of  the  genus  Circaetus  and 
Spilornis.  Of  the  former  we  have  one  species  in  Southern  Europe,  Circaetus 
gallicus,  but  the  true  Serpent-Eagles  (Spilornis)  are  inhabitants  of  India. 
The  amount  of  good  which  they  do  may  be  calculated  by  the  statement  of 
Mr.  A.  O.  Hume,  who  has  shot  numbers  of  these  birds,  that  he  found  fifty 
little  serpents  in  the  stomach  of  one  individual,  and  on  another  occasion  he 
knew  of  a  Cobra,  2^  ft.  in  length,  being  taken  out  of  a  Serpent-Eagle's 
stomach.  Butastur  is  another  oriental  genus,  and  the  Bateleur-Eagles 
(Helotarsus)  are  confined  to  Africa.  The  true  Sea-Eagles  (Haliaetus)  are 
nearly  world-wide  in  distribution,  but  they  are  absent  in  South  America. 
In  Europe  and  North  America  we  have  the  White-tailed  Eagle  (Haliaetus 
albicilla)  and  the  Bald  Eagle  (H.  leucoc,ephalus\  the  latter  remarkable  for  its 
pure  white  head.  The  Ethiopian  region  contains  a  beautiful  species, 
H.  vocifer,  and  one  of  the  most  widely  distributed  Birds  of  Prey  in  Australia 
and  the  East  is  H.  leiicogaster,  the  white-bellied  Sea-Eagle. 

From  the  Sea-Eagles  we  pass  to  the  Kites,  which  are  also  members  of  the 
sub-family  Aquilince.  At  first  sight  they  would  seem  to  have  no  connection 


3 1 6  A  VES— ORDER  A  CCIPITRIFORMES. 


with  Eagles,  but  they  are  connected  with  the  latter  birds  through  the 
Brahminy  Kites  (Haliastur).  These  birds  inhabit  India  and  Burma,  and 
extend  through  the  Malay  Archipelago  to  Australia.  The  Brahminy  Kite  of 
India  (Haliastur  Indus)  makes  a  nest  in  a  tree  very  much  like  that  of  a  Kite, 
and  lays  a  white  egg,  mottled  with  dots  and  hieroglyphics  of  reddish-brown. 

From  the  genus  Haliastur  is  an  easy  transition  through  the  African 
Swallow- tailed  Kite  (Nauclerus  riqcouri)  and  the  American  IS  wallow-tailed 
Kite  (Elanoides  furcatus)  to  the  typical  Kites  (Milvus).  The  Swallow-tailed 
Kite  of  America  is  a  lovely  and  most  graceful  bird,  ihe  back  and  tail  being 
black,  and  the  head  and  underparts  pure  white.  It  nests  in  the  Southern 
United  States,  and  winters  in  Brazil.  Florida  is  one  of  its  breeding  grounds, 
and  the  following  account  of  its  habits  is  given  by  Dr.  William  L.  Ralph  in 
Captain  Bendire's  "Life-History  of  North  American  Birds."  He  writes  : — 
"Excepting,  perhaps,  the  Turkey  Vulture,  I  think  that  this  bird  is  the  most 
graceful  of  any  when  on  the  wing.  It  has  the  same  easy  floating  motion, 
but  at  times  it  flies  very  rapidly  and  turns  very  quickly,  which  is  something 
I  have  never  seen  the  former  bird  do.  Their  motions  are  very  '  Swallow  '- 
like,  and  this,  with  their  forked'  tail,  makes  them  look  like  gigantic  Barn- 
Swallows;  and  like  the  Chimney-Swifts  they  have  a  habit  of  travelling 
together  in  small  companies,  usually  consisting  of  three  individuals, 
especially  when  they  first  return  from  the  South.  During  the  breeding 
season  flocks,  consisting  of  from  two  to  three  to  ten  or  twelve  birds,  but 
oftener  of  three,  may  be  seen  following  one  another  around,  frequently 
uttering  their  calls  and  circling  in  and  out  among  the  tree-tops  so  fast  as  to 
make  one  dizzy  to  look  at  them.  Except  during  this  season  one  seldom  sees 
one  of  these  birds  unless  it  is  flying,  and  I  have  often  wondered  if  they  did 
not  at  times  sleep  while  on  the  wing.  At  least  I  know  that  they  usually,  if 
not  always,  eat  while  flying,  for  I  have  many  times  seen  one  sailing  leisurely 
along,  occasionally  bending  its  head  to  tear  a  piece  from  a  small  snake  that 
it  held  in  its  talons,  and  I  have  never  seen  one  alight  to  eat  its  food,  like 
other  Birds  of  Prey." 

There  are  m<my  other  forms  of  Kite,  such  as  the  Hooked-billed  Kites 
(Rosthramufi),  the  Black-shouldered  Kites  (Elanus),  and  other  smill  genera, 
but  the  best  known  are,  of  course,  the  true  Kites  of  the  genus  Milvus.  In 
the  towns  and  villages  of  tropical  countries  of  the  Old  World  these  birds  are 
nearly  always  in  evidence,  flying  about  with  a  continuous  squeaking  cry. 
The  Common  Kite  is  nearly  extinct  in  England,  but  there  are  many  places 
on  the  Continent  where  it  is  still  plentiful ;  and  Mr.  Seebohm  gives  the 
following  account  of  its  habits  : — "  In  the  manner  of  taking  its  prey  the  Kite 
very  much  resembles  the  Buzzards,  and  even  the  Harriers.  It  is  by  no 
means  a  bold  and  powerful  bird,  for  a  clucking  hen  ^has  been  known  to 
put  it  to  flight,  and  the  fiery  little  Sparrow-Hawk  mobs  it  with  impunity. 
The  Kite  takes  its  food  upon  the  ground,  and  usually  catches  young  or 
weakly  birds  or  mammals,  and  also  does  not  even  refuse  to  make  a  meal  on 
carrion.  Like  all  rapacious  birds,  the  Kite  appears  to  have  some  favourite 
spot  which  serves  as  a  dining-table  or  larder,  where  the  food  brought  to  feed 
its  hungry  young  is  also  plucked  and  otherwise  prepared  for  them.  The  nest 
in  the  breeding  season  is  also  a  well-stocked  larder,  far  more  food  being  con- 
veyed thither  than  is  really  consumed.  In  these  places  may  be  seen  the 
remains  of  Grouse,  Plovers,  and  young  Curlews  and  Wild  Ducks.  In 
addition  to  this  food  the  Kite  also  takes  young  hares  and  rabbits,  mice  and 
rats,  frogs,  lizards,  more  rarely  snakes,  and  the  larger  coleopterous  insects 


KITES -HONE  Y- KITES.  3 1 7 


— creatures  that  are  taken  without  much  exertion  or  power.  In  former 
days,  when  the  Kite  was  more  abundant  in  these  islands  than  it  is  now, 
it  was  said  to  be  a  great  enemy  to  the  poultry,  young  chickens  forming 
a  favourite  object  of  its  pursuit.  At  the  present  day,  however,  the 
Kite  need  cause  the  poultry-keeper  no  alarm.  Its  haunt  now,  where  but 
a  remnant  of  its  former  numbers  find  a  last  retreat,  is  in  the  wildest 
districts  of  Scotland,  or  Wales,  where  the  Red  Grouse  is  probably  its 
favourite  fare.  How  the  Kite  manages  to  take  so  large  and  strong  a  bird  as 
a  cock  Red  Grouse  is  surprising ;  and  it  is  most  probably  only  the  young  and 
weakly  ones  that  fall  victims  to  its  swoop.  Mr.  Booth  also  suggests  that  the 
Peregrine  ofttimes  unwittingly  finds  the  Kite  a  meal,  and  puts  a  bird  in  its 
way  that  would  never  be  secured  unless  weakly  or  wounded.  As  is  well 
known,  that  bold,  rapacious  Falcon  often  strikes  a  bird  for  mere  sport,  and 
will  leave  it  where  it  lies  ;  and  there,  no  doubt,  it  is  sometimes  found  by  the 
less  active  Kite  and  conveyed  away.  The  note  of  the  Kite  may  be  compared 
to  a  wild  plaintive  scream  or  'mew,5  and  is  but  rarely  heard,  save  in  the 
breeding  season.  Unmusical  as  its  cry  may  be,  still  it  appears  to  be  full  of 
wild  harmony  with  the  rugged  scenery  of  its  haunts,  imbues  them  with  life, 
and,  when  heard  as  the  bird  is  flying  far  overhead,  lends  a  charm  to  districts 
where  other  bird  life  is  wanting." 

The  Kites  which  most  approach  the  Falcons  are  the  Perns  or  Honey- 
Kites.  These  have  a  peculiarly  soft  plumage,  unmistakable  to  the  touch  of  a 
practised  ornithologist ;  and  this  is  shared  by  many  of  the  Falcons,  showing  that 
it  is  practically  impossible  to  draw  distinctive  characters  between  the  sub- 
families of  Accipitrine  birds.  Thus  the  Buzzards  merge  into  the  Eagles,  and 
thence  through  the  Sea-Eagles  and  the  Brahminy  Kites  we  reach  the  true  Kites, 
and  from  them  the  Perns,  which  are  half  Falcons,  and  thence  the  transition 
is  easy  to  the  true  Falcons.  So  it  may  be  affirmed  that  there  is  scarcely  any 
order  of  birds  in  which  the  natural  connection  of  the  families,  sub-families, 
and  genera  are  better  maintained  and  exemplified  than  in  the  Accipitriformes. 

Some  of  the  most  curious  of  the  Perns,  and,  one  may  say,  of  all  Birds  of 
Prey,  are  the  Black  Perns  (Maeho&rhamphus).  They  are  nocturnal  birds, 
coming  forth  in  the  twilight  to  feed  on  bats  and  small  swifts.  One  species, 
M.  anderssoni,  is  Ethiopian,  being  found  in  Tropical  Africa  and  Madagascar ; 
while  the  second  species,  M.  cdcinus,  inhabits  Southern  Burma,  the  Malayan 
Peninsula,  Borneo,  and  extends  to  New  Guinea. 

These  birds  are  generally  called  Honey-'*  Buzzards,"  but  it  is  certainly 
wrong  to  think  of  them  as  Buzzards.     Their  habits,  their 
outward  form,  and,  above  all,  their  curious  softplumage,          The  Honey- 
all  point  to  their  affinities  with  the  Kites.     There  are        Kites.— Genus 
three  species  of  Honey-Kite,  Pernis  apivorus  of  Europe,  Pernis. 

P.  ptilonorhynchus  of  Tropical  Asia,  and  P.  celebensis  of 
Celebes. 

The  Falcons  differ  from  the  Kites,  which  immediately  precede  them,  and 
from  the  other  Birds  of  Prey  in  having  a  toothed  or  notched  bill.     In  some 
of  the  genera  there  is  a  distinct  double  tooth,  as  in  the 
Cuckoo-Falcons    (Baza).       These    are    very    interesting  The  True 

Hawks   on   account   of    their   geographical    distribution.        Falcons.— Sub- 
They  are  all  birds  of  the  forest  districts,  one  species  being     family  JFalcomncs. 
found    in   West   Africa,   another  in  Natal,    a   third    in 
Madagascar,  and  thence  eastwards  the  species  are  distributed  through  the 
Indian  Region  and  the  Moluccas  to  the  Bismarck  Archipelago  and  North- 


3 1 8  A  VES— ORDER  A  CCIP1TRIFORMES. 


Eastern  Australia.  These  birds  get  their  name  of  Cuckoo-Falcons  from 
their  large  Cuckoo-like  yellow  eyes  and  the  barred  plumage  of  the  lower 
surface  of  the  body,  which  is  like  that  of  a  Cuckoo. 

In  Central  and  South  America  the  Cuckoo-Falcons  are  represented  by  the 
Double-toothed  Falcons  (Harpagus),  and  in  the  same  parts  of  the  Neotropical 
region  occur  the  Grey  Kite-Falcons  (Ictinia),  one  of  which,  J.  mississipiensis, 
ranges  into  the  Southern  United  States.  All  these  genera  which  we  have 
recently  mentioned  belong  to  the  borderland  between  the  Kites  and  the 
Falcons.  They  have  the  characteristics  of  the  latter  birds,  united  to  Kite- 
like  plumage  and  habits,  and  they  further  differ  from  the  true  Falcons  in 
having  an  oval  nostril,  with  no  central  tubercle,  whereas  the  latter  birds 
have  a  rounded  nostril  with  a  central  tubercle.  The  habits  of  the  Mississippi 
Kite-Falcon  have  been  well  described  in  the  works  of  Captain  Bendire  and 
Dr.  A.  K.  Fisher.  The  latter  writes  : — "  The  food  of  this  species,  like  that 
of  the  Swallow- tailed  Kite,  consists  of  insects,  such  as  the  larger  beetles, 
grasshoppers,  and  locusts,  lizards,  small  snakes,  and  frogs.  It  never  has  been 
known  to  molest  birds  or  mammals,  except  to  drive  the  larger  species  away 
from  the  vicinity  of  its  nest.  Three  specimens  which  Wilson  examined  at 
Natchez,  Miss.,  contained  the  remains  of  beetles  ;  and  he  saw  them  flying 
about  the  trees  feeding  on  cicadas.  Dr.  Coues  mentions  one  shot  at  Bluff- 
ton,  S.C.,  whose  stomach  was  crammed  with  the  same  insects,  together  with 
a  few  Katydids.  It  is  wonderful  at  what  a  distance  its  keen  eyes  can  detect  a 
comparatively  small  insect.  Mr.  E.  W.  Nelson  says : — '  I  saw  them  repeatedly 
dart  with  unerring  aim  upon  some  luckless  grasshoppers  from  an  elevation  of 
at  least  100  yards.'  (Bull.  Essex  Inst.,  Vol.  IX.,  1877,  p.  58.)  As  regards 
the  economic  value  of  this  Kite  much  the  same  statement  may  be  made  as  of 
the  previous  species.  It  does  little  or  no  damage,  but  much  good.  Soon 
after  arriving  in  its  summer  home  it  begins  to  remodel  its  old  nest  or  the 
deserted  nest  of  some  other  bird,  and  more  rarely,  when  these  are  not  avail- 
able, it  builds  a  new  one.  The  remodelling  consists  in  patching  up  the  sides 
with  a  few  sticks  and  adding  a  sparse  lining  of  Spanish  moss  or  green  leaves. 
The  nest  is  usuilly  situated  in  the  tops  of  the  tallest  trees,  among  the  smaller 
branches,  where  it  is  well  concealed  by  the  foliage.  The  full  complement  of 
eggs,  usually  two  or  three  in  number,  is  deposited  by  the  middle  of  May, 
though  in  some  cases  it  must  be  much  earlier,  for  the  writer  once  secured  a 
young  bird  in  southern  Louisiana  at  the  end  of  May  which  had  already 
acquired  nearly  the  adult  plumage.  This  Kite  is  not  at  all  shy,  and  may 
be  secured  easily  as  it  sits  on  some  tall  stub  ;  in  fact,  Col.  N.  S.  Goss 
tells  of  shooting  a  pair  from  the  same  tree,  as  the  second  one  did  not 
move  at  the  report  of  the  gun,  but  looked  down  with  surprise  on  its 
fallen  companion.  It  is  said  to  be  morose  and  irritable  in  captivity, 
and  very  difficult  to  tame.  A  specimen  which  the  writer  once  wounded 
was  the  very  picture  of  rage,  as  with  flashing  eyes  and  erect  crest  it 
threw  itself  on  its  back  and  prepared  to  repel  the  aggressor  with  its 
talons.  This  species  is  fully  as  gregarious  as  any  of  the  other  Kites, 
and  oftentimes  may  be  seen  in  flocks  of  twenty  or  more  circling  over  a 
favourite  hunting  ground.  It  is  observed  most  frequently  around  the  border 
of  woods  in  the  vicinity  of  water,  and  is  particularly  fond  of  half-cleared 
ground  where  dead  trees  still  stand,  these  being  used  for  perches.  Its  flight 
is  as  varied  and  graceful  as  that  of  the  Swallow-tailed  Kite,  is  long  protracted, 
and  the  birds  often  ascend  to  so  great  a  height  as  to  be  barely  visible.  While 
soaring  high  in  the  air  its  flight  simulates  that  of  the  turkey-buzzard  very 


FAL  CONETS—JER-FALCONS. 


319 


closely,  and  as  the  two  birds  are  often  seen  together  the  Kite  looks  like  a 
miniature  of  the  other." 

A  curious  little  genus  of  true  Falcons  is  Microhierax,  the  members  of  which 
are  little  larger  than  sparrows.     They  inhabit  the  Indian  region,  especially 
the  Indo-Malayan  islands.     An  allied  genus,  Poliohierax, 
is   found   in   the  Burmese  Provinces   and  in  the  desert      The  Falconets. — 
regions  of  Africa,  and  the  two  species  known  present  this     Genus  Microhierax. 
unique  peculiarity  among  the  true  Falcons,  that  the  sexes 
differ  remarkably  in  colour,  the  males  being  grey,  while  the  females  have  a 
maroon-coloured  beak.     One  of  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  Falcons  is 
that  the  males  and  females  are  alike  in  colour,  but  the  latter  differ  markedly 
in  their  superior  size. 

The  true  Falcons  (Falco)  are  typified  in  our  Peregrine  Falcon  (F.  peregrinus), 
and  various  races  of  this  type  are  distributed  over  the  Old  and  New  Worlds, 
whilst  the  Lanner  (F,  feldeggii),  and  the  Juggur  Falcon  are  well-known 
representatives  of  the  same  type. 

These  birds  are  really  gigantic  Kestrels,  the  form  and  habit  of  the  birds 
being  those  of  the  true  Falcons,  while  the  formation  of  the  foot  is  that  of  a 
Kestrel,   the  outer  and  inner  toe  being  about  equal  in 
length,  whereas  in  the  genus  Falco  the  outer  toe  is  much     The  Noble  Falcons, 
longer  than  the  inner  one.     Hence  the  latter  birds  with     —Genus H ierofako. 
their  powerful  foot  are  the  Falcons  par  excellence.     It  is 
the  Peregrine  and  its  allies  which  are  the  chosen  bird  of  the  falconer,  while 
the  noble  Falcons  are  not  thought  much  of  by  them. 

As  I  have  said  before,  the  members  of  the  genus  Hierofalco  ought  to  be 
considered  as  gigantic  Kestrels.  They  have  the  same  proportions  of  the 
toes,  but  they  are  very  much  larger  than  any 
Kestrel.  They  are  principally  inhabitants  of  the 
Arctic  regions,  the  Greenland  Jer-Falcon  being,- 
like  the  Snowy  Owl  and  other  inhabitants  of  the 
snow-clad  regions  of  the  high  north,  almost 
entirely  white,  like  their  snowy  surroundings. 
Thus  the  Greenland  Jer-Falcon  is  an  inhabitant 
of  Labrador  and  Greenland,  occasional  stragglers, 
mostly  young  birds,  finding  their  way  to  Great 
Britain  and  various  countries  of  Europe.  The 
Iceland  Jer-Falcon  (Hierofalco  islandus)  inhabits 
Iceland,  and  also  occasionally  wanders  to  parts 
of  the  European  Continent,  while  in  Southern 
Greenland  its  place  is  taken  by  Holboell's  Jer- 
Falcon  (H.  holboelli).  In  Scandinavia,  and 
thence  across  Siberia  to  North  America,  occurs 
the  Norwegian  Jer-Falcon  (H.  gyrfalco).  Two 
other  species  complete  the  genus — one  the  Saker 
Jer-Falcon  (H.  saker}  inhabiting  South-Eastern 
Europe  and  Central  Asia  to  North-Western  India, 
while  Henderson's  Jer-Falcon  (H.  hendersoni)  is 
found  in  Thibet.  The  plumage  of  these  last  two 

species  is  rufous,   rather  than  grey   or  white,   and  they  look  like  largo 
Kestrels. 

Besides  the  Peregrine  Falcon,  we  find  in  the  genus  Falco  a  large 
assemblage  of  smaller  Falcons,  such  as  the  Hobby  (F.  subbuteo)  and  its 


Fig.  64. — TBK  GREENLAND  JER- 
FALCON 
(Hierofalco  candicans). 


320 


AVES— ORDER  ACCIPITRIFORMES. 


allies,  the  Merlin  (F.  cesalon)  and  kindred  species,  the  Lanner  (F.  feldeggii) 
and  several  other  Falcons  peculiar  to  the  tropical  portions  of  the  Old  and 
New  Worlds. 

The  Kestrels  differ  from  the  true  Falcons  in  having  the  outer  toe  short, 

and  about  equal  to  the  inner  toe  in  length.     They  are  birds  of  small  size, 

and   are   chiefly   insectivorous,    many   of   them   catching 

The  Kestrels.—       their  prey  on  the  wing,  and  devouring  it  as  they  fly.    They 

Genus  Cerchneis.       catch  a  large  number  of  field  mice,  and  are  everywhere 

a  real  friend  to  the  agriculturist.    In  Dr.  Fisher's  report 

on  the  American  Kestrel  and  its  food,  it  is  interesting  to  observe  that  in  the 

stomachs  of  a  large  series  (320)  examined,  few  remains  of  birds  were  found, 

but  a  considerable  number  of  mice.     The  chief  food  of   the  species  was, 

however,  grasshoppers,  locusts,  and  caterpillars. 

The   Ospreys,    or   Fishing    Hawks,   as    they   are   often    called,    hold   an 

intermediate  position  between  the  Hawks  and  the   Owls.      The  skeleton 

very  closely  approaches  that  of  the  latter  birds,  and  the 

The  Ospreys. —        Ospreys   have   another    character   in    common   with   the 

Sub-order  Owls,  viz.,  that  the  outer  toe  is  reversible,  and  can  be 

Pandwnes.  turned   backwards   or   forwards   at   will.       The   soles   of 

the     feet     are     likewise    furnished   with    spicules,    thus 

enabling  the  bird,  with  its  toes  distributed  nearly  at  right  angles  and  its 

spiked  soles,  to  seize  and  drag  from  the  water   the  large  fish  on  which 

it  preys. 

The  Osprey  is  now  a  very  rare  bird  in  Great  Britain,  and  is  only  found 
in  certain  parts  of  Scotland,  where  it  is  protected,  though  a  few  stragglers, 
mostly  young  birds,  are  shot  in  other  parts  of 
the  United  Kingdom  from  time  to  time.  The 
Osprey  is  a  cosmopolitan  species,  and  is  found 
nearly  over  the  whole  of  the  world,  the  birds 
from  the  Australian  region  being  slightly  smaller 
than  those  from  Europe  or  North  America.  The 
nest  of  the  Osprey  is  an  enormous  structure,  and 
is  placed  on  a  tree,  or  on  a  ruined  building. 
The  eggs  are  among  the  handsomest  of  those  of 
Birds  of  Prey. 

In  addition  to  the  reversible  toe  alluded  to 
above,    a   character  which  they  share  with  the 
Ospreys,  the  Owls  are  further 
The  Owls. —          distinguished    by    their    soft 
Sub-order  Striges.      plumage,  and  by  the  absence 
of  a  cere  or  waxlike  skin  at 
the  base  of  the  bill,  which  is  seen  in  almost  all 
the  true  Accepitres.       Owls   have   also  a  facial  fig.  65.— TUB  OBPRKTS 

disk,  which  is    surrounded  by  a  ring  of  short,  (Pandionhaiicetus). 

crisp  feathers  reaching  from  below  the  chin,  and    x 

extending  above  the  eye  to  the  base  of  the  bill.     The  nostrils  are  also 
generally  hidden  by  bristles,   and  the  eyes  are  directed 
The  Horned  and      forwards  instead  of  sideways. 

Wood-Owls. —  The    sub-order    Striges   contains   but    two    families — 

family  Bubonida.      BubonidcR,  comprising  the  Owls  generally,  and  the  Barn- 
Owls  (Strigidce).      In  these  birds  the  hind  margin  of  the 
sternum  or  breast- bone  has  two  distinct  clefts,  and  the  furcula  or  "merry- 


FISHING-GWLS— HORNED-OWLS.  321 


thought v>  bone  is  free,  and  not  united  to  the  keel  of  the  sternum.  There  is 
also  no  serration  or  pectination  of  the  claw  on  the  middle  toe,  such  as  is  seen 
in  the  Barn-Owls. 

In  the  Bubonidce  there  are  two  sub-families— the  Horned-Owls  (Bubonina) 
and  the  Wood-Owls  (Syrniince') .  In  the  former  the  facial  disk  is  not  so  dis- 
tinct, and  fails  in  intensity  above  the  eye,  whereas  in  the  Syrniince,  or  Wood- 
Owls  this  disk  is  fully  developed,  and  extends  as  far  above  the  eye  as  it  does 
below  it.  In  the  Horned-Owls,  again,  the  ear-conch,  always  a  striking 
feature  in  the  sub-order,  is  smaller  than  the  diameter  of  the  eye  itself,  and 
is  not  shut  in  by  an  opercular  fold.  In  the  Wood-Owls  the  ear-conch  is  very 
large,  exceeding  the  diameter  of  the  eye,  and  is  shut  in  by  a  very  distinct 
opercular  fold. 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  that  we  find  in  the  Owls  a  group  of  fishing 
species,  which  remind  us  of  the  Ospreys.  Like  the  latter  birds,  these  Owls 
have  spicules  on  their  feet,  and  they  have  likewise  bare 
tarsi,  which  is  doubtless  a  convenience  to  the  birds  in  The  Fishing-Owls, 
lieu  of  their  plunging  their  soft  downy  plumaged  legs  into  —Genus  Ketupa. 
the  water  ;  though  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  some  of 
the  feathered-legged  species,  such  as  the  Tawny-Owl  (Syrnium  aluco),  and 
the  Barn- Owl  (Strix  flammea) ,  do  not  hesitate  to  catch  fish  on  occasion.  The 
members  of  the  genus  Ketupa  are  found  in  India,  China,  and  the  Malayan 
Peninsula  and  Islands.  They  have  feathered  tufts  or  horns  on  their  head, 
and  are  represented  in  Africa  by  the  genus  Scotopelia,  which  has  three 
species  very  similar  to  those  of  Ketupa,  but  without  the  feathered  tufts  on  the 
head.  Mr.  Hume  says  that  the  Brown  Fish-Owl  of  India  (K.  ceylonensis) 
feeds  on  birds  and  small  Mammals,  and  it  is  also  known  to  eat  Crustacea. 
They  build  a  large  nest  on  the  cleft  of  a  rock,  or  on  a  broad  shelf  of  a  cliff, 
or  in  the  hole  of  a  tree,  while  sometimes  they  repair  a  nest  of  Pallas's  Sea 
Eagle  (Haliaetus  leucoryphus),  and  appropriate  it. 

Pel's  Fishing-Owl  is  a  very  handsome  bird,  discovered  by  Governor  Ptl 
on  the  Dutch  Gold  Coast  in  West  Africa.  He  saw  it  sitting  on  a  bough 
overhanging  the  Rio  Boutry  which  he  was  traversing  in 
his  boat.  Afterwards  it  was  re-discovered  in  the  Gambia,  Pel's  Fishing-Owl 
and  an  amusing  account  of  this  "  fetish  "  bird  is  given  by  (Scotopelia peli). 
Colonel  O'Connor,  who  had  one  alive  : — "  During  seven 
years'  exploration  of  Western  Africa,  I  only  met  with  one  specimen  of 
the  Owl  'Nero.'  He  was  brought  a3  a  chicken,  full  of  pen-feathers, 
or  rather  down,  of  a  delicate  straw-colour,  and  very  thick,  from  a 
lagoon  in  the  Bawa  country.  No  native  would  admit  '  Nero  *  as  a 
visitor ;  and  when  the  bird  was  installed  in  Government  House,  the 
servants  and  the  head  people  came  in  a  body  to  remonstrate,  asserting 
'he  was  a  "  Gumbi  Owl,"  a  "  Fettish "  !  ! !  and  would  destroy  and  kill 
whatever  object  he  looked  on.'  The  chief  groom  (an  old  soldier,  who  had 
charge  of  the  poultry)  insisted  that  every  cock  and  hen  would  go  dead. 
Strangely  enough,  an  epidemic  broke  out,  and  carried  off  fifty  to  sixty  head 
of  fowls ;  and  each  day  the  groom  placed  the  defunct  birds  on  the  steps  of 
Government  House  to  meet  the  eye  of  Mrs.  O'Connor,  seeming  to  exult  in 
the  mortality  amongst  the  feathered  tribe.  'You  see  wid  your  own  eye, 
Missus,  dat  debil  jumbi  bird,  he  go  kill  all  de  fowls  :  Governor  tink  he  hab 
long  head,  but  he  no  takey  owl :  suppose  you  put  him  in  de  stable,  he  see 
Nelly'  (Mrs.  O'Connor's  favourite  mare),  'de  horse  he  go  tumble  down  dead.' 
Death  at  last  ceased  to  reign  amongst  the  poultry  population,  and  Nero 
22 


322  AVES— SUB-ORDER  S TRICES. 


became  my  principal  pet.  He  ranged  over  the  Piazza,  perching  on  the 
branch  of  a  tree  ;  he  was  fed  regularly  by  the  orderly  on  roasted  fish,  but 
he  often  came  to  the  dinner-table  and  flew  down  for  scraps  of  meat  or  bread- 
and-butter,  which  he  took  gently  from  myself  or  Mrs.  O'Connor,  permitting 
us  to  rub  his  head,  crest,  neck,  and  back,  seemingly  enjoying  the  caressing. 
But  he  would  snatch  meat  or  bones  from  the  cat  or  dog,  and  when  the 
eagle  was  introduced  into  his  company,  he  beat  him  in  a  most  unmerciful 
manner  away  from  his  peculiar  and  original  portion  of  the  Piazza — the  eagle 
being  one  of  the  fiercest  and  most  pugnacious  of  African  birds,  brought  from 
the  upper  parts  of  the  Sabia  River  near  '  Wallie,'  and,  when  in  vigour,  able 
to  carry  away  a  kid  or  small  lamb.  Nero  luxuriated  in  a  tub  of  water, 
frequently  washing  himself  and  perching  himself  on  the  rim  until  dry.  He 
was  wont  to  go  out  to  the  garden  or  fields,  where  instantly  an  immense 
commotion  arose  among  all  the  birds  ;  the  larger  ones  flew  round  the  owl, 
keeping  a  very  civil  distance — the  smaller  birds  flew  away ;  but  Nero  treated 
both  alike  with  sovereign  contempt ;  he  would  return  of  his  own  accord  to 
the  roosting-place  in  the  Piazza,  and  when  put  out  and  confined  for  some 
days,  rejected  all  food,  and  pined  until  restored  to  his  perch.  With  me  he 
was  as  tame  as  any  canary,  and  after  an  absence  of  two  months  recognised  my 
voice  when  I  went  to  his  cage,  at  Oatlands  (Devon),  appearing  much  pleased 
by  my  taking  him  out  for  a  walk  on  the  grass.  Many  natives  from  the 
interior  told  me  they  had  not  seen  such  a  bird  before ;  but  they 
considered  him  unlucky." 

These  are  some  of  the  largest  of  all  the  Owls,  and  they  are  found  in  nearly 

every  part  of  the  globe  except  Australia.     The  Eagle-Owl  of  Europe  (Bubo 

bubo)  is  a  magnificent  species,  with  very  large  ear-tufts, 

The  Eagle-Owls.—     and  is  such  a  powerful  bird  that  it  even  kills  fawns,  as 

Genus  Bubo.  well  as  rabbits  and  hares,  and  is  very  destructive  to  game. 
It  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  forests  of  Europe,  nesting  in  a 
tree,  though  in  some  places  it  has  been  known  to  nest  on  the  ledge  of  a  cliff. 
The  eggs,  like  those  of  all  Owls,  are  pure  white. 

The  Eagle-Owl  of  North  America  (Bubo  virginianus),  according  to  Dr. 
A.  K.  Fisher,  devours  a  good  quantity  of  poultry,  but  feeds  chiefly  on  rats, 
mice,  and  other  rodents,  with  an  occasional  beetle  or  other  insect. 

These  are  little  birds,  seldom  exceeding  the  size  of  a  Thrush,  and  having 

the   appearnce   of   diminutive   Eagle-Owls.      Like   the   latter  they  have  a 

strongly    mottled    plumage    and    conspicuous    ear-tuft3. 

The  Tufted-Owls.      They   are    found    in   nearly   every   part   of    the    world, 

—Genus  Scops.        excepting   in   the    extreme   south    of    America    and    in 

Australia  and  the  Pacific  Islands.     The  species  of  Europe 

(Scops  scops)  is  distributed  over  the  greater  part  of  the  continent  below  the 

line  of  the  Baltic,   and  is  a   migratory  bird  :    it  occasionally  visits  Great 

Britain. 

This  large  Owl  is  of  the  size  of  the  Eagle-Owls,  and  like  them  it  has  ear- 
tufts,  though  these  are  very  small,  and  are  often  difficult  to  trace.  It  is 
distinguished  by  its  snowy-white  plumage,  and  is  an 
The  Snowy-Owl.—  inhabitant  of  the  Arctic  regions,  both  in  the  Old  and  New 

Nyctea  nyctea.         Worlds,  keeping  above  the   limit  of  forest-growth   and 

never  nesting  in  the  latter  districts.      It  is  a  day-flying 

Owl,  and  feeds  principally  on  mice  and  lemmings,  but  in  winter,  when  this 

food  fails  it,  the  Snowy-Owl  will  catch  grouse,  hares,  ducks,  and  it  has  even 

been  known  to  capture  fish.     It  makes  its  nest  on  the  ground  on  the  tundra 


HA  WK-OWLS— BURRO  WING-OWLS.  323 


or  on  a  ledge  of  a  bank,  and  it  lays  six  or  eight  white  eggs.  Sometimes  as 
many  as  ten  are  found  in  a  nest,  and  they  are  generally  laid  at  intervals, 
so  that  young  of  all  sizes  are  to  be  met  with,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
the  warmth  of  the  downy  young,  which  are  first  hatched,  contributes  to  the 
hatching  of  the  eggs  laid  later  on. 

From  its  long  tail  and  short  wings,  as  well  as  from  its  barred  under- 
surface,  this  Owl  bears  considerable  resemblance  to  a  Hawk,  whence  its 
popular  name.     The  soft  plumage  and  the  noiseless  flight, 
however,  distinguish  it  as  an  Owl  at  once.     It  is  a  diurnal       The  Hawk-Owl 
bird  in  its  habits,  like  the  Snowy-Owl,  and  is  often  seen        (/Surma  ulula). 
sitting  on  the  top  of  a  tree  on  the  lookout  for  its  prey. 
It  is  also  a  very  courageous  bird,  and  will  often  attack  anyone  who  attempts 
to  rob  its  nest.     The  latter  is  placed  in  a  tree,  either  in  a  cavity  or  in  old 
nests  among  the  branches.     The  eggs  are  white,  and  vary  in  number  from 
four  to  eight.     As  with  the  Snowy-Owl,  they  are  laid  at  intervals,  and  are 
found  in  various  stages  of  incubation. 

In  the  Old  World  are  found  the  group  of  Little  Owls  (Carine)  and  the 
Brown   Hawk-Owls   (Ninox),  and  these   are   replaced   in  America   by  the 
curious   Burrowing-Owls.      These    little   birds    associate 
with  the  prairie-dogs,  and  their  eggs  have  been  found  at       The  Burrowing- 
a   distance   of    10   ft.    from   the   mouth   of   the   burrow,         Owls.— Genus 
which  is  seldom  made 'by  the  birds  themselves.     It  has  Speotyto. 

often  been  recounted  how  the  Owls  and  the  prairie-dogs 
live  in  harmony  together,  and,  as  Professor  Elliot  Coues  says,  "  the  case  is 
further  complicated  by  the  introduction  of  the  rattlesnakes."  And  no  little 
pure  bosh  is  in  type  respecting  the  harmonious  and  confidential  relations 
imagined  to  subsist  between  the  trio,  which,  like  the  " happy  family"  of 
Barnum,  lead  Utopian  existences.  He  disposes  of  the  myth  as  follows  : — 
"  First,  as  to  the  reptiles,  it  may  be  observed  that  they  are,  like  other  rattle- 
snakes, dangerous,  venomous  creatures.  They  have  no  business  in  the 
burrows,  and  are  after  no  good  when  they  do  enter.  They  wriggle  into  the 
holes  partly  because  there  is  no  other  place  for  them  to  crawl  into  on  the 
bare,  flat  plain,  and  partly  in  search  of  Owl's  eggs,  owlets,  and  puppies  to 
eat.  Next,  the  Owls  are  simply  attracted  to  the  villages  of  the  prairie-dogs 
as  the  most  convenient  places  for  shelter  and  nidification,  where  they  find 
eligible,  ready-made  burrows,  and  are  spared  the  trouble  of  digging  for 
themselves.  Community  of  interest  makes  them  gregarious  to  an  extent 
unusual  among  rapacious  birds,  while  the  exigencies  of  life  in  the  plains  casts 
their  lot  with  the  rodents.  That  the  Owls  live  at  ease  in  the  settlements 
and  on  familiar  terms  with  their  four-footed  neighbours  is  an  undoubted 
fact,  but  that  they  inhabit  the  same  burrows,  or  have  any  intimate  domestic 
relations,  is  quite  another  thing.  It  is  no  proof  that  the  quadrupeds  and  the 
birds  live  together  that  they  are  so  often  seen  to  scuttle  at  each  other's  heels 
into  the  same  hole  when  alarmed,  for  in  such  case  the  two  simply  seek  the 
nearest  shelter  independently  of  each  other.  The  probability  is  that  young 
prairie-dogs  often  furnish  a  meal  to  the  Owls,  and  that,  in  return,  the  latter 
are  often  robbed  of  their  eggs  ;  while  certainly  the  young  of  both  and  the 
Owl's  eggs  are  eaten  by  the  snakes."  The  principal  food  of  the  Burrowing- 
Owl  consists  of  insects,  and  they  devour  large  numbers  of  locusts  and  grass- 
hoppers, though  the  birds  also  eat  a  great  many  rodents  ;  and  at  times  a 
great  quantity  of  food  has  been  found  stored  up  in  their  burrows. 

These  little  Owls  are  scarcely  bigger  than  Sparrows,  and  none  of  them 


324  A  VES—S UB-  ORDER  STRIGES, 


exceeds  a  Thrush  in  size.     They  are  widely  distributed  in  both  the  eastern 

and  western  hemispheres,  but  are  absent  in  Australia  and 

The  Owlets. —        the  Austro-Malayan  and  Pacific  Islands.     They  have  a 

Genus  Glaucidium.     very  rounded  wing,  and  a  swollen  cere  like  the  Little 

Owls  (Carine)  and  the  other  members  of  the  Bubonince  we 

have  just  been  considering.     Their  food  consists  mostly  of  insects,  and  the 

flight  of  Glaucidium  brodiei  of  the  Himalayas,  which  is  the  only  species  I  have 

seen  alive,  was  very  swift,  and  the  bird  appeared  to  be  perfectly  at  home  in 

daylight.    The  European  species  is  the  Pigmy  Owlet  (Glaucidium  pygmceum), 

and  in  North  America,  where  more  than  one  form  occurs,  we  learn  that  one 

of  the  species,  G.  gnoma,  an  inhabitant  of  the  Western  States  as  far  south  as 

the  highlands  of  Mexico,  is  not  only  an  insect-feeder,  but  also  devours  small 

birds  and  rodents,  as  well  as  lizards.     It  is  diurnal  in  its  habits  like  the  little 

ries  which  I  saw  in  the  Himalayas,  and,  like  others  of  its  kind,  breeds  in 
Woodpecker's  holes. 

We  have  already  alluded  to  the   characters   of   the   ear-conch    and   the 
operculum  which  separate  the  members  of  the  sub-family  Syrniince  from 
those  of  the  Bubonince.     Three  genera  are  recognised  in 
The  Eared- and       the  Syrniince,  viz.,  the  Horned-Owls  (Asio\  the  Wood- 
Wood-Owls—Sub-     Owls  (Syrnium),  and  the  Downy-Owls  (Nyctala). 
family  Syrniinat.          The  Horned,   or  Eared,   Owls,   as  they  are  generally 
called,  are  found  nearly  all  over  the  world,  and  our  Short- 
eared  Owl  (Asio  accipitrinus)  is  one  of  the  most  cosmopolitan  of  all  birds, 
nesting  in  the  north  and  migrating  south  in  winter.     It  is  one  of  the  most 
useful  of  all  the  Owls,  and  on  the  occasions  when  Voles 
The  Horned-Owls,     have  proved  such  a  plague  to  agriculturists,  the  Short- 
— Genus  Asio.        eared  Owls  have  appeared  in  the  stricken  districts,  and 
have  devoured  numbers  of  the  mischievous  rodents.     It 
also  follows  the  hordes  of  lemmings  and  preys  upon  them.      It  is  a  day- 
flying  bird,  and  nests  on  the  ground,  often  in  small  colonies.     The  Long- 
eared  Owl  (Asio  oius),  on  the  contrary,  is  a  forest-loving  bird,  and  comes  out 
chiefly  in  the  gloaming  and  at  night,  when  it  catches  large  numbers  of  mice 
and  other  small  rodents.     Several  pairs  are  often  found  in  the  same  neigh- 
bourhood, and   in   America   the   species   has   been  recorded   as  nesting  in 
company,  the  nest  being  generally  the  deserted  one  of  a  hawk  or  crow  of 
some  sort,  with  a  slight  lining  added.     It  very  rarely  nest?,  like  so  many  of 
the  other  Owls,  in  hollow  trees. 

The  Wood-Owls  differ  from  the  Horned-Owls  in  having  no  ear-tufts  of 
feathers  on  the  head,  and  in  having  much  less  of  a  cere  than  the  last-named 
birds.     The  typical  species  is  the  Wood-Owl  or  Tawny- 
The  Wood-Owls.—     Owl  of  Europe  (Syrnium  alueco),  which  is  entirely  a  wood- 
Genus  Syrnium.       land  bird,  nesting  in  holes  of  trees,  in  which  it  also  passes 
the  greater  part  of  the  day.     At  night  it  is  more  lively, 
and  its  hooting  note  is  often  heard  throughout  the  night.     Although  generally 
nesting  in  the  hollow  of  a  tree,  this  Owl  has  been  known  to  annex  a  Wood- 
Pigeon's  nest  or  a  squirrel's  "drey,"   or  the  deserted  nests  of  a  Crow  or 
Magpie,   while   a   rabbit's   burrow   has   also    been   known   to   be   occupied 
by   the   Tawny-Owl.       The   eggs   are   three   or   four   in   number   and   are 
white. 

Of  the  Downy-Owls  (Nyctala),  the  best  known  species  is  Tengmalm's  Owl 
(N.  tengmalmi),  an  inhabitant  of  Northern  Europe  and  North  America,  and 
in  the  latter  country  a  second  species,  N.  acadica,  occurs. 


WHITE  OWLS— PARROTS. 


325 


These  birds  differ  from  the  Bubonidce  in  having  a  pectinated  claw  to  the 
middle  toe.     The  hinder  margin  of  the  sternum  or  breast- 
Tie  White  Owls,      bone  is  without   notches,    and  the  furcula  or    "  merry  - 
— Family Stngidos.     thought"   bone   is   joined   to   the  keel  of  the  sternum. 
There   is  but  one  genus  in  the  family,   viz.,   Strix,   of 
which  our  own  Barn-Owl  or  White  Owl  is  the  type. 

The  present  species  is  nearly  world-wide  in  its  distribution,  but  does  not  occur 
very  far  to  the  north.  The  Barn-Owl  appears  to  follow  man  and  his  civilisa- 
tion, doubtless  from  the  fact  that  where  farms  are 
settled,  rats  and  mice  will  follow.  The  number 
of  mice  which  a  Barn-Owl  will  consume  is  really 
wonderful,  shrews  and  voles  being  also  taken  in 
great  numbers ;  and  Waterton  tells  us  that  a  mouse 
is  brought  to  the  nest  every  twelve  or  fifteen 
minutes,  while  we  ourselves  have  found  more  than 
forty  field-mice,  freshly  caught,  in  the  nest  of  one 
of  these  Owls.  They  will  also  catch  bats  in  small 
numbers,  and  occasionally  birds  form  part  of  their 
diet,  but  the  principal  food  of  the  Owl  consists  of 
small  rodents ;  and  it  may  confidently  be  said  that 
the  Barn-Owl  is  one  of  the  farmer's  best  friends. 
Dr.  A.  K.  Fisher,  in  his  report  on  the  "Hawks  and 
Owls  of  the  United  States  in  relation  to  Agricul- 
ture," says  that  he  scarcely  found  anything  but 
mice  in  the  stomachs  of  thirty-nine  Barn-Owls  he 
examined.  Four  birds  had  been  captured,  as  well 
as  locusts  and  other  insects,  but  the  staple  food 
was  mice  and  rats.  Besides  the  Barn-Owls,  which  have  a  mottled  plumage, 
there  are  a  couple  of  brown-backed  species,  known  as  Grass  Owls.  One 
inhabits  Africa,  and  bears  the  name  of  Strix  capensis,  while  in  India  and  the 
Malay  countries  to  Australia  and  the  Pacific  Islands,  a  second  species  (S. 
Candida)  occurs.  Both  these  birds  have  longer  legs  than  the  Barn-Owl,  and 
live  in  the  open  grassy  country. 

We  are  shortly  coming  to  the  Picarian  birds — the  Trogons,  the  King-fishers, 
and  such-like  forms.  Between  them  and  the  birds  which  we  have  hitherto 
passed  in  review  there  would  seem  to  be  but  little 
connection,  and  at  first  sight  none  but  the  Parrots 
afford  a  connecting  link.  They  have  been  placed 
in  all  sorts  of  different  positions  in  the  schemes  which 
have  been  propounded  for  the  classification  of  birds,  and 
they  have  been  recently  pushed  to  the  end  of  the  series  by  a  well-known 
anatomist,  because  he  did  not  know  where  else  to  place  them.  There  was 
reason  in  making  them  the  head  of  all  the  birds,  as  was  done  by  Blyth  and 
Bonaparte,  on  account  of  their  superior  intelligence,  for  the  same  reason 
that  the  monkeys  were  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Mammalia,  and  there  was 
also  sense  in  associating  them  with  the  climbing  birds  on  account  of  their 
zygodactyle  foot,  with  two  toes  directed  forwards  and  two  backwards.  They 
have,  however,  certain  characteristics  which  isolate  them  from  the  majority 
of  birds,  and  it  requires  a  little  consideration  to  determine  their  position  in 
the  natural  system.  Nowhere  does  their  place  appear  better  in  a  linear 
arrangement  of  birds  than  after  the  Accipitres  and  Striges,  leading  on  to  the 
Picarice.  Like  the  latter  birds  they  nest  in  holes,  and  lay  white  eggs,  but  so 


Fig.  68.— THE  BARN-OWL 
(Strix  flammea). 


The  Parrots.— 
Order 

Psittaciforntes. 


326  AVES— ORDER  PSITTACIFORMES. 


do  most  of  the  Owls.  The  Parrots  have  a  cere  which  is  distinctly  an 
Accipitrine  character,  and  the  Owls  have  semi-zygodactyle  foot,  not  very 
different  in  outward  appearance  from  that  of  the  Parrots.  Indeed,  it  was 
one  of  the  most  curious  of  my  experiences  to  see  a  Little  Owl  (Carirw  noctua) 
catch  a  black  beetle  and  eat  it.  It  held  the  beetle  between  its  toes,  exactly 
like  a  Parrot  takes  its  food,  and  munched  it  up,  holding  its  foot  like  a  hand 
to  take  the  insect  to  its  mouth. 

In  the  Parrots  the  palate  is  bridged  or  "  desmognathous,"  arid  the  upper 
mandible  is  movable  and  loosely  articulated  to  the  skull,  while  the  plantar 
tendons  are  like  those  of  the  Game-JBirds.  The  nestlings  of  Parrots  are 
decidedly  curious,  and  differ  from  those  of  Owls,  and  also  of  Picarian  birds. 
They  are  covered  with  a  dense  coating  of  down  of  a  dusky  colour,  but  appear 
to  be  completely  naked  when  first  hatched.  The  feathers  are  encased  in 
sheaths,  like  those  of  Picarian  birds,  and  these  sheaths  last  for  a  considerable 
time,  being  thrown  off  only  when  the  feather  itself  is  nearly  perfect,  so  that 
the  young  bird,  from  being  covered  with  bristly  spines,  becomes  all  at  once 
fully  feathered. 

Count  Salvador!,  who  has  monographed  the  Parrots  in  the  twentieth 
volume  of  the  British  Museum  "Catalogue  of  Birds,"  divides  them 
into  six  families,  the  Kaka  Parrots  (Nestoridce),  the  Lories  (Loriidce),  the 
Lorikeets  (Cydopsittacidce),  the  Cockatoos  (Cacatuidce),  the  true  Parrots 
(Psittacidce),  and  the  Owl-Parrots  (Stringopidce). 

In  this  family  the  tongue  is  fringed,  and  the  culmen  of  the  bill  is  grooved 
along  the  middle.  Ttie  species  are  now  confined  to  New  Zealand  ;  but 
Nestor  productus  and  N.  norfolcensis,  from  Philip  Island 
The  Kaka  and  Norfolk  Island  respectively,  though  now  extinct,  show 

Parrots.  —  Family  that  the  genus  extended,  in  former  times  at  least,  as  far  as 
Nestoridoe.  the  above-mentioned  localities.  The  Nestors  are  forest- 

loving  birds,  and  the  following  are  Sir  W.  Buller's  notes  on 
the  habits  of  the  Kaka  : — "This  is  one  of  our  highly  characteristic  forms,  and 
is  met  with,  more  or  less,  in  every  part  of  the  country.  Far  away  in  the 
depths  of  the  forest,  where  the  trees  are  clad  with  rich  mosses,  cryptograms, 
and  lycopods  to  their  very  tops,  where,  as  if  to  hide  the  mouldering  decay  of 
Nature,  huge  masses  of  green  vines  and  creeping  plants  cover  the  aged  trunks 
and  bind  the  bush  together — where  the  sunlight,  struggling  through  leafy 
tops,  discloses  here  and  there  a  feathery  tassel  of  Asplenium  flaccidum  hang- 
ing from  the  branches  or  a  clump  of  the  scarlet-flowered  mistletoe — there  the 
Kaka  is  at  home,  and  may  be  seen  twisting  and  turning  among  the  sprays, 
hopping  Cockatoo-fashion  along  a  branch,  then  climbing  higher  with  grace- 
ful agility  ;  resting  for  a  moment  to  whistle  for  his  mate  and,  when  he  has 
joined  him,  expressing  his  pleasure  in  a  sharp  chuckling  note,  like  the 
striking  together  of  two  quartz  pebbles  ;  then,  as  if  suspecting  some 
treachery  below,  he  suddenly  takes  wing  with  loud  cries  of  *  Kaka,' 
and  glides  smoothly  through  the  leafy  maze,  closely  followed  by  his 
spouse.  On  a  rear  view  the  brilliant  plumage  under  the  wings  is  very 
conspicuous  when  the  bird  is  flying  ;  but  when  the  bird  is  climbing  or 
hopping,  in  the  manner  habitual  to  it,  the  wings  are  kept  closed.  Then  on 
the  outskirts  of  the  forest  you  meet  with  him  again — more  generally  in  the 
early  morning — hunting  diligently  for  his  insect  food,  or  regaling  himself 
on  ripe  berries  of  various  kinds  in  the  thick  underwood  ;  and  towards 
evening  three  or  more  of  them  may  be  seen  in  company,  flying  high  above 
the  forest  level ;  then  alighting  on  the  withered,  naked  top  of  some  lofty 


KAKA  PARROTS— LORIES.  327 


kahikata  or  kauri  tree — always  perching  on  the  highest  points — resting  a  few 
moments,  and  taking  wing  again  till  they  are  fairly  out  of  sight.  In  the 
early  watches  of  the  night,  too,  especially  during  the  breeding  season,  and 
just  before  the  break  of  dawn,  its  peculiar  cry  betrays  its  wakeful  rest- 
lessness." 

The  same  author  writes  of  the  Kea  Parrot  (Nestor  notabilis)  : — "When 
hunting  for  food  in  its  wild  mountain  home,  it  may  be  seen  perched  for 
a  few  moments  on  a  jutting  rock  ;  then,  descending  to  the  ground  to  hunt  for 
grubs  and  insects,  or  to  gather  the  ripening  seeds  from  certain  Alpine  plants, 
it  disappears  for  a  time  and  then  mounts  to  the  summit  of  another  rock, 
just  as  I  have  seen  the  Common  Raven  doing  in  the  higher  parts  of 
the  Bernese  Alps.  On  the  level  ground  their  mode  of  locomotion  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  Kaka,  consisting  of  a  hopping  rather  than  a  walking 
movement.  Like  that  bird  also,  they  are  semi-nocturnal,  exhibiting  much 
activity  after  dusk  and  in  the  early  dawn.  The  cry  of  the  Kea,  as  generally 
heard  in  the  early  morning,  has  been  aptly  compared  to  the  mewing  of  a  cat ; 
but  it  likewise  utters  a  whistle,  a  chuckle,  and  a  suppressed  scream,  scarcely 
distinguishable  from  the  notes  of  it  noisy  congener.  But  the  most  interest- 
ing feature  in  the  history  of  this  bird  is  the  extraordinary  mariner  in  which, 
under  the  changed  conditions  of  the  country,  it  has  developed  a 
carnivorous  habit — manifesting  it,  in  the  first  instance,  by  a  fondness 
for  fresh  sheep-skins  and  other  station  offal,  and  then,  as  its  education 
progressed,  attacking  the  living  sheep  for  the  purpose  of  tearing  and 
devouring  the  kidney-fat,  and  inflicting  injuries  that  generally  prove 
fatal.  This  habit,  confined  at  first  to  only  a  few  of  the  more  enterprising 
birds,  soon  became  general,  and  it  is  a  common  thing  now  for  whole  parties 
of  them  to  combine  in  this  novel  hunt  after  live  mutton  !  So  destructive, 
indeed,  have  they  become  on  some  of  the  sheep-runs,  that  the  aid  of 
Parliament  has  been  invoked  to  abate  the  nuisance  by  offering  a  subsidy  to 
Kea-hunters.  Before  the  full  development  of  the  raptorial  habit  described 
above,  the  penchant  for  raw  flesh  exhibited  by  this  Parrot  in  its  wild  state 
was  very  remarkable.  Those  that  frequented  the  sheep  stations  soon 
manifested  a  distaste  for  all  other  food  and  lived  almost  exclusively  on  flesh. 
They  took  possession  of  sheep's  heads  that  were  thrown  out  from  the 
slaughter-shed,  and  picked  them  perfectly  clean,  leaving  nothing  but  the  bones. 
An  eye-witness  thus  described  this  operation: — "Perching  itself  on  the 
sheep's  head,  or  other  offal,  the  bird  proceeds  to  tear  off  the  skin  and  flesh, 
devouring  it  piecemeal,  after  the  manner  of  a  Hawk,  or  at  other  times  holding 
the  object  down  with  one  foot,  and  with  the  other  grasping  the  portion  it 
was  eating,  after  the  ordinary  fashion  of  Parrots." 

In  these  Parrots  the  tongue  is  furnished  with  a  kind  of  brush,  and  the 
culmen  is  smooth  and  not  grooved  along  the  middle.     The  Lories  are  birds 
of  brilliant  plumage,  and  since  Count  Salvadori's  review 
of  the  family  in  the  "Catalogue  of  Birds,"  Professor  St.         TheLories,- 
George     Mivart     has    published    a    monograph    of    the       Family  Loriida. 
Loriidce,,  beautifully  illustrated  by  Keulemans.    Following 
Salvadori's  arrangement,   Professor  Mivart   recognises  fourteen   genera   of 
Lories,   which  are  strongly  represented  in   the  Moluccan   sub- region,  and 
extend  west  to  Celebes,  and  eastwards  to  the  Australian  and  Pacific  sub- 
regions.     Although  many  of  the  Lories  are  well  known  as  cage-birds,  and 
the  species  are  well  represented  in  most  museums,  it  is  extraordinary  that 
so  little  information  is  forthcoming  as  to  their  habits,     Of  several  genera, 


328  AVES—  ORDER  PSITTACIFORMES. 


such  as  Chalcopsittacus,  Eos,  and  others,  scarcely  anything  is  known,  and  we 
have  only  been  able  to  gather  the  following  scanty  notes  from  Professor 
Mivart's  "Monograph"  to  give  us  some  idea  of  the  habits  of  the  LoriidoR. 
Of  Eos  rubiyinosa,  from  the  Caroline  Islands,  Dr.  Otto  Finsch  observes  : — 
"  This  Parrakeet  makes  itself  known  by  its  confinued  noise,  uttered  both  on 
the  wing  and  when  resting  in  the  foliage  of  high  trees.  It  is  not  at  all  a 
shy  bird,  approaching  fearlessly  the  neighbourhood  of  houses  and  plundering 
the  fruit  trees,  notwithstanding  all  the  means  taken  to  destroy  them.  They 
keep  mostly  in  pairs,  or  in  small  companies  of  from  three  to  five  ;  and  often, 
when  I  had  shot  one  of  a  flock,  the  remainder  would  come  down  to  their 
dying  comrade  and  share  the  same  fate." 

Of  the  Green-tailed  Lory  of  the  Solomon  Islands  (Lorius  chlorocercus),  an 
account  is  given,  by  Mr.  James  Marler,  of  a  pair  of  young  birds  :—  "For  a 
long  time  we  apprehended  that  they  would  starve  rather  than  go  to  the 
ground  for  their  food  ;  so  I  hit  on  the  device  of  hanging  it  to  the  wire 
swinging  loose  in  the  cage.  To  this  they  instantly  resorted,  holding  it  steady 
with  one  foot,  and  tearing  it  with  their  bills.  They  hang  and  feed  in  any 
position,  holding  sometimes  by  one  foot  and  twisting  round  in  every  direction. 
Often  in  their  play,  or  battles,  they  would  simultaneously  grasp  claws  and 
struggle  to  upset  each  other."  In  the  Pacific  we  find  the  genus  Vinia  con- 
fined to  the  Navigator's  Islands  and  the  Friendly  and  Fanning  groups.  Dr. 
Streets  gives  an  account  of  the  way  in  which  Kuhl's  Lory  (  Vinia  kuhli)  is  taken 
on  Washington  Island  : — "  When  the  islander  wishes  to  take  the  Lories  alive, 
he  provides  himself  with  two  pieces  of  bamboo,  each  about  a  yard  long.  On 
the  end  of  one  he  perches  a  tame  bird,  and  from  the  extremity  of  the  other 
suspends  a  short  running  noose  made  of  cocoa-nut  fibres.  The  decoy  bird, 
as  it  is  carried  about  among  the  cocoa-nut  trees,  utters  a  harsh,  rasping 
sound,  and  the  wild  birds  fly  down  from  the  trees  and  alight  alongside  it  on 
the  bamboo-stick,  when,  by  means  of  the  other  stick,  they  are  skilfully 
noosed.  When  caged  aboard  ship,  they  exhibited  as  pretty  a  picture  of  love 
as  one  can  imagine.  They  sat  billing  and  smoothing  each  other's  feathers 
for  hours,  and  as  night  came  on,  two  would  get  together,  and  sleep  with  their 
heads  turned  towards  each  other.  They  lived  in"  confinement  but  a  very 
short  time,  and  bore  it  badly.  At  times,  even  while  we  stood  watching  their 
lively  antics,  one  would  tumble  off  its  perch  and  die,  apparently  in  con- 
vulsions.'* The  most  numerously  represented  genus  of  the  Loriidce  is 
Trichoglossus,  which  is  distributed  over  the  greater  part  of  the  Australian 
Region,  and  the  Papuan  sub-region  also  presents  us  with  a  group  of  small 
pointed-tailed  Lories,  such  as  Hypocharmosyna  and  Oreopsittacus,  some  of 
which  are  not  much  larger  than  a  sparrow. 

Count  Sdlvadori's  next  family,  the  Cyclopsittacidce.,  contains  only  two  genera, 
Neopisttacus  and  Cyclopsittacus,  from  Papuasia  and  the  Molucca  Islands,  as 
well  as  Australia.  The  bill  is  deeper  than  in  the  other  two  families  noticed 
above,  and  the  size  of  the  birds  is  small. 

In  this  family  the  under  mandible  has  a  series  of  ridges  producing  a  file-like 

surface.     They  embrace  at  once  the  largest  and  the  smallest  of  the   Parrots, 

among  the  former  being  the  Cockatoos,  of  which  the  Great 

The  Cockatoos. —      Black  Cockatoo  (Microylossus  aterrimus)  is  an  immensely 

Family  Caeatuida.     powerful  bird,  while  the  members  of  the  genus  Nasiterna 

do  not  possess  the   bulk   of    a    sparrow.       The   White 

Cockatoos  are  generally  seen  in  this  country  in  a  state  of  captivity,  but  they 

form  an  interesting  feature  of  wild  Australian  bird-life,  as  may  be  seen  from 


COCKATOOS— PIGMY  PARROTS.  329 


the  following  note  given  by  Gould: — "The  crops  and  stomachs  of  those 
killed  were  very  muscular,  and  contained  seeds,  grain,  native  bread  (a  species 
of  fungus),  small  tuberous  and  bulbous  roots,  and  in  most  instances  large 
stones.  As  may  be  readily  imagined,  this  bird  is  not  regarded  with  favour  by 
the  agriculturist,  in  whose  fields  of  newly -sown  grain  and  ripening  maize 
it  commits  the  greatest  devastation ;  it  is  consequently  hunted  and  shot  down 
wherever  it  is  found,  a  circumstance  which  tends  much  to  lessen  its  numbers. 
It  evinces  a  decided  preference  for  the  open  plains  and  cleared  lands,  rather 
than  for  the  dense  brushes  near  the  coast ;  and,  except  when  feeding  or 
reposing  on  the  trees  after  a  repast,  the  presence  of  a  flock,  which  sometimes 
amounts  to  thousands,  is  certain  to  be  indicated  by  their  screaming  notes, 
the  discordance  of  which  may  be  easily  conceived  by  those  who  have  heard 
the  peculiarly  loud,  piercing,  grating  scream  of  the  bird  in  captivity,  always 
remembering  the  immense  increase  of  din  occasioned  by  the  large  number  of 
birds  emitting  their  harsh  notes  at  the  same  moment ;  still,  I  considered  this 
annoyance  amply  compensated  for  by  their  sprightly  actions  and  the  life  their 
snowy  forms  imparted  to  the  dense  and  never- varying  green  of  the  Australian 
forest — a  feeling  participated  in  by  Sir  Thomas  Mitchell,  who  says,  *  amidst 
the  umbrageous  foliage,  forming  dense  masses  of  shade,  the  White  Cockatoos 
sported  like  spirits  of  light.'  The  situations  chosen  for  the  purpose  of 
nidification  vary  with  the  nature  of  the  locality  the  bird  inhabits  ;  the  eggs 
are  usually  deposited  in  the  holes  of  trees,  but  they  are  also  placed  in  fissures 
in  rocks  wherever  they  may  present  a  convenient  site  ;  the  crevices  of  the 
white  cliffs  bordering  the  Murray  in  South  Australia,  are  annually  resorted 
to  for  this  purpose  by  thousands  of  this  bird,  and  are  said  to  be  completely 
honeycombed  by  them.  The  eggs  are  two  in  number,  of  a  pure  white  and 
rather  pointed  at  the  smaller  end." 

This  family  comprises  the  majority  of  the  species  of  the  order  Psittaci- 
formes.     They  differ  principally  from  the  Cacatuidce  in  having  the  orbital 
ring  generally  incomplete,  while  the  head  is  not  crested 
as  in  the  Cockatoos  and  their  allies.     These  are  small  The  True 

distinctions,  and,  as  Count  Salvadori  has  pointed  out,  the      Parrots.— Family 
two  families  above  named  can  scarcely  be  separated.     In  Psittacida, 

the  family  Psittacidce  are  comprised  all  the  Macaws  (Ara), 
the  Conures  (Conurus),  the  Amazons  (Chrysotis),  the  Long-tailed  Parrakeets 
(Palceornis,  Platycercus,  etc.),  as  well  as  the  true  Parrots  (Psittacus). 

Numerous  other  genera,  including  the  Love-Birds  (Psittacula,  Agapornis, 
etc.),  likewise  belong  to  this  section,  and  one  of  the  most  curious  of  all  is  the 
genus  Nasiterna.  It  consists  of  some  little  birds,  less  than  a  sparrow  in  size, 
inhabiting  New  Guinea  and  the  neighbouring  groups  of  islands.  Their  small 
size  renders  them  difficult  of  observation,  and  little  has  been  recorded  of 
their  habits.  Baron  von  Rosenberg  found  the  Pigmy  Parrot  of  Mafoor 
Island  in  Geelvink  Bay  (N.  maforensis)  nesting  in  holes  of  trees,  the  eggs 
being  white,  and  not  larger  than  those  of  the  Bottle-Tit  of  Europe.  Of  the 
Pigmy  Parrot  of  New  Guinea  (N.  pygmo&a)  Dr.  Meyer  writes  : — "I  got  this 
bird  only  near  the  foot  of  the  Arfak  Mountains,  in  New  Guinea,  where,  at 
Andai,  I  procured  specimens  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  There  this  lovely 
little  Parrot  was  sleeping  on  the  lower  branches  of  the  trees,  and  could  be 
whipped  off  with  a  stick.  This  is  also  the  case  with  other  Parrots  which  are 
allied  to  the  Cacatua  group.  I  may  mention  Cydopsitta  lunulata,  from  the 
Philippine  Islands,  the  individuals  of  which  species  sleep  in  the  middle  of 
the  hot  tropical  day  in  rows  under  the  shade  of  the  foliage,  when  one  after 


33° 


AVES— ORDER  PSITTACIFORMES. 


another  can  be  shot  down  without  the  survivors  attempting  to  fly  away.  It 
may  be  imagined  how  soundly  they  sleep  when  the  noise  of  the  shot  does  not 
disturb  them ;  and  it  is  the  same  with  Nasiterna.  At  other  times  of  the  day 
it  is  difficult  to  procure,  as  it  lives  in  the  high  trees,  where  its  small  size  and 
green  plumage  form  a  sufficient  protection.5' 

Space  does  not  permit  of  a  full  discussion  of  the  habits  and  ways  of  all  the 
Parrots,  which  are,  after  all,  very  similar  ;  but,  as  the  Grey  Parrot  is  a  typical 

representative  of  the  family  Psittacidce,  I 
give  a  few  extracts  from  the  account 
published  by  Mr.  J.  G.  Keulemans,  who 
studied  the  habits  of  the  species  in  Prince's 
Island,  in  the  Bight  of  Benin.  In  this 
West  African  island  the  Grey  Parrot  is 
very  common,  and  does  a  great  deal  of 
mischief  to  the  maize  fields.  The  birds 
resort  in  great  numbers  to  certain  parts 
of  the  forest  to  roost.  Although  he 
ultimately  discovered  the  nesting-place  of 
the  Parrots,  it  was  not  easy  to  find  the 
actual  nests,  though  the  cries  of  the  birds 
convinced  him  that  hundreds  were  con- 
cealed in  the  dense  foliage  around  him. 
His  servant  at  last  found  a  nest,  but  as 
darkness  was  coming  on  fast,  the  tree 
was  marked  for  operations  on  the  following 
morning.  "While  thus  occupied/'  says 
Mr.  Keulemans,  "troops  of  Parrots 
approached  from  different  sides  and  settled 
among  the  trees.  As  for  ourselves,  we  found  capital  shelter  under  a  clump 
of  bushes,  where  we  concealed  ourselves,  and  thence  we  observed  the  doings 
of  the  Parrots  around  us.  Some  were  climbing  and  hanging  on  branches, 
others  flying  and  scampering  through  the  foliage.  We  saw  them  perching 
close  to  each  other,  and  afterwards  five  or  six  settled  just  above  our  shelter. 
Numbers  came  from  all  sides,  and  the  chattering  which  we  had  previously 
heard  at  the  distance  was  by  this  time  close  to  us.  There  was  a  noise  of 
whistling,  screaming,  quarrelling,  and  the  breaking  of  dead  branches.  We 
saw  them  pass  before  us  and  settle  on  the  trees.  At  this  time  we  must  have 
been  surrounded  by  hundreds  of  Parrots.  Being  now  almost  dark,  and  having 
to  pass  the  night  in  the  open  air,  it  was  time  to  take  steps  to  make  our 
sojourn  in  the  forest  as  comfortable  as  possible.  A  fire  being  the  first 
necessity,  we  left  our  shelter  in  order  to  gather  some  of  the  dead  palm-leaves 
that  lay  about.  As  we  emerged  from  our  covert  the  Parrots  perceived  us, 
and  in  a  moment  the  whole  place  was  ringing  with  their  deafening  screams. 
The  fire  was  soon  made,  and,  burning  up  quickly,  it  cast  a  cheerful  light  and 
warmth  around  the  spot,  rendering  our  bivouac  more  agreeable  ;  and  the 
Parrots,  attracted  by  the  unusual  sight,  kept  flying  over  and  around  the  place 
thus  illuminated.  An  hour  afterwards,  quiet  being  restored,  we  proceeded 
to  get  our  supper,  consisting  of  roasted  bananas.  This  being  finished, 
we  dried  some  moss  to  serve  for  a  bed,  and  retired  ;  but  the  night  was  so 
cold,  and  the  mosquitos  kept  stinging  my  face  so  pertinaciously,  that  it  was 
impossible  to  sleep,  so  I  got  up  and  roasted  some  more  bananas,  smoked  a 
pipe,  and  then  felt  quite  ready  to  go  in  pursuit  of  the  birds.  As  it  wanted 


Fig.  67.— THIS  GRBY  PARROT 
(Puittacus  erithacus). 


GRE  Y  PARROTS— GRO UND  PARROTS.  33 1 


some  three  hours  to  daylight,  I  occupied  myself  in  preparing  lime  sticks  and 
making  snares.  On  the  appearance  of  the  first  streak  of  dawn,  we  proceeded 
to  the  tree  where  a  nest  was  suspected  to  be.  My  black  man,  being  a  capital 
climber,  went  up  to  the  hole,  and  looking  in  found  two  young  Parrots,  which 
he  carefully  tied  up  in  a  pocket  handkerchief  and  lowered  down  to  me ;  the 
little  things  seemed  to  be  about  a  fortnight  old,  and  readily  took  some  banana 
I  offered  them.  The  old  birds  were  absent,  probably  seeking  food  ;  at  least, 
we  did  not  see  them.  The  two  young  ones  we  fastened  with  string  to  the 
trunk  of  the  tree,  and  placed  some  lime  sticks  round  about  them.  In  this 
way  we  caught  one  of  the  parent  birds,  the  securing  of  which  was  a  matter  of 
some  difficulty,  owing  to  the  resistance  it  made.  We  put  the  freshly  caught 
old  bird  in  a  linen  bag,  and  fastened  it  beside  the  young  ones.  In  a  few 
minutes  our  captive  began  to  turn  round  and  round,  at  the  same  time 
screaming  vociferously ;  this  quickly  attracted  the  attention  of  the  Parrots 
in  the  neighbourhood,  which  came  near,  gazing  with  astonishment  at  the 
bag  which  contained  their  mysteriously  hidden  comrade.  One,  more  bold 
than  the  rest,  flew  down  and  settled  on  a  limed  stick,  but  its  struggles  were 
so  violent  that  it  succeeded  in  getting  away.  I  then  took  my  gun  and  shot 
two  individuals,  the  others  immediately  taking  flight." 

The  last  genera  of  the  Psittacidce  are  the  Ground  Parrots  (Pezoporus  and 
Geopsittacus)  of  Australia,  and  these  lead  us  to  the  remarkable  Kakapo  or 

Owl-Parrot  of    New  Zealand.      This  is  a  large  bird,   of 

The  Owl-Parrot. green,  moss-like  plumage,  which  is  remarkable  for  having 

Stringops  fully    developed     wings,    but    which,    like    other    New 

habroptllus.          Zealand  birds,  is  incapable  of  flight.     This  is  shown  by 

the  sternum  of  the  bird,  which  has  become  so  reduced 
that  a  keel  no  longer  exists,  and  the  bird  can  no  longer  fly.  Of  the  habits 
of  this  curious  Parrot,  Sir  Walter  Buller,  the  historian  of  New  Zealand 
birds,  writes  as  follows: — "  During  the  day  it  remains  hid  in  holes  under  the 
roots  of  trees  or  rocks,  or,  very  rarely,  perched  on  the  boughs  of  trees  with 
a  very  dense,  thick  foliage.  At  these  times  it  appears  stupid  from  its  profound 
sleep,  and  if  disturbed  or  taken  from  its  hole,  immediately  runs  and  tries  to 
hide  itself  again,  delighting,  if  practicable,  to  cover  itself  in  a  heap  of  soft, 
dry  grass.  About  sunset  it  becomes  lively  and  animated,  and  playfully  issues 
forth  from  its  retreat,  and  feeds  on  grass,  weeds,  vegetables,  fruits,  seeds, 
and  roots.  When  eating  grass  it  rather  grazes  than  feeds,  nibbling  the 
grass  in  the  manner  of  a  rabbit  or  wombat.  It  sometimes  climbs  trees,  but 
generally  remains  upon  the  ground,  and  only  uses  its  short  wings  for  the 
purpose  of  aiding  its  progress  when  running,  balancing  itself  when  on 
a  tree,  or  in  making  a  short  descent,  half  jump,  half  flight,  from  a  higher 
to  a  lower  bough.  When  feeding,  if  pleased  with  its  food,  it  makes  a  con- 
tinued grunting  noise.  It  is  a  greedy  bird,  and  choice  in  its  food,  showing 
an  evident  relish  for  anything  of  which  it  is  fond.  It  cries  repeatedly  during 
the  night,  with  a  noise  not  very  unlike  that  of  the  Kaka  (Nestor  meridionalis) , 
but  not  so  loud.  The  Kakapo  is  a  very  clever  and  intelligent  bird  ;  in  fact, 
singularly  so  ;  it  contracts  a  strong  affection  for  those  who  are  kind  to  it,  shows 
its  affection  by  climbing  about  and  rubbing  itself  against  its  friend,  and  is 
eminently  a  social  and  playful  bird.  Indeed,  were  it  not  for  its  dirty  habits 
it  would  make  a  far  better  pet  than  other  bird  with  which  I  am  acquainted, 
for  its  manner  of  showing  its  attachment  by  playfulness  and  fondling  is  more 
like  that  of  a  dog  than  a  bird.  It  builds  in  holes  under  trees  and  rocks,  and 
lays  two  or  three  white  eggs,  about  the  size  of  a  pullet's,  in  the  month  of 


332 


AVES— ORDER  CORACIIFORMES. 


The  Picarian 
Birds.— Order 

Coraciijormcs. 


February,  and  the  young  birds  are  found  in  March.  At  present  (1884)  the 
bird  is  known  only  to  exist  in  the  Middle  Island  of  New  Zealand,  on  the 
West  Coast,  between  Chalky  Harbour  and  Jackson's  Bay,  and  in  the  Northern 
Island,  about  the  sources  of  the  Waganui,  and  in  part  of  the  Taupo  countries. 
It  was,  within  the  recollection  of  the  old  people,  abundant  in  every  part  of 
New  Zealand  ;  and  they  say  it  has  been  exterminated  by  the  cats  introduced 
by  the  Europeans,  which  are  now  found  wild  and  in  great  numbers  in  every 
part  of  the  country.  They  say  also  that  the  large  rat  introduced  from 
Europe  has  done  its  part  in  the  work  of  destruction.  The  natives  assert 
that,  when  the  breeding  season  is  over,  the  Kakapo  lives  in  societies  of  five 
or  six  in  the  same  hole,  that  it  is  a  provident  bird,  and  lays  up  in  the  fine 
season  a  store  of  fern  roots  for  the  bad  weather." 

This  large  order  contains  a  number  of  sub-orders,  which  will  be  treated  of 
below  in  detail.     They  are  very  different  in  outward  form  from  each  other 
as  well  as  in  habits  and  in  structure,  but  they  have  one 
striking  character  in  common,  which  separates  them  from 
the  Perching   birds   or   Passeriformes,    and   that   is   the 
arrangement  of  the  deep  plantar  tendons  of  the  foot.     In 
the  Picarian  birds  the  hallux  or  hind  toe  is  connected 
with  the  flexor  perforans  digitorum  and  not  with  the  flexor  longu&  hallucis. 
In  all  other  birds  an  exactly  opposite  arrangement  takes  place. 

These  curious  birds  cannot  be  reckoned  to  be  Nightjars,. although  they  have 
the  outward  appearance  of  being  members  of  the  latter  group.     Their  habits 
are  crepuscular  like  those  of  the  Caprimidgidce,  but  there 
are  many  characters  which  show  that  they  are  not  true 
Nightjars,  but  constitute  a  sub-order  apart.     They   lay 
white  eggs,   which  no  Nightjar   ever   does,  the  sternum 
has  two  notches  on  its  hinder  margin,  and  there  are  other 
osteological  features  which  distinguish  the  Oil-Bird. 

The  colour  of  this  singular  species  is  reddish  brown  inclining  to  chestnut, 
with  small  triangular  white  spots  on  the  head  and  neck,  and  cross-barrings  of 
blackish  on  most  of  the  upper  parts,  and  white  spots  on  the  median  wing- 
coverts  ;  the  under  surface  is  pale  chestnut,  suffused  with  greyish. 

The  Oil-Bird  (Steatornis  gariepensis),  or  Guacharo,  as  it  is  usually  called, 
is  an  inhabitant  of  South  America,  from  Guiana  to  Venezuela  and  Co  ombia, 

and  thence  south  to  Ecuador  and 
Peru.  The  best  account  of  the  habits  of 
this  curious  bird  is  that  given  by  Mr. 
Jean  Stolzmann,  the  celebrated  explorer 
of  Northern  Peru.  He  states  that 
the  Guacharo  passes  "the  whole  day  in 
the  caves,  hiding  itself  in  the  inaccessible 
ledges,  and  if  startled  by  a  cry  or  by  a 
shot  they  make  for  the  roof  of  the 
cave,  uttering  piercing  cries.  A  pro- 
miscuous discharge  among  the  flying 
birds  is  usually  attended  with  no  result, 
as  it  is  impossible  to  take  aim  in  the 
darkness,  and  out  of  sixty  shots  which  he 
fired  in  the  Ninabamba  grotto,  the  result  was  only  eleven  birds.  After  they 
become  tired  they  return  to  their  holes,  one  by  one,  and  it  is  afterwards  im- 
possible to  make  them  budge  by  any  noise  whatever.  Scarcely  has  twilight 


The  Oil-Birds.— 
Sub-order 

Steatornithes. 


Fig.  68.— THR  OIU-BIHD 
(Steatornis  cariepensis). 


OIL-BIRDS—FROG-MO  UTHS* 


333 


set  in,  and  while  still  the  west  is  lit  up  by  the  setting  sun,  the  Guacharos  come 
out  of  their  caves  and  fly  over  the  forests  at  a  considerable  height,  their  move- 
ments being  very  much  like  those  of  Nightjars,  but  they  never  utter  any 
note.  They  feed  later  on  in  the  darkness  on  the  fruits  of  Nectandra 
trees,  and  those  fruits  they  seize  while  in  full  flight."  The  stones  of 
the  fruit  are  afterwards  rejected,  and  Dr.  Bevan  Rake  found  large 
quantities  of  such  stones  on  the  floor  of  the  caves  in  Trinidad,  which  ho 
visited  in  order  to  procure  some  nests  and  young  birds.  The  eggs  are  two 
in  number,  as  a  rule,  but  three  and  even  four  have  been  found  ;  as 
before  recorded,  they  are  white.  The  nest  is  a  round  pile,  about  a 
foot  in  height,  and  a  little  more  in  diameter,  looking  like  a  mass  of 
grey  clay  in  the  form  of  a  cheese,  and  when  the  young  are  about  a 
fortnight  old,  they  become  very  fat,  so  much  so  that  the  birds  appear 
as  if  entirely  hidden  under  a  thick  layer  of  yellow  grease.  It  is  from 
this  peculiar  development  of  its  young  that  the  Guacharo  gets  its 
name  of  "Oil-Bird."  The  Indians  are  in  the  habit  of  visiting  the 
caves  at  the  time  when  the  young  are  sufficiently  grown,  and  of  killing 
the  latter  by  hundreds,  melting  down  the  fat  into  earthern  jars,  and 
this  fat  is  known  by  the  name  of  guacharo-butter.  Stolzmann  says 
that  the  note  of  the  Guacharo  is  very  disagreeable,  being  a  loud 
cri-cri-coori  ? 

These  thick-headed  birds,  with  their  soft  owl-like  plumage,  might  well 
pass  for  relations  of  the  Striges,  and,  like  the  latter  birds,  they  are  strictly 
nocturnal  in  their  habits.     They  are  oriental  in  habitat, 
being  found  only  in  the  Indian  and  Australian  regions. 
The  palate  is  desmognathous  or  bridged,  and  the  absence 
of  any  pectination  or  comb-like  process  on  the  claw  of  the 
middle  toe,  shows  that  they  are  not  very  closely  allied  to 
the  Nightjars,  notwithstanding  their  external  resemblance.      The   Podargi 
contain  but  one  family,  with  two  sub-families,  Podargince  and  ^Egothelina. 
In  the  first-named  powder-down  patches  are  present, 
and  the  nostrils  are  linear  and   hidden  by  bristles, 
while  in  the  ^Egothelince  there  are  no  powder-downs, 
and  the  nostrils  are  open  and  exposed. 

The  sub-family  Podargince  contains  but  two  genera, 
Podargus  and  Batrachostomus. 

The  Frog-mouths  are  birds  of  mottled  plumage, 
the  genus  Podargus  being  confined  to  Australia  and 
the  Papuan  Islands.  Of  the  habits  of  the  Tawny- 
shouldered  Frog-mouth  (Podargus  strigoides),  Gould 
gives  the  following  account : — **  Like  the  rest  of  the 
genus,  this  species  is  strictly  nocturnal,  sleeping 
throughout  the  day  on  the  dead  branch  of  a  tree,  in 
an  upright  position  across,  and  never  parallel  to,  the 
branch,  which  it  so  nearly  resembles  as  scarcely 
to  be  distinguishable  from  it.  I  have  occasionally 
seen  ifc  beneath  the  thick  foliage  of  the  Casuarince, 
and  I  have  been  informed  that  it  sometimes  shelters 
itself  in  the  hollow  trunks  of  the  Eucalypti,  but  I 
never  could  detect  one  in  such  a  situation.  I  mostly  found  them  in  pairs, 
perched  near  each  other  on  the  branches  of  the  gums,  in  situations  not  at 
all  sheltered  from  the  beams  of  the  mid-day  sun.  So  lethargic  are  its 


The  Frog-Mouths. 
— Sub-order 

Podargi. 


Fig.  69.—  THE  TAWNY- 
SHOULDERED  FROG-MOUTH 
(Podargus  strigoides). 


334  AVES-SUB-ORDER  PCDARGL 


slumbers  that  it  ia  almost  impossible  to  arouse  it,  and  I  have  frequently 
shot  one  without  disturbing  its  mate  sitting  close  by  ;  it  may  also  be 
knocked  off  by  sticks  or  stones,  and  sometimes  is  even  taken  with 
the  hand.  When  aroused,  it  flies  lazily  off  with  heavy  flapping  wings 
to  a  neighbouring  tree,  and  again  resumes  its  slumbers  until  the 
approach  of  evening,  when  it  becomes  as  animated  and  active  as  it 
had  been  previously  dull  and  stupid.  The  stomach  of  one  I  dissected 
induced  me  to  believe  that  it  does  not  usually  capture  its  prey  while  on  the 
wing,  or  subsist  upon  nocturnal  insects  alone,  but  that  it  is  in  the  habit  of 
creeping  among  the  branches  in  search  of  such  as  are  in  a  state  of  repose. 
The  power  it  possesses  of  shifting  the  position  of  the  outer  toe  backwards, 
as  circumstances  require,  is  a  very  singular* feature,  and  may  also  tend  to 
assist  it  in  its  progress  among  the  branches.  A  bird  I  shot  at  Yarrundi, 
in  the  middle  of  the  night,  had  the  stomach  filled  with  fresh-captured  mantis 
and  locusts  (Phasmidw  and  Cicadas),  which  seldom  move  at  night,  and  the 
latter  of  which  are  generally  resting  against  upright  holes  of  the  trees.  In 
other  specimens  I  found  the  remains  of  small  coleoptera,  intermingled  with 
the  fibres  of  the  roots  of  what  appeared  to  be  a  parasitic  plant,  such  as  would 
be  found  in  decayed  ana  hollow  trees.  The  whole  contour  of  the  bird  shows 
that  it  is  not  formed  for  extensive  flight  or  for  performing  those  rapid 
evolutions  that  are  necessary  for  the  capture  of  its  prey  in  the  air,  the  wing 
being  short  and  concave  in  comparison  with  those  of  the  true  aerial  Night- 
jars, and  particularly  with  the  Australian  form  to  which  I  have  given  the 
name  Eurostopodus.  Of  its  mode  of  nidification  I  can  speak  with  confidence, 
having  seen  many  pairs  breeding  during  my  rambles  in  the  woods.  It  makes 
a  slightly-constructed  flat  nest  of  sticks  carelessly  interwoven  together,  and 
placed  at  the  fork  of  a  horizontal  branch  of  sufficient  size  to  ensure  its 
safety  ;  the  trees  most  frequently  are  the  Eucalypti,  but  I  have  occasionally 
seen  the  nest  on  an  apple-tree  (Angophora)  or  a  swamp-oak  (Casuarina).  In 
every  instance  one  of  the  birds  was  sitting  on  the  eggs  and  the  other  perched 
on  a  neighbouring  bough,  both  invariably  asleep ;  that  the  male  participates  in 
the  duty  of  incubation  I  ascertained  by  having  shot  a  bird  on  the  nest,  which, 
on  dissection,  proved  to  be  a  male.  The  eggs  are  generally  two  in  number, 
of  a  beautiful  immaculate  white.  The  night-call  of  this  species  is  a  loud 
hoarse  noise,  consisting  of  two  distinct  sounds  which  cannot  be  correctly 
described." 

The  Frog-mouths  of  the  genus  Batrachostomus  are  smaller  birds,  as  a  rule, 
than  the  Podargi,  and  inhabit  the  Indo- Malay  an  region.  Some,  like  the 
Eared  Frog-mouth  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  have  long  ear  tufts,  and  many  of 
them  have  the  mouth  beset  with  long  bristly  hairs.  The  Owlet-Nightjars 
(dEgotheles)  are  the  sole  representatives  of  the  sub-family  ^Egothelince.  They 
inhabit  Australia  and  the  Papuan  Islands  and  the  Moluccas.  Gould  describes 
the  Australian  species  as  being  somewhat  Owl-like  in  their  carriage  and  in 
the  way  in  which  they  turn  their  head  round.  They  live  in  the  holes  of 
trees,  and  come  out  at  night  in  pursuit  of  insects,  flying  in  a  straight  line, 
and  not  turning  and  twisting  about  like  Nightjars.  They  differ  from  the 
latter  birds,  also,  in  their  method  of  sitting  across,  and  not  lengthwise,  on  a 
branch. 

These  curious  birds  form  a  kind  of  connecting  link  between  the  Rollers 
and  the  Frog-mouths,  but  they  really  constitute  one  of  those  peculiar  forms 
in  which  Madagascar  abounds.  The  bill  is  something  like  that  of  a  Roller, 
but  the  base  is  hidden  by  recurved  plumes,  while  the  nostril  is  linear,  and 


KIRO  UMBOS— ROLLERS.  335 


is  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  upper  mandible,  a  quite  peculiar  position  for 
that  of  a  Picarian  bird.    The  fourth  toe  is  partly  reversible, 
a  character  peculiar  to  the  Climbing  Birds.     The  affinity     The  Kiroumbos.— 
with   the   Frog-mouths  is  remote,  but  is   shown  by  the  Sub-Order 

possession  of  powder-down  patches.     The  sexes  differ  in          Leptosomati. 
plumage,   the  male  being  glossy  green  above  and  grey 
below,  while  the  female  is  rufous  above,  with  a  black  head,  and  bars  on  the 
sides  of  the  head  and  back  of  the  neck,  the  under-surface  being  fawn  colour. 
Like  the  Rollers,  the  Kiroumbo  has  a  habit  of  playing  in  the  air,  ascending 
to  a  great  height,  and  then  descending  in  a  curve  nearly  to  the  tops  of  the 
trees   by  almost  closing  its  wings,  at  the  same  time  uttering  a  whistle  so  like 
that  of  an  eagle,  that  Sir  Edward  Newton  says  he  was  some  time  before  he 
could  satisfy  himself  that  the  note  was  that  of  the  Kiroumbo. 

In  these  beautiful  birds  we  find  a  single  family,  only  known  from  the  Old 
World,  but  there  almost  universally  distributed.     The  palate  is  "  desmog- 
nathous,"  or  bridged,  and  the  soles  of  the  feet  are  flat, 
the  toes  being  united   together   for  nearly  their  entire        The  Rollers.— 
length.     In  Madagascar  three  forms  of  Ground-Rollers     Sub-order  Coracia. 
occur,  constituting  the  sub- family  Brackypteraciince,  and 
remarkable  for  their  long  legs.     Little  is  known  of  their  habits  ;  but  the 
Pitta- like  Ground-Roller    (Atelornis  pittoides)  is   known    to    frequent    the 
ground,  and  only  to  perch  on  the  lowest  branches  of  the  trees.     They  have 
a  direct  and  straight  flight,  and  jerk  their  tails  in  a  curious  way  whenever 
they  alight  on  a  branch. 

The  true  Rollers,  of  which  the  Common  Roller  (Coracias  garrulus)  is  the 
type,   consist  of  two   genera,   Coracias  and  Eurystomus,   forming  the  sub- 
family Coraciince.      These   are  birds    of 
bright  colours,  and  are  more  arboreal  in 
habit  than  the  Mascarene  Rollers  of  the 
sub-family  Brachypteraciince.     Not  being 
ground-runners,  we  find  the  metatarsus 
much  shorter  in  Coracias  than  in  the  last-  \. 

mentioned  birds.  The  Rollers  build  in 
holes  of  trees,  laying  white  eggs,  but  not 
making  much  nest,  the  latter  consisting 
of  a  few  roots,  straws,  or  feathers.  Both 
sexes  incubate,  and  during  the  breeding- 
season  the  male  ascends  to  a  considerable 
height  in  the  air,  and  then  descends  Fig,  70.— THB  COMMON-ROLLER 

to  where  the  nest  is  situated  by  a  series  (Coracias  garraius). 

of  somersaults  and  jerks,  uttering  a  harsh 

note,  which  Naumann  describes  as  "rah-rahah-rrah-rra,"  etc.,  changing  to 
"rock  "  as  the  bird  throws  a  somersault. 

The  genus  Coracias  has  a  longish  bill,  not  unlike  that  of  a  crow,  and 
nearly  all  the  species  have  bright  greenish-blue  on  the  wings  and  tail, 
which  colour  is  very  conspicuous  when  the  birds  are  flying.  They  are 
found  in  Europe,  thence  to  Central  Asia,  throughout  Africa,  India,  and  the 
Burmese  provinces,  reappearing  in  Celebes,  where  one  species,  C.  temmincki, 
occurs. 

The  Broad-billed  Rollers  (Eurystomus)  occur  in  Africa,  India,  Australia, 
and  one  species,  E.  calonyx,  actually  goes  to  Eastern  Siberia  during  the 
nesting  season. 


336  A  VES—S UB-  ORDER  HALC YONES. 


The   Kingfishers   agree   with    the   Rollers   in   most    of    their  anatomical 
characters,    having     a    desmognathous,    or    "bridged,"    palate,    and     the 
hallux    connected    with    the  flexor  perforans    digitorum 
The  Kingfishers,—     tendon  ;  but  they  differ  from  them  in  having  the  spinal 
Sub-order  feather-tract    not   forked    on    the    back,    and    in    other 

Halcyones.  characters.     The   eggs   are   white,   and   are  always  con- 

cealed in  the  hole  of  a  tree  or  bank,  no  nest  being  made. 
Kingfishers    may    be    divided    into    two    sub-families,    Alcedinince    and 
Dacelonince.       The    former    contain    the    "fishers,"     and    the    latter    the 
omnivorous  feeders,  whose  food  consists  of  Crustacea,  insects,  reptiles,  etc. 

In  these  birds  the  bill  is  long  and  slender,  muoh  compressed,  and  with  an 
evident  keel  along  the  culmen.     There  are  five  genera  comprised  in  this  sub- 
family, of  which  the   genus  Alcedo,  which   contains  our 
The  Fish-Eating      Common  Kingfisher,  is  the  type.     There  are,  however, 
Kingfishers.— Sub-     two  long- tailed  genera  of  fish-eating  species,  the  Pied  and 
family  Alcediniwa.     Green  Kingfishers  (Ceryle)  and  the   Stork-billed   King- 
fishers (Pelargopsis),  which  have  the  tail  longer  than  the 
wing.     The  three  other  genera,  Alcedo,  Corythornis,  and  Alcyone,  have  short 
tails,  in  no  case  as  long  as  the  winga. 

The  Stork-billed  Kingfishers  (Pelargopsis)  are  large  birds  with  long  red  or 
black  bills,  and  they  are  inhabitants  of  the  Indian  and  Indo-Malayan  sub- 
regions.  They  are  mainly  piscivorous,  but  Mr.  Stuart  Baker  records  that 
in  Cachar  he  has  known  the  species  of  the  country  (P.  burmanica),  to  devour 
lizards  and  other  small  reptiles,  while  he  once  saw  one  attack  a  nest  of  young 
Mynas  in  a  hole  of  a  tree,  and  drag  one  of  them  out  and  swallow  it. 

The  genus  Ceryle  is  remarkable  among  the  Kingfishers  for  the  difference  in 
the  markings  of  the  sexes,  the  male  in  some  species  having  a  double  pectoral 
band,  whilst  in  others  the  contrary  is  the  case,  and  the 
The  Pied  King-      males  or  the  females  have  a  band,  while  the  opposite  sex 
fishers —  has  none  at  all.     The  Pied  Kingfishers  are  inhabitants  of 

Genus  Ceryle.  Africa,  India,  China,  and  Japan,  and  the  best-known 
species  is  Ceryle  rudis  of  Africa,  over  the  whole  of  which 
continent  it  is  distributed,  while  it  ranges  east  as  far  as  the  Persian  Gulf. 
The  colour  above  is  black,  varied  with  white,  and  the  under-surface  is  white, 
with  two  black  bands  across  the  chest  in  the  male,  and  a  single  band  in  the 
female.  It  is  a  familiar  bird  to  travellers  in  the  Nile  Valley,  as  it  hovers 
above  the  water  like  a  Kestrel,  and  falls  on  its  prey  with  a  stoop  like  that  of 
the  latter  bird.  In  India  and  China  it  is  replaced  by  the  Indian  Pied  King- 
fisher (Ceryle  varia),  which  has  no  black  spots  on  the  white  base  of  the  tail. 
In  the  Himalayas  and  the  mountains  of  China,  as  far  as  those  of  the  southern 
island  of  Japan,  the  Pied  Kingfishers  are  represented  by  Ceryle  lugubris,  a 
large  species  with  the  hovering  habits  of  C.  rudis,  and  equally  a  fish-eater. 
In  Africa  there  are  also  some  large  species  of  Ceryle,  with  grey  backs,  and 
in  America  a  similar  section  of  the  genus  is  met  with,  of  which  the  Ringed 
Kingfisher  (Ceryle  torquata),  and  the  Belted  Kingfisher  (C.  alcyon),  are  well- 
known  representatives.  The  latter  species  has  a  pectoral  band  of  grey  in  the 
male,  while  the  female  has  an  additional  band  of  rufous.  In  the  rest  of  the 
South  American  species  of  Ceryle  the  back  is  green,  and  in  this  section 
occurs  one  of  the  smallest  of  all  Kingfishers,  C.  superciliosa,  which  is  only 
5  inches  in  length. 

The  genus  Alcedo  is  found  over  the  greater  part  of  the  Old  World,  and 
eleven  species  are  known,  of  which  Africa  claims  three,  Europe  and 


KINGFISHERS. 


337 


Northern   Asia   one,  and   the  remaining   seven   are   Indian   and    Malayan. 
Our   Common   Kingfisher  (A.  ispida),   is   the   brightest   of   our   indigenous 
biids,  and  forms  the  most  beautiful  ornament  of  our 
risers  and  lakes.    It  is  7f  inches  in  length,  with  a  chest- 
nut  under-surface  and  a  brilliant  cobalt-blue  back, 
which  shows  vividly  when  the  bird  flies.       It  nests 
in  holes,  mostly  in  banks  of   sandy  soil,  where  the 
tunnel  is   hollowed   by  the  birds   themselves,   or  in 
holes  of  trees,  sometimes  at  a  considerable  distance 
from  water. 

In  Africa  and  Madagascar  occur  the  Crested  King- 
fishers (Corythornis),  small  birds  with  a  long  drooping 
crest,  and  in  Australia  and  the  Moluccas,  the  three-toed 
Kingfishers  (Alcyone),  which  have  the  shape  and  fish- 
catching  habits  of  our  own  A .  ispida,  but  are  of 
a  dull  purple  colour,  and  have  only  three  toes 
instead  of  four,  the  hind-toe  being  absent. 

In  this  sub-family  the  bill  is  shorter  and  wider,  the  tail  generally  long, 
and  the  food  of  the  species  consists  less  of  fish  than  of  insects,  small 
Crustacea,  reptiles,  and  even  small  rodents. 

The   first  genus   is   Ceyx,  a   small   form   of   Kingfisher   which   frequents 
forests   rather  than   streams.      The  members   of  this  genus  have  a   wider 
and    less   compressed    bill   than    those   of    Alcyone,  but 
like  the  latter  genus  they  have  only  three  toes.     They  are     The  Insectivorous 
found  in  India  and  the  Malayan  sub-region,  being  very 


Fig.  71  —  THB  COMMON 

KINGFISHER 
(Alcedo  iapida). 


Kingfishers.— 
Sub-family 

-Dacelonince. 


abundant  in  the  Philippines  and  extendingto  the  Moluccas. 

They  are  mostly  bright-coloured  birds,  some  being  of  a 

beautiful  red  all  over,   whilst  others   have  a  blue  back 

and  resemble  species  of  the  genus  Alcedo.     In  Africa  they  are  represented  by 

a  genus  of  tiny  Kingfishers  (Ispidina)  which  are  also  insect-eaters,  as  are 

also  the  allied  genera  Ceycopsis  of  Celebes  and  Myioceyx  of  Western  Africa. 

From  these  small  forms  we  pass  to  the  Reptili- 
vorous  Kingfishers,  the  Crested  Kingfishers 
of  Malacca  and  Borneo  (Carcineutes),  the  Hook- 
billed  Kingfisher  (Melidora),  and  Shoe-billed 
Kingfisher  (Clijtoceyx)  of  New  Guiana,  and  the 
Laughing  Jackasses  of  Australia  (L'acelo).  Of 
the  common  Laughing  Kingfisher,  the  **  Jack- 
ass "  of  the  Australian  colonists,  we  have  the 
following  account  of  Mr.  Gould's: — "In  its 
disposition  it  is  by  no  means  shy,  and  when 
any  objects  are  presented  to  its  notice,  such 
as  a  party  traversing  the  bush  or  pitching  their 
tent  in  the  vicinity  of  its  retreat,  it  becomes 
very  prying  and  inquisitive,  often  perching  on 
the  dead  branch  of  some  neighbouring  tree, 
and  watching  with  curiosity  the  kindling  of 
the  fire  and  the  preparation  of  the  meal ;  its 
presence,  however,  is  seldom  detected  until 
it  emits  its  extraordinary  gurgling,  laughing 
note,  which  generally  calls  forth  some  exclama- 
tion according  with  the  temper  of  the  hearer,  such  as  '  There  is  our  old 
23 


Fig.  72.— THR  LAUGHING  KING- 

FISHER 

(Daceto  gigas). 


338  AVES— SUB-ORDER  HALCYONES. 


friend  the  Laughing  Jackass,'  or  an  epithet  of  a  less  friendly  char- 
acter. So  remarkable  are  the  sounds  emitted  by  the  bird  that  they  have 
been  noted  by  nearly  every  writer  on  New  South  Wales  and  its  productions. 
Mr.  Caley  states  that  its  '  loud  noise,  somewhat  like  laughing,  may  be 
heard  at  a  considerable  distance,  fr  >m  which  circumstance,  and  its 
uncouth  appearance,  it  probably  received  the  extraordinary  appellation 
given  to  it  by  the  settlers  on  their  first  arrival  in  the  colony.'  Captain 
Sturt  says,  *  Its  cry,  which  resembles  a  chorus  of  wild  spirits,  is  apt 
to  startle  the  traveller  who  may  be  in  jeopardy,  as  if  laughing  and  mocking 
at  his  misfortune;'  and  Mr.  Bennett,  in  his  'Wanderings,'  says,  'Its 
peculiar  gurgling  laugh,  commencing  in  a  low,  and  gradually  rising  to 
a  high  and  loud  tone,  is  often  heard  in  all  parts  of  the  colony,  the 
deafening  noise  being  poured  forth  while  the  bird  remains  perched  upon 
a  neighbouring  tree  ;  it  rises  with  the  dawn,  when  the  woods  re-echo  with 
its  gurgling  laugh  ;  at  sunset  it  is  again  heard ;  and  as  that  glorious 
orb  sinks  in  the  west,  a  last  "good-night"  is  given  in  its  peculiar  tones 
to  all  within  hearing.'  It  frequents  every  variety  of  situation  —  the 
luxuriant  brushes  along  the  coast,  the  more  thinly-timbered  forest,  the 
belts  of  trees  studding  the  parched  plains,  and  the  brushes  of  the 
higher  ranges  being  alike  favoured  with  its  presence ;  over  all  these 
localities  it  is  rather  thinly  dispersed,  being  nowhere  very  numerous. 
Its  food,  which  is  of  a  mixed  character,  consists  exclusively  of  animal 
substances  ;  reptiles,  insects,  and  crabs,  however,  appear  to  be  its  favourite 
diet ;  it  devours  lizards  with  avidity,  and  it  is  not  an  unfrequent  sight  to 
see  it  bearing  off  a  snake  in  its  bill  to  be  eaten  at  leisure  ;  it  also  preys 
upon  small  mammalia.  I  recollect  shooting  a  Great  Brown  Kingfisher  in 
South  Australia  in  order  to  secure  a  fine  rat  I  saw  hanging  from  its  bill,  and 
which  proved  to  be  a  rare  species.  The  Dacelo  gigas  breeds  during  the 
months  of  August  and  September,  generally  selects  a  hole  in  a  large  gum- 
tree  for  the  purpose,  and  deposits  its  beautiful  pearl-white  eggs,  which  are 
one  inch  and  nine  lines  long  by  one  inch  and  five  lines  broad,  on  the 
decomposed  wood  at  the  bottom.  When  the  young  are  hatched,  it  defends 
its  breeding- place  with  great  courage  and  daring,  darting  down  upon  any 
intruder  who  may  attempt  to  ascend  the  tree." 

The  large  genus  Halcyon  contains  more  than  fifty  species,  which  are  found 
over  Africa,  India,  and  China,  to  Japan,  and  thence  south  to  Australia,  and 
over  the  greater  number  of  the  Pacific  Islands.  They  are  mostly  insect- 
eaters,  and  are  often  found  far  away  from  water.  The  last  genus  of  the 
Kingfishers  is  Tanysiptera,  which  includes  some  elegant  birds  with  only  ten 
tail-feathers,  the  middle  ones  being  produced  beyond  the  others,  and 
generally  ending  in  a  spatula  or  racket.  These  are  birds  of  the  Moluccas 
and  the  Papuan  Islands,  one  species,  T.  sylvia,  being  found  in  the  Cape 
York  Peninsula  of  North-Eastern  Australia.  On  the  habits  of  this  species  a 
short  notice  has  been  published  by  the  late  John  Macgillivray,  the  original 
discoverer  of  the  species: — "This  pretty  Tanysiptera  is  rather  plentiful  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Cape  York,  where  it  frequents  the  dense  brushes,  and 
is  especially  fond  of  resorting  to  the  small  sunny  openings  in  the  woods, 
attracted  probably  by  the  greater  abundance  of  insect  food  found  in  such 
places  than  elsewhere.  I  never  saw  it  on  the  ground,  and  usually  was  first 
made  aware  of  its  presence  by  the  glancing  of  its  bright  colours  as  it  darted 
p-ist  with  a  rapid,  arrow- like  flight,  and  disappeared  in  an  instant  among  the 
dense  foliage.  Its  cry,  which  may  be  represented  by  whee-whee  whee  and 


KINGFISHERS— HORNBILLS. 


339 


The  Hornbills. — 
Sub-order 

Bucerotes. 


ivheet-wheet-wheet,  is  usually  uttered  while  the  bird  is  perched  on  a  bare, 
transverse  branch  or  woody,  rope-like  climber,  which  it  uses  as  a  look-out 
station,  and  whence  it  makes  short  dashes  at  any  passing  insect  or  small 
lizard,  generally  returning  to  the  same  spot.  It  is  a  shy,  suspicious  bird, 
and  one  well  calculated  to  try  the  patience  of  the  shooter,  who  may  follow  it 
in  a  small  brush  for  an  hour  without  getting  a  shot,  unless  he  has  as  keen  an 
eye  as  the  native  to  whom  I  was  indebted  for  first  pointing  it  out  to  me. 
According  to  the  natives,  who  know  it  by  the  name  of  4Quatawur,'  it  lays 
three  white  eggs  in  a  hole  dug  by  itself  in  one  of  the  large  ant-hills  of  red 
clay  which  form  so  remarkable  a  feature  in  the  neighbourhood,  some  of 
them  being  as  much  as  10  ft.  in  height,  with  numerous  buttresses  and 
}  innacles.  I  believe  that  the  bird  also  inhabits  New  Guinea ;  for  at  Redscar 
Bay,  on  the  south-east  side  of  that  great  island,  in  Long.  146°  50'  E.,  a  heid, 
strung  upon  a  necklace,  was  procured  from  the  natives."  We  now  know 
that  the  New  Guinea  bird  is  distinct,  and  is  T.  salvadoriana. 

The  Hornbills  are  remarkable  birds,  not  only  on  account  of  their  form,  but 
from  the  singular  habit  which  every  one  of  the  species  affects,  so  far  as  we 
know,  of  imprisoning  the  female  while  she  is  engaged  in 
incubating.  The  Hornbills  vary  immensely  in  size,  from 
the  great  Rhinoceros  Hornbill  (Bucerus  rhinoceros),  which 
is  nearly  4  ft.  long,  to  the  tiny  Lophocerus  hartlaubi  which 
is  only  just  over  a  foot  in  length.  The  Ground-Hornbills 
(Bucorax)  are  natives  of  Africa,  where  they  are  generally  distributed  in  the 
Ethiopian  region.  They  are  thoroughly  terrestrial  birds,  of  black  plumage, 
with  a  little  red  or  blue  decoration  on  the  bill,  or  the  bare  portion  of  the 
throat.  Walking  about  on  the  ground,  they  have  the  appearance  of  black 
Turkeys,  and  are  considered  "omen  "-birds  among  the  Kaffirs.  They  will 
devour  almost  any  food,  and  eat  numbers  of  beetles,  worms,  small  rodents, 
etc.,  and  they  also  kill  large  snakes,  against  which 
they  generally  advance  in  company,  holding  their 
wings  before  them  like  a  shield. 

The  Great  Hornbill  (Dichocerusbicornis)  is  a  native 
of  the  Western  Ghauts  of  India  and  the  Himalayas, 
and  thence  through  the  Burmese  Provinces  to  the 
Malayan  Peninsula  to  the  mountains  of  Sumatra. 

The  Pied  Hornbills  (Anthracocerus)  are  found  in 
India  and  the  Burmese  Provinces  to  Cochin 
China,  and  south  to  the  Malayan  Peninsula  to 
the  Sunda  Islands.  These  birds  are  generally 
found  in  family  parties,  consisting  of  five  or  six 
individuals.  They  inhabit  well-wooded  countries 
and  forests,  especially  near  rivers,  where  they  have 
been  known  to  feed  on  fish.  Their  chief  food, 
however,  consists  of  fruits  and  berries. 

The  habits  of  the  Hornbills  seem  to  be  alike  in 
their  method  of  nidification,  but  in  some  species  the 
act  of  enclosing  the  female  is  performed  by  the  male, 
whereas  in  some  instances  the  female  assists  in  her 

own  imprisonment.      Some   explanation    for  this     Flg-  73'~Ho™ALLABAR  PlED 
curious  custom  may  be  found  in  the  circumstance       (Anthracocerus  coronatus). 
that  when  the  female  has  laid  her  egg  in  the  hollow 
tree,  she  commences  to  moult,  and  would  therefore  be  entirely  defenceless 


340  AVES— SUB-ORDER  UPUP^E. 


and  at  the  mercy  of  her  enemies,  if  she  were  not  fenced  in,  and  in  the 
closing  of  the  fortress  she  herself  assists.  A  narrow  opening  is  left,  through 
which  the  male  is  able  to  supply  her  with  food. 

At  first  sight  there  would  appear  to  be  little   connection  between  the 

Hornbills  and  the  Hoopoes,  but  in  our  brief  account  of  the  Bncerotes  we 

were  unable  to  illustrate  all  the  smaller  genera  such  as 

The  Hoopoes. —      Lophocerus,  Ocycerus,  etc.,  which  are  much  more  like  the 

Sub-order  Ujmpts.     Crested   Hoopoes  than   the   larger  forms   of   Hornbills. 

Like  the  latter  birds,  the  Hoopoes  have  the  fore-part  of 

the  sternum  perforated,   so  as  to  receive  the   feet  of   the   metacoracoids. 

There  are  two  families   of    Upupce,  the  true  Hoopoes  (Upupidce),  and  the 

Wood-Hoopoes  (Irrisoridce).     The  former  are  sandy-coloured  birds,  with  a 

large  crest  and  a  square  tail.     The  latter  are  black  with  a  metallic  blue  or 

bronze  gloss,  and  a  long  graduated  tail. 

The  Hoopoe  is  an  inhabitant  of  temperate  Europe  and  Asia,  being 
represented  in  certain  portions  of  the  Indian  Peninsula  and  the  Burmese 

provinces  by  the  Indian  Hoopoe  (U. 
indica).  Two  other  species  are  found 
in  Africa  only,  and  one  is  peculiar  to 
Madagascar.  The  Hoopoe  nests  in  a 
hole,  generally  in  a  tree,  and  the  female 
and  young  birds  are  fed  by  the  male. 
The  nest  is  often  made  of  very  filthy 
materials,  but  the  young  do  not  seem 
to  suffer,,  and  have  the  same  delicate, 
soft  plumage  as  the  adults,  which  they 
resemble  even  to  the  possession  of  the 

Fig.  74.-TH*  COMMON  HOOPOB  cf e **'     In  North- Western  India  I  saw- 

(Upupa  epops).  the  Hoopoes  in  small  flocks  in  the  open 

fields,  and  in  such  places  they  are  great 

devourers  of  grubs  and  insects.  They  usually  keep  their  crests  depressed, 
but  raise  them  when  alarmed  or  excited.  The  note  resembles  the  syllable 
hoop,  uttered  two  or  three  times  ;  and  the  late  Consul  Swinhoe  states  that 
from  his  observations  in  China,  the  bird  produces  its  note  by  puffing  out  the 
sides  of  the  neck  and  hammering  on  the  ground  at  the  production  of  each 
note,  thus  exhausting  the  air  at  the  end  of  the  series  of  three  notes,  which 
make  up  its  song.  The  eggs,  four  to  seven  in  number,  when  fresh  laid,  are 
pale  greenish-blue,  but  fade  to  a  dull  olive  or  yellowish-brown. 

The  Bee -eaters  are  birds  of  bright  plumage,  and,  as  a  rule,  of  slender 

form,  with  long  tails.     They  resemble  the  Kingfishers  and  Hornbills  in  the 

form  of  the  feet,  the  toes  being  joined  together,  the  fourth 

The  Bee-Eaters.       toe  being  united  to  the  third  toe  as  far  as  the  last  joint, 

"Sub-order  and  the  second  toe  being  united  to  the  middle  one  for  the 

Mesopes.  basal  joint  only.      The  palate  is  "bridged"  or  desmog- 

nathous,    and   the   breast-bone    has  four  notches   in   its 

hind  margin,  while  the  episternal  process  is  perforated  to  receive  the  feet  of 

the  metacoracoids.       The  Bee-eaters  are  found  in  the  temperate  and  tropical 

portions  of  the  Old  World. 

In  Africa  we  find  the  Swallow-tailed  Bee-eaters  (Dicrocercus),  and  the 
Square-tailed  Bee-eaters  (Melittophagus),  while  Merops,  which  has  the 
central  tail-feathers  elongated,  has  seventeen  species,  which  are  found  in 
Africa,  India,  China,  the  Malayan  Archipelago,  and  Australia,  one  species, 


BEE-EA  TERS—MO  TMO  TS. 


341 


Fig.  75.— THE  COMMON  BEE-EATER 
(Mesops  apiaster). 


M.  apiaster,  visiting  Southern  Europe  every  summer,  extending  even  to  Cen- 
tral Asia  and  Kashmir.  The  bird  generally  tunnels  a  hole  into  the  bank  of 
some  river,  and  the  white  eggs  are  deposited  in  a 
chamber  at  some  distance,  sometimes  of  several 
feet  from  the  opening.  Occasionally  the  birds 
have  been  known  to  bore  downwards  through 
the  sandy  soil,  and  Mr.  E.  L.  Layard  records 
one  instance  which  came  under  his  own 
observation  in  Cape  Colony,  where  the  ground 
was  "perforated  with  numberless  holes,  into 
which  the  birds  were  diving  and  scrambling 
like  so  many  rats."  He  found  the  species 
breeding  on  the  Berg  river  in  September  and 
October,  so  that  the  bee-eater  may  be  con- 
sidered one  of  the  few  species  which  are  known 
with  certainty  to  nest  in  their  winter  quarters. 
In  certain  parts  of  Spain  the  bee-eater  com- 
mits great  havoc  among  the  bees  as  they  fly 
out  of  the  hives,  and  the  bird  is,  in  consequence,  detested  by  the  peasants. 

In  the  Indian  and  Malayan  sub-regions  occur  the  bearded  bee-eaters,  re- 
markable for  an  ornamental  tuft  of  plumes  on  the  chest.  One  species, 
Meropogon  forsteni,  with  the  central  tail-feathers  produced,  is  confined  to  the 
island  of  Celebes  ;  while  the  genus  Nyctiornis,  which  has  a  square  tail,  is 
represented  by  two  species,  JV.  athertoni,  of  the  Himalayas,  with  a  blue  throat, 
and  JV.  amicta,  of  the  Malayan  Peninsula,  with  a  scarlet  throat.  These 
birds  are  of  stouter  build  than  the  rest  of  the  bee-eaters,  and  are  believed  to 
nest  in  holes  of  trees. 

The  motmots  are  exclusively  neo-tropical  in  habitat,  and  contain  but  a 
single  family,  the  Momotidce.     They  represent  to  a  great  extent  the  Mero- 
pidce  of  the  Old  World.     The  pal- 
ate is  desmognathous or  "bridged," 
the    sternum    has    four    posterior 
notches,  and  the  hind-toe  or  hal- 
lux  is  always  present,  and  is  con- 
nected with  the  flexor  perforans  digitorum  tendon. 
Seven   genera   are  recognised,   Urospatha,  Prioni- 
rhynchus,  Eumomota,  Momotus,  Barypkthengus,  As- 
patha,  and  Hylomanes,  the  last  being  dwarf  motmots, 
and  akin  to  the  todies  (Todi). 

One  of  the  chief  features  of  the  motmots  is  the 
long  tail,  Hylomanes  being  the  only  genus  with  a 
short  tail.  In  most  of  the  true  motmots  the 
central  tail-feathers  are  elongated,  and  generally 
end  in  a  racket,  which  is  preceded  by  a  bare  shaft. 
This  racket  is  produced  Dy  the  bird  itself,  as  it 
nibbles  off  the  web  of  the  feather  with  its  bill, 
which  has  a  serrated  or  saw-like  edge  to  the  man- 
dibles. Instances  have  been  recorded  of  motmots, 

probably  young  and  inexperienced  birds,  imbued  with  the  instinct  that  they 
have  to  trim  certain  of  their  tail-feathers,  but,  as  the  latter  grow  at  first  all 
of  the  same  length,  not  knowing  on  which  rectrices  to  commence  action. 
Consequently  they  begin  to  nibble  feathers  to  right  and  left,  until  the 


The  Motmots. — 
Sub-order 

Momoti. 


Fig.  76.— LESSON'S  MOTMOT 
(Momotus  lessoni). 


342  AVES- SUB-ORDER  TODI. 


development  of  the  two  central  tail-feathers  beyond  the  rest  teaches  the 
birds  that  these  are  the  two  specially  designed  by  nature  to  carry  the 
"racket"  ! 

The  motmots  are  green  birds,  generally  with  a  black  patch  on  the  crown, 
which  is  surrounded  by  blue  ;  the  under-side  is  paler,  and  generally  of  a 
fawn-coloured  shade.  They  nest  in  holes,  often  tunnelling  to  a  distance 
of  six  feet,  and  the  eggs  are  laid  in  a  rounded  chamber  at  the  end  of  the 
tunnel,  as  is  the  case  with  the  kingfishers  and  bee-eaters  of  the  Old  World. 
With  the  kingfishers,  however,  there  is  no  nest  beyond  the  remains  of 
the  fish-bones  which  are  cast  up  by  the  parent  birds,  whereas  in  the  nest-hole 
of  the  motmots  a  few  dry  twigs  are  sometimes  present.  The  nesting-place, 
according  to  Mr.  Zeledon,  is  a  foul-smelling  habitation,  in  which  the  young 
remain  till  they  are  able  to  fly  pretty  well.  It  should  be  noted  that 
young  birds  have  the  edges  of  the  mandibles  quite  smooth,  and  without 
any  serrations. 

The  todies  are  also  represented  by  a  single  neo- tropical  family,  the  Todidce, 
which  is  peculiar  to  the  West  Indian  sub-region.  Only  four  species  are 

known,  and  these  are  from  the  islands 

The  Todies.—     of  Jamaica,  Cuba,  San  Domingo,  and 

Sub-order         Porto  Rico.     The  long,  flattened  bill, 

Todi.  with  its  evident  rictal  bristles,  suggests 

that  of  an  exaggerated  flycatcher,  and 
in  many  of  its  habits  a  tody  resembles  a  flycatcher, 
though  it  will  at  times  search  for  its  food  like  a  warbler. 
The  todies  have  a  desmognathous  palate,  showing  their      Fi    77'— THE  JAMAICA 
true  affinity  to  the  motmots  and  kingfishers,  and  they        TODY' (Todus  viridis). 
nest  in  holes  in  banks  excavated  by  the  little  birds 

themselves,  though  they  appear  likewise  to  avail  themselves  of  holes  and 
depressions  already  made.  The  eggs,  like  those  of  other  picarian  birds,  are 
glossy  white,  and  are  laid  on  a  bed  of  earth  in  a  chamber  at  the  end  of  the 
tunnel. 

This  is  a  very  interesting  group  of  birds,  of  which  we  have  one  representa- 
tive in  England,  the  common  nightjar,  or  "goatsucker,"  as  it  is  often 

foolishly  called,  Caprimulgus  europceus.     In  the  Caprimulgi 

The  Nightjars. —  we  meet  with   both  segithogiiathous  forms,  such  as  Capri- 

Sub-order         mulgns  and  the  allied  genera,   and   schizognathous  forms, 

Caprimulyi.       such  as  Chordeiles  of  the  New  World.     The  presence  of  tAvo 

types  of  palatine  characters  in  one  family  raises  grave  doubts 
as  to  the  value  of  this  formation  of  the  palate,  which  has  been  so  much  in- 
sisted upon  by  osteologists.  There  are  eighteen  genera  of  the  sub-family 
Caprimulgince,  and  they  all  have  the  middle  toe  furnished  with  a  kind  of  comb. 
They  possess  no  powder-down  patches. 

Our  common  nightjar  (Caprimulgus  europmus)  is  crepuscular  in  its  habits, 
a  bird  of  the  twilight.  During  the  day  it  rests,  and  only  flies  when  suddenly 
disturbed  ;  but,  as  dusk  comes  on,  it  comes  forth  in  pursuit  of  insects,  and  is 
often  to  be  seen  flying  by  the  light  of  the  moon,  soaring  above  with  a  sailing 
flight,  and  occasionally  producing  a  "  clacking  "  noise  by  flapping  its  wings 
together  above  its  head.  The  singular  jarring  noise  which  the  creature 
makes  seems  to  be  its  love-song,  and  in  a  heathy  country,  which  is  the  usual 
habitat  of  the  goatsucker,  this  "  churring  "  utterance  is  heard  as  twilight 
commences,  and  even  far  into  the  night. 

From  their  mottled  and  soft  plumage,  the  goatsuckers  have  been  generally 


NIGHTJARS. 


343 


The  Leona 
Nightjar 


associated  with  the  owls,  but  there  is  no  real  affinity  between  these  moth- 
catching  birds  and  the  rapacious  birds  of  the  night.  Their  nocturnal  habits 
are  really  the  only  character  which  they  have  in  common.  The  young  goat- 
suckers differ  from  those  of  other  picarian  birds  in  the  fact  that  they  are  not 
hatched  naked,  but  are  covered  with  down,  though  they  are  not  able  to  pro- 
vide for  themselves  like  most  of  the  downy  nestlings  of  other  birds.  The 
eggs,  also,  are  not  white,  but  are  double-spotted,  an  unusual  feature  in  picarian 
birds.  No  caprimulgine  bird  makes  a  nest,  the  eggs  being  laid  upon  the 
bare  ground. 

Africa  possesses  two  curious  genera  of  nightjars,  which,  in  the  breeding- 
season  at  least,  carry  ornamental  plumes.     These  are  Macrodipteryx  longi- 
pennis  of  West  Africa,  and  Cosmetornis  vexillarius  of  South- 
eastern Africa.      In  the  former  genus,  the  ninth  primary- 
quill  is  enormously  elongated,  and  ends  in  a  "racket."     In 
Cosmetornis,  the  seventh  and  eight  primaries  are  elongated,    (Macrodipteryx 
the  ninth  enormously,  so  as  to  produce  a  train  when  the       longipennis). 
bird  is  flying.     Round  Lake  Nyassa  and  on  the  Zambesi, 
this  bird  is  a  well-known  object  as  it  flies  over  the  water  in  the  evening.     I 
have  received  the  following  note  from  Miss  Alice  Werner,  who  was  con- 
nected with  the  Blantyre  Mission.     Having  read  some  notes  of  mine  on 
Cosmetornis    published    elsewhere, 
she    comments    on    them  as  fol- 
lows : — 

"I  have  frequently  seen  the  bird 
— at  Blantyre,  in  Angoniland  (i.e. 
on  the  Ntumbi  plain,  about  thirty 
miles  west  of  the  Upper  Shire), 
and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Mount 
Milanje.  The  Manganja  call  it 
'lumbe,'  the  Angoni  'gumbe.' 
I  see  that  Sir  John  Kirk  says 
that  it  was  only  from  October  to 
January  that  the  singular  pro- 
longation of  the  wing  feathers  was 


Fig.  78.— LEONA  GOATSUCKER  (Macrodipteryx 

longipennis). 
observed. 

"  By  a  note  in  my  diary,  I  find  that  I  saw  one  at  Blantyre  on  September 
25th.  I  had  seen  another  previously  to  this — perhaps  a  fortnight  before,  but, 
unluckily,  I  did  not  make  a  note  of  it,  and  cannot  remember  the  date — 
certainly  it  was  before  the  25th  of  September,  and  I  distinctly  remember  the 
long  wing  feathers  on  both  occasions.  Seeing  the  bird  outlined  in  black 
against  the  sky  (just  after  sunset,  when  the  light  was  not  quite  gone)  I  took 
it  for  a  huge  and  grotesquely-shaped  bat  with  an  exaggerated,  claw-like,  pro- 
longation at  the  end  of  the  wing.  I  have  never  seen  them  in  flocks — only 
singly,  or,  at  most,  one  rising  shortly  after  the  other,  so  that  they  might  have 
been  a  pair.  While  I  was  at  Mr.  John  Moir's  plantation  of  Lauderdale  (at 
Mount  Milanje)  last  November,  one  of  the  natives  brought  up  to  the  house 
three  young  '  Lumbi '  which  had  been  found  (I  think)  in  a  hollow  tree.  They 
were  about  the  size  of  newly-hatched  chickens,  and  nearly  fledged — they 
could  not  fly.  but  raised  their  wings  (which  were  of  immense  length  in  pro- 
portion to  their  bodies)  straight  above  their  heads,  and  ran  along  the  floor 
very  quickly.  We  tried  to  feed  them  on  chopped  egg,  soaked  bread  and 
flies,  but  could  not  keep  them  alive  more  than  a  day  or  two. 


344  AVES- SUB-ORDER  CAPRIMULGL 


"I  see  you  give  no  description  of  the  feathers,  but  your  figure  gives  the 
impression  that  the  long  wing-feathers  are  white,  or,  at  least,  distinctly  light- 
coloured.  I  would  not  be  positive,  but  am  almost  sure,  that  in  a  specimen 
shot  by  Mr.  E.  Laidlaw  Thomson  at  Lauderdale  (which  was  the  only  one  I 
ever  had  the  opportunity  of  examining  closely),  these  feathers  were  mottled 
black  and  brown  like  the  rest  of  the  plumage.  I  remember  seeing  two,  if 
not  three,  in  the  bush  near  the  Chinunka  River,  along  the  road  to  Fort 
Anderson. 

"  The  first  time  I  ever  came  across  them  was  in  Angoniland,  passing  through 
the  bush  in  the  dark.  I  could  not  see  them  distinctly,  and  at  first  from  their 
noiseless  flight  took  them  to  be  bats,  and  was  rather  puzzled  when  assured 
that  they  were  not  bats  (melemi)  but  birds.  As  far  as  I  can  remember,  they 
always  flew  out  of  trees  or  bushes,  and  never  from  the  ground." 

In  these  South- American  nightjars  there  is  no  pectination  of  the  middle 

claw,  but  powder-down  patches  are  present  on  the  sides  of  the  body  and  on 

the  breast.     In  this   character  they  show  an  affinity  to  the 

The  Mottled  podargi,  and  like  the  latter  birds  they  lay  their  egg  on 
— Sub  f&rml  an  exPosed  branch  or  stump  of  a  tree,  as  is  proved  by  the 

Nyciibtina?  interesting  notes  of  Dr.  Goeldi  on  Nyctibius  jamaicensis. 
He  observed  the  nesting  habits  of  this  species  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  writes  as  follows  :  — 

"During  certain  months  the  smaller  N.  jama  icensis,  called  *  Uratao  '  by 
the  natives,  like  all  the  species  of  the  group,  is  heard  at  Colonia  Alpina  almost 
every  night.  Its  'pu-hu-hu  '  slowly  pronounced,  but  with  much  energy,  is  a 
constant  nocturnal  sound,  quite  enough  to  frighten  a  timid  wanderer  in  the 
solitary  forest-patches.  On  the  other  hand,  I  was  often  astonished  at  the 
resemblance  of  the  voice  of  the  large  greyish  N.  graitdis  to  the  mewing  of 
a  cat.  In  November,  1895,  during  moonlight  nights,  I  had  occasion  to  hear 
it  at  Amapd  regularly.  The  bird  called  continuously  in  the  adjacent '  sirinbal ' 
(the  inundated  and  impassable  avicenna-forests)  which  borders  in  a  most 
characteristic  manner  the  lower  course  of  the  coast-rivers  of  Guiana.  At 
Colonia  Alpina  (Rio  de  Janeiro)  we  got  so  well  acquainted  with  N.  jamaicensis 
that  the  cry  of  the  bird  in  the  neighbourhood  on  moonlight  nights  was  the 
regular  signal  for  us  to  take  up  our  guns  and  go  forth  on  our  nocturnal  hunt- 
ing-trips. The  bird  is  easily  deceived  by  imitating  its  voice.  Supposing  the 
call  to  be  that  of  a  rival,  it  leaves  some  inaccessible  and  invisible  standpoint 
in  the  interior  of  the  forest,  and  is  drawn  nearer  to  a  post  011  some  isolated 
dry  gigantic  tree,  which,  being  in  better  light,  offers  more  chance  of  a  suc- 
cessful shot.  Even  here,  however,  its  wonderful  protective  colour,  its  singular 
manner  of  perching  in  the  direction  of  the  axis  of  the  branch  and  appearing 
like  a  mere  protuberance  of  it,  while  it  retains  a  motionless  position  for  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  or  more,  render  it  very  difficult  to  discern,  except  to  very 
practised  eyes.  My  cousin,  Andreas  Goeldi,  after  long  experience,  is  a  perfect 
Nyctibius  hunter.  Notwithstanding  our  familiarity  with  the  habits  of  the 
species  of  Nyctibius,  for  three  years  we  were  never  lucky  enough  to  discover 
its  breeding-place,  though  we  made  all  possible  efforts.  Before  I  left  Colonia 
Alpina  I  strongly  recommended  the  continuation  of  these  efforts  to  my 
cousin,  and  likewise  as  regards  Hydropsalis.  At  length,  some  months  after 
my  arrival  on  the  Amazons,  I  received  the  agreeable  news, — the  discovery  of 
an  authentic  nest  of  N.  jamaicensis.  My  cousin's  letter  was  accompanied  by 
detailed  notes  and  photographs,  and  when,  in  August,  1895,  I  made  a  journey 
back  to  Rio  de  Janeiro,  I  had,  on  a  short  visit  to  Colonia  Alpina,  the  oppor- 


MOTTLED  NIGHTJARS— SWIFTS.  345 


tunity  of  seeing  the  localities  and  studying  the  facts,  which  were  as  follows  : 
— On  the  24th  November,  1894,  the  son  of  one  of  our  neighbours  and  colonists 
brought  to  us  a  dead  male  Nyctibius  jamaicensis  and  a  fresh  egg,  telling  us 
that  he  had  shot  the  '  Uratao  '  standing  upright  on  the  top  of  a  stump. 
After  having  killed  the  bird  he  climbed  up  the  stump  and  found,  as  he  had 
supposed,  that  the  bird  had  its  breeding-place  there.  In  a  slight  depression 
on  the  top  he  found  the  egg,  which  he  carefully  brought  to  my  cousin,  to- 
gether with  the  bird  itself.  My  cousin  immediately  went  to  the  spot  pointed 
out  by  the  boy,  and  inquired  minutely  into  every  detail. 

"  The  locality  is  on  a  sloping  hill  on  the  left  side  of  a  brook,  tributary  of 
the  Rio  Alpina,  which  runs  through  a  valley  parallel  to  that  of  the  centre  of 
the  colony.  In  1891  and  1892  one  of  our  colonists,  now  dead,  had  a  maize 
plantation  there,  but  since  that  time  the  ground  has  become  what  in  Brazil 
is  called  'capocira,'  i.e.  a  hill  covered  with  shrubs  and  small  trees  of  about 
2  inches  in  height.  Along  the  declivity  of  the  right  side  of  the  brook,  at  a 
distance  of  about  30  metres  from  the  latter,  is  a  path  of  communication  be- 
tween -the  different  colonial  lots  of  the  valley  and  the  forest-slopes  on 
both  sides.  The  stump  in  question  is  about  20  metres  distant  from 
the  brook,  surrounded  by  shrubs  and  easily  visible  from  the  path  on  the 
other  side,  and  was  evidently  put  there  three  years  ago  by  the  former 
colonist.  The  nearest  human  residences  are  distant  from  five  to  six  minutes 
only. 

"  The  stump,  still  partly  covered  with  its  original  bark,  has  a  height  of  1/8 
metres  above  the  level  of  the  ground.  Its  diameter  at  top  is  9'5  centimetres. 
The  top  has  in  the  centre  a  small  depression,  caused  by  decomposition,  and 
scarcely  presents  sufficient  room  for  a  rather  large  egg.  There  was  no  trace 
of  a  softer  substratum  or  nest  material. 

"The  egg  measures  41 '5  millimetres  in  the  longitudinal  axis,  and  30'5 
millimetres  in  the  transverse  axis.  Its  general  colour  is  white.  On  the 
blunt  pole,  however,  are  some  very  delicate  pale  violet  spots,  and  regularly 
distributed  over  the  whole  surface,  are  some  large  ones  of  brownish-rufous 
colour  resembling  drops  of  dried  blood.  Neither  the  former  nor  the  latter 
markings  can  be  effaced  by  washing  with  spirit ;  they  belong  properly  to  the 
egg,  which  is  of  a  very  elegant  shape." 

The  swifts  are  some  of  the  most  rapid  in  flight  of  all  the  birds  in  the  world. 
"Greased  lightning"  is  a  term  often  applied  by  naturalists  in  the  East  to 
the  flight  of  some  of  the  species,  notably  the  spine-tailed 
swifts  of  the  genus  Chcvtura.     Like  some  of  the  goatsuckers      The  Swifts. — 
alluded  to  above,  the  palate  of  the  swifts  is  aegithognathous,         Sub-order 
but  here  the  resemblance  between  the  swifts  and  the  Passeri-          Cypseli. 
formes  ends.     Of  course,  the  most  swift-like  of  the  perching 
birds  are  the  swallows,  and  until  recent  years  these  birds  were  classified 
together,  because  they  were  long-winged,  of  swift  flight,  and  had  the  same 
habit  of  hawking  insects  on  the  wing.     In  reality,  however,  the  swallows  are 
highly  modified  flycatchers,  and  have  little  in  common  with   the    Cypscli, 
which  are  more  nearly  related  to  the  humming-birds  of  America  (Trochili). 
Like  most  picarian  birds,  the  swifts  have  ten  tail-feathers,  while  the  swallows 
have  twelve.     The  latter  have   two  notches   in   the   posterior  end  of  the 
sternum,  while  there  are  no  notches  in  that  of  the  swifts,  which  further  have  a 
very  high  keel,  indicating  that  they  are  birds  of  extremely  developed  powers  of 
flight.     The  proportions  of  the  wing-bones  are  likewise  very  different  in  the 
two  groups,  being  directly  opposite  to  each  other,  for,  whereas  in  the  swifts 


346 


AVES— SUB-ORDER  CYPSELI. 


the  humerus  is  very  short,  the  forearm  longer,  and  the  manus  extremely  long, 
in  the  swallows  the  relative  proportions  are  exactly  the  contrary. 

Mr.  Ernst  Hartert,  the  latest  exponent  of  the  Cypseli,  divides  the  single 
family  which  the  sub-order  contains,  the  Cypselidce,  into  three  sub-farnilies, 
Cypselince  or  true  swifts,  Chceturince  or  spine-tailed  swifts,  and  crested  swifts 
(Macropterycjince).  From  the  recent  researches  of  Mr.  F.  A.  Lucas,  it  seems 
that  the  last-named  birds  are  very  distinct  from  the  true  swifts,  and  prob- 
ably constitute  a  distinct  family,  their  singular  mode  of  nidification,  viz. 
the  placing  of  their  egg  in  a  diminutive  nest  on  a  branch  or  a  stump,  being 
very  similar  to  that  observed  in  the  frogmouths  (Podargi)  and  the  Nyctibiince 
(antea,  p.  344).  Mr.  Hartert  characterises  the  sub-family  Cypselince,  which 
contains  the  true  swifts,  by  the  form  of  their  toes,  the  outer  and  middle 
toes  having  only  three  phalanges,  while  the  metatarsus  is  distinctly  feathered. 
In  one  species,  the  pied  swift  of  Central  America  (Aeronautes  melanoleucus), 
the  toes  are  also  covered  with  plumes.  The  genus  Micropus,  of  which  our 
common  swift  (M.  apus)  is  the  type,  has  all  the  toes  directed  forward,  but 
in  the  palm  swifts  (Tachornis  and  Claudia)  the  toes  are  arranged  in 
pairs. 

The  common  swift  is  migratory,  like  most  of  the  family,  arriving  in  Europe 
early  in  May,  and  being  one  of  the  first  of  our  summer  birds  to  disappear  to 
its  winter  quarters  in  Africa.     The  mode  of  flight  in  a  swift  is  more  like  that 
of  a  bat  than  that  of  a  bird,  especially  in  the  gloaming, 
when  the  swifts  chase  each  other  at  an  incredible 
speed,  uttering  shrill  screams.     The  rapidity  of  their 
flight  far  exceeds  that  of  any  swallow.     About  sixteen 
species  of  the  genus  Micropus  are  known. 

The  sub-family  Chceturince  consists  of  the  spine- 
tailed  swifts  and  the  edible  swiftlets.  In  these  birds 
the  toes  are  normal,  and  the  metatarsus  is  not 
feathered.  The  spine-tailed  swifts  (Chcetura)  are 
found  in  both  hemispheres,  and  have  the  shafts  of 
the  tail-feathers  produced  into  a  point  or  spine.  Some 
of  them  are  birds  of  considerable  size,  the  needle- 
tailed  swift  (Chastura  caudacuta\  which  has  occasion- 
ally been  seen  in  England,  measuring  nearly  a  foot 
in  length  to  the  end  of  its  long  wings,  which  in 
this  group  of  swifts  always  protrude  beyond  the  tail. 
It  nests  in  Siberia,  and  migrates  to  Australia  in  the  winter. 

The  swifts  of  the  genus  Collocalia  are  tiny  birds,  which  inhabit  the  Indian 
and  Australian  regions.     Some  fourteen  species  are  known.     The  birds  build 
in  caves,  affixing,  to  the  walls  of  the  limestone,  cup-shaped 
nests,  which  are  formed  principally  of  the  bird's  own  saliva, 
though  in  some  species  there  is  some  moss  mixed  up  in  the 
nests,  while  others  are  almost  entirely  made  of  moss.     These 
'*  moss  "  nests,  however,  are  of  no  commercial  value,  while 
the  pure  white  nests  are  sold  for  making  soup  to  the  Chinese. 
The  tree-swifts  are  beautiful  birds,  often  ornamented  with  a  large  crest  or 
with  long  white  whiskers.     They  have  the  metatarsus  bare,  and  it  is  shorter 
than  the  middle  toe,  whereas  in  the  Chceturince  the  tarsus  is  as  long  as  the 
middle  toe,  or  even  longer,  and  there  are  two  foramina  in  the  hinder  margin 
of  the  sternum,  whereas  in   the  other  sub-families  of  swifts  there  are  no 
such  notches.    There  is  but  a  single  genus,  Macropteryx,  with  five  species, 


Fig.  79.— THE  COMMON 
SWIFT  (Micropus  apus). 


Tne  Edible 

Swiftlets.— 

Genus 

Collocalia. 


HUMMING-BIRDS.  347 


and  the  most  singular  feature  about  the  tree-swifts  is  their  mode  of  nesting. 
Nearly  twenty  years  ago,  Sir  Hugh  Low's  native  collector  brought  to  him  in 
Labuan  a  tree-swift's  nest,  which  he  said  he  had  found  lying 
under  the  bird's  body  when  he  shot  it.  The  nest  was  of  about  The  Tree  Swifts, 
the  size  of  half-a-crown,  and  contained  one  white  egg,  which      — Sub-family 
had  been  broken  in  the  fall.     From  what  we  know  now  of      Macroptery- 
the  nesting  of  the  genus  Macropteryx,  it  is  evident  that  in  gince. 

the  above  instance  the  shot  must  have  carried  away  the  top 
of  the  stump  on  which  the  nest  had  been  placed,  as  Mr.  Hume  has  presented 
to  the  British  Museum  a  similar  nest  obtained  by  Mr.  K.  Thompson,  who  found 
one  in  India.  Mr.  Hume  says  : — "The  stem  to  which  the  nest  was  attached  is 
about  0'8  inch  in  diameter  ;  against  the  side  of  this  the  nest  is  glued,  so  that 
the  upper  margin  of  the  nest  is  on  a  level  with  the  upper  surface  of  the 
branch.  The  nest  itself  is  half  of  a  rather  deep  saucer,  175  inches  in  dia- 
meter, and  about  0'6  inch  in  depth  internally.  The  nest  is  entirely  composed 
of  thin  flakes  of  bark,  cemented  together  by  the  bird's  saliva,  and  is  about  an 
eighth  of  an  inch  in  thickness."  Only  one  white  egg  seems  to  be  laid. 

The  humming-birds  are  exclusively  a  New  World  group.     The  species  de- 
scribed up  to  the  present  time  are  nearly  500  in  number,  and  among  them 
are  found  some  of  the  tiniest  birds  in  the  world,  some  of 
them  not  being  larger  than  a  bumble-bee.     The  bulk  of  the    The  Humming. 
species  are  from  South  and  Central  America,   a  few  only          Birds.— 
reaching  to  the  southern  United  States,  and  only  a  small         Sub-order 
number  migrating  north  in  summer  to  Canada,  and  even  as          Trochili. 
far  as  Alaska. 

The  plumage  of  the  humming  birds  is  usually  of  a  brilliantly  metallic 
nature,  and  they  are  admitted  to  be  some  of  the  most  beautiful  and  interesting 
of  all  birds.  Their  classification  is  extremely  difficult,  for  the  characters 
blend  from  one  genus  into  another,  until  it  is  almost  impossible  to  say  where 
the  series  should  begin  and  where  it  should  end.  So  much  so  is  this  the 
case,  that  Mr.  Osbert  Salvin,  when  he  wrote  the  sixteenth  volume  of  the 
British  Museum  "  Catalogue  of  Birds,"  was  forced,  for  want  of  more  definite 
characters,  to  divide  the  humming-birds  into  three  sections,  those  with  a  well- 
defined  saw-like  edge  near  the  margin  of  the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible,  those 
with  this  serration  faintly  marked,  and  those  without  any  serration  at  all. 

It  is  impossible  in  the  space  at  our  disposal  to  pass  in  review  all  the  genera 
and  species  of  humming-birds,  for  they  are  of  every  size,  shape,  and  variety 
of  metallic  plumage.  The  largest  of  all  is  the  giant  humming-bird  (Patagona 
giyas),  from  the  Andes  of  Ecuador  to  Chili.  This  bird  measures  about  8^ 
inches  in  length,  whereas  some  of  the  smallest  species,  such  as  Calypte  helence 
of  Cuba,  and  Chcetocercus  bombus  of  Ecuador,  only  measure  2^  inches. 

The  tongue  in  this  order  of  birds  is  very  peculiar,  and  its  structure  is  only 
equalled  by  that  of  the  woodpeckers  (Pici)  and  sun-birds  (NectariniidcK). 
The  structure  is  thus  described  by  Sir  William  Flower  in  the  "Bird-Gallery"  of 
the  British  Museum  : — "  The  tongue  is  slender,  and  very  long  and  extensile. 
As  in  the  woodpeckers,  the  two  branches  of  the  hyoid  bone  which  support  its 
base,  curve,  when  the  tongue  is  drawn  within  the  bill,  upwards  around  the 
back  of  the  skull,  and  then  forward  over  the  top  of  the  head.  Instead  of 
the  tongue  being,  as  in  the  woodpeckers,  solid  and  ending  in  a  barbed  horny 
point,  it  is  hollow,  and  divided  at  the  free  end  into  two  slender  branches, 
each  of  which  bears  a  thin  membranous  fringe  on  its  outer  margin." 

The  wings  of  the  humming-birds  are  strong,  and  the  primaries  are  ten  in 


348 


AVES— SUB-ORDER  CO  LI  I. 


Fig.  80. -A 
HUMMING  -BIRD. 


number,  while  the  secondaries  are  only  six.  The  first  primary-quill  is  some- 
times attenuated  (Atthis,  Aylceactis,  etc.),  while  in  some  genera,  such  as 
Campylopterus,  the  shafts  of  the  primaries  are  broad  and  stiffened.  The  tail 
is  of  various  shapes,  sometimes  square,  sometimes  rounded, 
or,  as  in  the  genus  Phwthornis,  graduated,  with  the  two 
central  rectrices  elongated  and  pointed.  Many  genera  have 
forked  tails,  with  the  outer  tail-feather  elongated,  especi- 
ally in  the  male.  The  racket-tailed  humming-birds  have  a 
forked  tail,  with  the  outer  rectrjx  ending  in  a  spatule  or 
racket.  In  some  genera,  like  the  shear-tails  (Thaumastura) 
or  the  stars  (Clwztocercus),  all  the  tail-feathers  are  pointed 
and  spine-like,  and  in  the  king  humming-birds  (Topaza\  the 
central  feathers  are  elongated  and  curved,  crossing  each 
other  at  the  same  time.  The  most  remarkable,  however, 
of  all  the  humming-birds,  as  regards  its  tail,  is  Loddigesia 
mirabilis  from  the  Upper  Amazons.  In  the  female  and 
young  male,  ten  rectrices  are  present  as  usual,  but  in 
the  adult  male  there  are  only  four,  a  very  small  pair  in  the  middle,  arid  an 
elongated  pair  on  the  outside,  which  cross  each  other  and  end  in  a  "  boss  " 
or  "racket."  Some  of  the  upper  tail-coverts  are  so  lengthened  that  they 
appear  to  be  part  of  the  tail.  The  flight  of  humming-birds  is  more  like 
that  of  a  hawk -moth  than  that  of  an  actual  bird,  for  the  little  creatures 
hover  in  front  of  a  flower,  suspended,  as  it  were,  in  the  air,  with  their 
wings  vibrating  so  rapidly  as  to  appear  simply  like  a  film.  Their  food 
consists  of  the  tiniest  insects,  and  in  the  case  of  the  sword-bill  hummer 
(Docimastes  ensiferus)  the  bill  is  elongated  to  an  enormous  proportion,  so  that 
the  bird  is  able  to  probe  long  tubular  flowers  for  its'food.  The  nest  of  the 
humming-birds  is  always  beautiful,  and  is  generally  composed  of  the  down  of 
plants,  felted,  and  covered  with  spiders'  webs  or  soft  lichens.  It  is  generally 
round,  but  is  occasionally  purse-shaped,  and  is  placed  on  a  branch  or  at  the 
end  of  a  leaf.  The  eggs  are  white,  and  two  in  number. 

The  colies  form  a  separate  sub-order,  which  contains  but  a  single  genus, 
ColiiiSy  with  nine  species,  all  peculiar  to  Africa.     1  here  are  only  ten  tail- 
feathers,  and  the  hind- toe  is 
The  Colies. —      connected  with  the  flexor  per- 
Sub-order  Colii.    foransdigitor'um  tendon.   The 
bill  is  something  like  that  of 
a  finch,  and   the   birds   have  a  slight  crest. 
The  palate  is  bridged  or  desmognathous,  and 
the  sternum  has  four  notches  on  the  posterior 
margin.     The  position  of  the  colies  in  the  class 
Aves  has  been  much  debated,  and  it  seems  to 
us  that  their  place  in  the  natural  system  must 
always  be  open  to  some  comment,  but  they 
must  be  placed  somewhere  near  the  trogons 
and  the  touracoes. 

The  colies  have  curious  feet,  all  the  four 
toes  being  directed  forward,  the  first  one 
being  perhaps  reversible  ;  the  birds  use  their 

feet  for  climbing,  and  they  hang  in  peculiar  positions.  They  make  an  open 
nest,  of  grass  and  twigs,  lined  internally  with  soft  grass,  placed  in  a  fork  of 
a  tree,  and  the  eggs  are  white. 


Fig.  81.— THE  CAPE  COLY  (Colin* 
colius). 


TKOGONS. 


349 


The  trogons  are  all  birds  of  bright  plumage,  even  the  hens  having  brilliant 
colours  in  many  of  the  species.  They  are  often  called  Heterodactyli  on 
account  of  their  peculiar  feet,  which  constitute  the  chief 
structural  feature  of  the  order.  The  palate  is  schizognathous  The  Trogons. — 
or  slit,  and  the  second  toe  is  turned  backwards.  The  front  Order  Trogones. 
plantar  tendon  (flexor  perforans  digitorum)  is  split  into  two, 
and  leads  to  the  two  front  toes,  while  the  hind  plantar  (flexorlongos  hallucis) 
is  again  split,  and  leads  to  the  two  hind  toes.  The  plumage  of  the  trogons 
is  of  the  softest  description,  and  the  skin  is  so  thin  that  we  have  often  heard 
travellers  say  that  it  has  no  more  substance  than  tissue-paper,  and  every  one 
admits  that  trogons  are  the  most  difficult  birds  in  the  world  to  prepare. 

At  the  present  day  the  order  is  distributed  over  Africa,  a  great  part  of 
India  and  the  Malayan  sub-region,  but  they  are  most  numerous  in  Central  and 
Southern  America.  In  ancient  times  they  occurred  in  France,  as  fossil  remains 
have  been  found  there  along  with  those  of  touracoes  and  secretary-birds. 

One  of  the  most  splendid  of  birds  is  the  long-trained  trogon  or  quezal, 
which  has  been  adopted  by  the  republic  of  Guatemala  as  its  national  em- 
blem, and  figures  on  the  postage  stamps  of  that  country.  It  has  a  tail  of 
eight  inches  in  length,  but  the  upper  tail-coverts  are  enormously  developed, 
the  central  ones  extending  into  a  train  four  times  as  long  as  the  actual  tail 
itself.  The  quezal  is  found  in  Guatemala  and  Costa  Rica,  but  is  not  so 
plentiful  as  formerly ;  it  -is  entirely  a  bird  of  the  forests,  and  has  a  rapid 
flight.  Mr.  Stolzmann  noticed  the  Peruvian  quezal  clinging  to  the  trunks  of 
trees  like  a  woodpecker. 

The  American  trogons  (Trogon)  are  chiefly  fruit-eaters,  like  the  African 
species  of  Hapaloderma.  They  are  entirely  forest  birds,  and  are  said  to  be 
rather  stupid,  not  even  flying  away  at  the 
report  of  a  gun,  so  that  a  whole  party  may  be 
shot  down  one  after  the  other.  They  are  gene- 
rally seen  in  pairs,  but  occasionally  assemble  in 
small  flocks.  The  note  is  variously  described  as 
being  harsh,  or  clucking,  as  well  as  soft  and 
low.  Of  the  Peruvian  species,  Trogon  caligatus, 
Mr.  Stolzmann  gives  the  note  as  "  cou-cou-cou- 
cou-co-co-co-co,"  the  second  half  being  uttered  in 
a  lower  tone  than  the  first.  The  Indian  tro- 
gons (Harpactes)  are  more  insect-feeders  than 
their  American  allies.  The  eggs  of  trogons 
are  white  or  pale-buff  (that  of  the  quezal  being 
said  to  be  greenish-blue),  three  or  four  in 
number,  and  deposited  on  the  dry  wood  in  the 
hole  of  a  tree. 

Two  sub-orders  are  represented  in  this  order, 
viz.   the    cuckoos    (Cucidi)  and    the    touracoes 
(Musophagi),  the  former  being  a  cosmopolitan  group,  and  the  latter  being  con- 
fined to  Africa,  though  there  is  evidence  that  in  ancient  times 
touracoes  inhabited  Europe,  as  fossil  remains  of  these  birds 
have  been  found  in  France.     The  cuckoos  and  the  touracoes 
have  the  following  characters  in  common,  which  differentiate 
the  Coccyges  from  all  other  orders  of  birds.     The  first  and 
fourth    toe    are    turned    backwards,    and    the    second   and 
third  forwards,  the  hallux  being  always  developed,  arid  served  by  the  flexor 


Fig.  82.— THE  LARGE-TAILED 
TKOGON  (Trogon  macrurus). 


The  Cuckoo- 
like  Birds.— 
Order 

Coccyges. 


350  AVES- SUB-ORDER  CUCULI. 


longus  hallucis  tendon,  and  not  by  the  flexor  perforans  digitorum.  The 
palate  is  "  bridged  "  or  desmognathous.  In  the  cuckoos  the  oil-gland  is 
nude,  and  the  feet  thoroughly  zygodactyle,  with  two  toes  directed  forwards 
and  two  backwards,  whereas  in  the  Musophagida?  or  touracoes  the  fourth  toe 
is  not  so  completely  turned  backwards  as  in  the  Cuculidce,  and  the  foot  is 
therefore  termed  semi-zygodactyle. 

The  Cuculidce  are  divided  by  Captain  Shelley  into  six  sub-families,  of  which 
the  first  contains  the  true  cuckoos  or  Cuculince.  In  these  birds  the  tail  is 
composed  of  ten  feathers,  the  upper  tail-coverts  are  not  unduly  prolonged, 
the  wing  is  long  and  pointed,  showing  that  most  of  the  species  are  migrants, 
therein  differing  from  the  wing  in  the  bush-cuckoos,  which  has  a  rounded 
and  concave  wing,  indicating  that  they  are  not  birds  of  strong  flight. 

In  this  sub-family  are  found  the  crested  cuckoos  (Coccystes),  the  typical 
cuckoos  (Cuculus),  the  hawk-cuckoos  (Hierococcyx),  the  golden  cuckoos 
(Chrysoeoccyx),  the  American  cuckoos  (Coccyzus),  the  koels  (Eudynamis),  the 
channel-bills  (Scythrops),  and  several  other  genera.  In  the  genus  Coccystes 
we  find  the  first  instance  of  the  curious  parasitic  nature  of  the  cuckoos,  but 
in  the  case  of  the  great  spotted  cuckoo  (Coccystes  glandarius)  there  is  not  the 
same  remarkable  variation  in  the  colour  of  the  egg  that  we  find  in  the  common 
cuckoo  (Cuculus  cdnorus).  On  the  contrary,  the  egg  of  C.  glandarius  is  very 
crow-like,  and  it  is  deposited  in  the  nests  of  crows  and  magpies.  The  Indian 
crested  cuckoo  (0.  jacobinus)  lays  blue  eggs,  and  places  them  in  the  nests  of 
birds  which  also  lay  blue  eggs,  such  as  babbling-thrushes,  etc. 

Ten  species  of  true  cuckoo  are  known,  and  the  type  of  the  genus  Cuculus 
is  our  common  cuckoo  (Cuculus  cdnorus).     The  genus  is  distributed  over 
the  whole  of    the  Old   World,   excepting   in    the    Pacific 
The  True         Islands. 

Cuckoos.—  In  a  concise  work  like  the  present  there  is  not  space  to 

Genus  Cuculus.  give  in  detail  the  habits  of  a  bird  like  the  cuckoo,  whose 
life-history  would  require  a  volume  to  itself.  It  will  be, 
however,  known  to  most  of  my  readers  that  the  female  cuckoo  makes  no  nest 
of  its  own,  but  deposits  its  egg  in  the  nest  of  some  other  bird,  and  leaves  to 
the  latter  the  task  of  hatching  the  eggs  and  bringing  up  the  young  cuckoo. 
The  latter,  while  still  blind  and  naked,  ejects  the  other  little  occupants  of  the 
nest,  and  receives  thereafter  the  undivided  attention  of  the  foster-parents. 
The  latter  are  of  many  kinds,  ftycatchers,  war- 
blers, finches,  etc.,  preference,  however,  being 
given  to  the  warblers  and  pipits  and  other 
insectivorous  birds.  In  the  Western  Palsearctic 
region  alone  the  egg  of  C.  fanorus  has  been 
found  in  nests  of  120  different  species,  and  an- 
other curious  fact  in  connection  with  the  eco- 
nomy of  the  species  is  that  the  cuckoo's  egg 
is  remarkably  small  for  the  size  of  the  bird, 
and  is,  in  many  cases,  almost  an  exact 
copy  of  the  egg  of  the  foster-parent.  Each 
female  cuckoo  is  believed  to  lay  the  same  type 
of  egg  during  its  life,  so  that  a  bird  which  lays 
blue  eggs,  to  be  inserted  in  the  nest  of  a  blue- 
egged  species  like  the  redstart  or  pied  flycatcher, 

*.-THE  COMMO*  CUCKOO      alwa^  la^  Mlie^S.      Th!  CUck°°  ranf S  ^ 
(Cuculus  canorus).  over  Europe  and  Northern  Asia,  and  winters  in 

Africa,  India,  and  Australia. 


CUCKOOS—  TO  URA  COES.  35 1 


Many  genera  of  the  Guculince  have  a  good  deal  of  metallic  colour  about 
them,  and  the  golden  cuckoos  of  Africa  and  India,  with  their  emerald-green 
and  purple  plumage,  are  among  the  most  beautiful  of  all  birds.  In  America, 
the  black-billed  cuckoo  (Coccyzus  erythrophthalmus)  and  the  yellow-billed 
cuckoo  (G.  americanus)  build  their  own  nests,  and  are  most  affectionate 
parents. 

In  the  Centropodince,  the  hind-claw  is  straight,  and  like  that  of  a  lark. 
There  is  but  one  genus,  Centropus,  which  is  distributed  over  the  Ethiopian, 
Indian,  and  Australian  regions,  and  no  less  than  thirty-two 
species  are  known.     They  have  a  hooting  note,  like  "whoot-  The  Lark-heeled 
w/ioo£,"   and  on  the  Gold  Coast    the   species  is  known  as        Cuckoos. — 
the  "Scotchman."     In  India,  Mr.  Hume  says  that  0.  sinensis       Sub-family 
follows    up   the   hooting    note    by    "  kurook-kurook-kurook-     Centropodince. 
kurook,"  after  an  interval  of  a  few  seconds.      It  makes  a 
nest  in  thick  thorny  bushes  or  trees,  about  six  inches  in  height  and  twelve 
inches  across,  composed  of  grass  or  twigs,  and  in  the  form  of  an  oblate 
spheroid  ;  it  is  too  small  for  the  size  of  the  bird,  so  that  the  tail  of  the  latter 
is  generally  seen  sticking  out. 

The  bush  cuckoos  have  a  rounded  and  concave  wing  like  the  lark-heels,  but 
want  the  spur-like  claw  of  the  latter  birds.      In  this  sub-family  are  found 
the   rain  -  cuckoos   (Saurothera,  Hyetornis,   Piaya,    etc.)   of 
America,     the     steel-blue      cuckoos     (Ceuthmochares)     of         The  Bush 
Africa,  the  bush-cuckoos  (Phcenicophaes,  Rhinocbccyx,  etc.)        Cuckoos. — 
of  the  Indian  region,  and  the  couas  of  Madagascar.     The        Sub-family 
members  of  this  sub-family  build  their  own  nests  and  lay  Phcenicophceince. 
white   eggs.      They  are   mostly  bush-haunting    birds    and 
thread  their  way  through  the  jungle  and  the  trees  with  great  facility. 

The  most  round-winged  of  the  bush-cuckoos  are  the  members  of  the  genus 
Neomorphus,  which  represents  the  sub-family  Neomorphince.  Only  three 
other  genera  are  contained  in  the  latter,  Carpococeyx,  with  the  pheasant- 
cuckoo  of  Borneo  (G.  radiatus),  and  the  road-runners  (Geococeyx  and  Moro- 
coceyx}  of  the  New  World.  The  species  of  Neomorphus  are  all  neo-tropical, 
being  found  in  the  southern  countries  of  Central  America  and  the  tropical 
portions  of  South  America.  Five  species  are  known,  all  of  which  are  very 
rare,  and  nothing  has  been  recorded  of  their  habits. 

The  Diplopterince,  which  constitute  the  fifth  sub-family  of  cuckoos,  are 
entirely  American  and  are  remarkable  for  the  extreme  length  of  their  upper 
tail-coverts,  and  the  sixth  sub-family,  the  Grotophagince,  is  also  American. 
In  the  latter  there  are  only  eight  tail-feathers,  instead  of  ten,  and  some  of 
the  Savana  cuckoos  (Grotophaga)  have  very  curious  habits,  several  females 
apparently  laying  in  the  same  nest,  so  that  sometimes  as  many  as  twenty  eggs 
have  been  found  in  one  nest.  The  egg,  too,  is  very  peculiar  in  the  Croto- 
phagince,  as  it  appears  at  first  sight  to  be  blue  covered  with  white  scratchings 
and  marblings,  but  the  true  colour  of  the  egg  is  white,  and  the  blue  is  only 
an  overlying  colour,  which  gets  rubbed  and  scratched  off  through  contact  with 
the  lining  of  the  nest. 

In  appearance  these  birds  are  very  different  from  cuckoos,  and  their  semi- 
zygodactyle  foot  has  already  been  alluded  to  (p.  350).  They 

are   forest-birds,    confined    to   Africa,  where  nearly  thirty  The  Touracoes. 

species  have  been  described.     In  ancient  times  they  appear  Family 

to  have  inhabited  France,  as  fossil  remains  have  been  dis-     Musophagidce. 
covered  in  that  country.     Some  of  the  species  are  crested 


352 


AVES— ORDER  SCANSORES. 


dull 


are 


coloration,    but 
generally   called 


the    majority    are    brilliantly    plumaged 
"Lowries"   by  the    colonists    of    South 


The  Climbing 
Birds. — Order 

Scansores. 


Fig.  84.— LADY  Ross 

TOURACOE 

(M usophaga  rosscr). 


and  of  a 
birds,  and 
Africa. 

In  the  true  touracoes  (Turacus)  the  nostrils  are  hidden  by  bristles;  in  all 
the  other  genera  they  are  exposed.     In  the  genus  Musophaga,  of  which  M. 
rossce,  from  Angola  and  the  Congo  basin,  is  an  ex- 
ample, there  is  not  only  an  ornamental  frontal  shield 
of  red,  but  the  primary  quills  are  of  a  deep  crimson, 
as  they  are  in  all  the  members  of  the  genus  Turacus. 
From  the  wing-feathers  of  these  birds  has  been  ex- 
tracted a  kind  of  copper  called  turacine.     The  nest 
of  the  touracoes  is  an  open  one,  made  of  sticks,  and 
the  egg  is  white. 

In  all  the  Scansores  the  foot    is  typically  zygo- 
dactyle,    the    first  and    fourth   toes   being  turned 

backwards,  the    second    and   third 

forwards,  and   the  arrangement  of 

the  plantar  tendons  is  as  curious. 

The  flexor  perforans  digitorum  ten- 
don leads  to  the  third  digit  only, 
while  the  flexor  longus  hallucis  first  sends  a  tendon 
to  the  other  plantar  tendon,  and  a  second  to  the 
fourth  digit,  after  which  (if  the  hallux  be  present) 
it  splits  into  two  tendons,  one  leading  to  the  hallux, 
the  other  to  the  second  digit. 

Of  the  three  sub-orders  of  the  Scansores  the  toucans  are  exclusively  neo- 
tropical. They  are  very  plentifully  represented  in  Central  and  South 
America,  and  are  remarkable  for  their  long,  generally  parti- 
coloured bill,  and  for  their  curious  feathery  tongue.  The 
palate  is  desmognathous  or  "bridged,"  and  the  vomer 
truncated. 

The  toucans  are  about  sixty  in  number,  and  are  contained 
in  five  genera,  Wiampliastos,  Andigena,  Pteroglossus,  Selenidera,  and  Aula- 
corhamphus.  The  long  bill,  which  at  first  sight  appears  so  clumsy  and  awk- 
ward, is  really  a  very  light  structure,  full  of  empty 
cellules,  and  the  colours  of  the  bill  are  usually  those 
of  the  adjoining  bare  skin  of  the  face.  The  birds 
inhabit  the  forests  and  feed  on  fruit,  and  are  often 
found  in  company.  Though  they  have  a  scansorial 
foot,  they  do  not  climb  like  woodpeckers,  but  pro- 
ceed by  great  hops,  like  the  hornbills,  from  branch 
to  branch. 

The  barbets  are  small  birds  with  zygodactyle  feet, 
which  are  found  in  the  neo-tropical,  Ethiopian  and 

Indian  regions,  but  do  not  extend 

into  the  Australian  region,  nor  are 

they  found  in  the  temperate  regions 

of    the    Northern  Zone    of    either 

hemisphere.  Some  have  a  bridged 
palate,  but  others  have  the  palate  aegithognathous  or 
passerine.  The  vomer  is  bifid,  the  oil-gland  tufted, 
and  there  are  other  internal  characters  which  separate  them  from  the  rest  of 


The  Toucans.— 

Sub-order 
Rhamphastides. 


The  Barbets. — 
Sub-order 

Capitones. 


Fig.  8^.— THE  Toco  TOUCAN 
(Ramphastos  toco). 


BARBETS-HONE  Y-GUIDES. 


353 


the  climbing  birds, 
vorous,  and  their 


Fig.  86. — THE  GOLDEN-GREEN 
BARBET  (Capita  aurovirens). 


They  feed  chiefly  on  fruit,  but  many  species  are  insecti- 
curious  monotonous  notes  have  gained  for  them  the 
names  of  "  Tinker  or  Coppersmith,"  the  little 
Indian  species  (Xantholcema  hcemacephala)  nod- 
ding its  head  sideways  as  it  utters  its  metallic 
call.  Like  woodpeckers  they  bore  a  hole  in 
a  tree,  and  lay  their  eggs,  which  are  white,  on 
the  chips  of  wood.  Of  the  Peruvian  species 
of  Capita,  Stolzmann  says  that  he  has  found 
them  in  small  parties  on  high  trees,  feeding  on 
fruits  in  company  with  toucans,  chatterers,  and 
other  birds. 

The  honey-guides  have  an  interesting  distribu- 
tion over  the  earth's  surface.      They  are  mostly 
confined  to  Africa,  but  one  species 
occurs  in  the  Himalayas,  and  an-      The  Honey- 
other  in  the  mountains  of  Malacca        Guides. — 
and  Borneo.     The  palate  is  aegithognathous,  and  the  bill  is        Sub-order 
not  unlike  that  of  a  finch.     The  colouring  of  the  birds  is      Indicators. 
generally  sombre,  though  some  African  species  have  white 
lower  backs  and  the  Indian  honey-guide  (/.  xanihonotus)  has  a  yellow  back. 
The  name  of  '  *  honey-guide  "  is  derived  from  the  fact  that  several  of  the 
African  species  will  lead  men  to  a  bee's  nest,  sitting  on  the  trees  and  utter- 
ing a  piping  note.     If  followed,  they  will  fly  on 
in  advance  a  little  way,  and,  as  a  rule,  the  bird  is 
rewarded  with  a  little  piece  of  the  comb,  from 
which  it  extracts  the  grubs.     The  food  of  all 
the  species,   as  far  as  is  known,   consists  of 
hymenoptera. 

The  Piciformes  resemble  the  Scansores  in  hav- 
ing the  plantar  tendons  peculiar  in  their  arrange- 
ment as  already  described  by 
Seebohm.      The  flexor  per/or-  TheWoodpecker- 
ans  digitorum  leads  to  the  third      like  Birds. — 
digit  only.     The  flexor  longus  Order 

hallucis  first  sends  a  tendon  to       Piciformes. 
the     other     planter,     then    a 
second  to  the  fourth  digit,  after  which  (if  the 
hallux  be  present)  it  splits  into  two  tendons, 
one  leading  to  the  hallux,  the  other  to  the 
second  digit. 

In  the  woodpeckers  the  palate  is  peculiar, 
and  has  been  termed  "  saurognathous  "  by  the 
late  Professor  W.  Kitchen  Parker,  the  vomer  being  slender, 
pointed,  and  split,  the  lateral  halves  separate.     The  bill  is  The 

formed  for  the  hammering  of  trees,  which  these  birds  are   Woodpeckers. — 
famous  for,  and  is,  in  the  majority  of  woodpeckers,  strong  and    Sub-order  Pici. 
chisel-shaped,  though  weaker  and  more  curved  in  the  ground- 
feeding  species.     The  tongue  is  very  peculiar,  for  here  we  meet  with  a-similar 
arrangement  to  that  noticed  in  the  humming-birds  (antea,  p.  347).      The 
tongue  is  long  and  worm-like,  and  is  capable  of  being  protruded  to  an  enormous 
length  by  means  of  the  hyoid  bones,  the  cornua  of  which  extend  backwards 
24 


Fig.  87.— THE  GREAT  HONEY- 
GUIDE  (2)ulicator). 


354  A  VES— ORDER  PICIFORMES. 


over  the  skull.  The  tongue  is  furnished  with  a  pointed,  horny,  barbed  tip. 
This  arrangement,  so  far  as  is  known,  obtains  in  all  woodpeckers  excepting 
Sphyropicus  and  Xenopicus. 

The  late  Mr.  Edward  Hargitt  divided  the  family  Picidce,  at  which  he 
laboured  unceasingly  for  fourteen  years,  into  three  sub-families,  woodpeckers 
(Picince),  piculets  (Picumniiice),  and  wrynecks  (lynginat).  The  latter  birds 
have  a  soft  and  mottled  plumage  like  that  of  a  nightjar.  They  have  a  long 
tail,  the  feathers  of  which  are  soft  and  not  pointed  like  those  of  the  wood- 
peckers. Three  species  are  resident  in  Africa,  but  our  common  wryneck 
(I.  torquilla)  is  a  migrant  to  Europe  and  Northern  Asia,  wintering  in  Africa, 
India,  and  Southern  China. 

The  piculets  are  tiny  little  birds  without  the  stiffened  tail  of  the  wood- 
pecker, but  otherwise  resembling  them  in  the  form  of  the  bill  and  the  bristles 
around  the  nostrils.  In  the  iieo-tropical  region  the  piculets 
The  Piculets. — .  are  represented  by  the  genus  Picumnus  with  thirty-five 

Sub-family        species,  and  Nesoctites  with  a  single  species,  their  place  being 

Picumninw.  taken  in  Africa  by  the  genus  Verreauxia  with  one  species,  V. 
africana,  and  in  the  Himalayas  and  throughout  the  Indo- 
Malayan  region  by  the  genus  Sasia,  which  has  only  three  toes.  Both  the 
last-named  genera  have  a  bare  orbital  patch  round  the  eye. 

Of  the  habits  of  the  species  of  Picumnus  very  little  has  been  recorded,  but 
Stolzmann  says  that  in  Peru  he  has  seen  them  on  the  borders  of  the  rivers, 
tapping  the  small  branches  of  the  trees,  and  running  along  the  horizontal 
limbs,  sometimes  above  the  branch,  sometimes  below. 

All  the  true  woodpeckers  have  the  tail  spiny,  with  the  shafts  of  the  tail- 
feathers  stiffened.  They  may  be  divided  into  two  groups,  the  feathered- 
necked  section  and  the  narrow-necked  section.  In  the  first 
The  True  Wood-  section  are  found  the  ground  woodpeckers  (Geocolaptes\  the 
peckers. —  yellow-winged  woodpeckers  (Colaptes),  and  all  such  forms  as 

Sub-family        the  green  woodpeckers  (Gecinus)  and  their  allies,  the  pied 

Picince.          woodpeckers    (Dendrocopus),    the    three-toed    woodpeckers 

(Picoides),  and,  in  fact,  the  bulk  of  the  sub-family.      The 

narrow-necked  woodpeckers  are  principally  tropical,  but  they  inhabit  both 

the  Old  and  the  New  Worlds,  being,  however,  much  more  plentiful  in  the 

former,  and  jbhey  are  represented  in  Europe  by  the  great  black  woodpecker 

(Picus  martins). 

The  distribution  of  the  woodpeckers  is  interesting  from  the  following  fact, 
that  they  are  universally  distributed  over  North  and  South  America,  the 
whole  of  Africa,  Europe  and  Asia,  until  we  approach  "  Wallace's  Line"  in 
the  Moluccas,  and  there  we  find  that  a  few  species  extend  beyond  the  limits 
of  the  Indo-Malayan  sub-region,  into  Flores  and  Celebes.  In  fact,  the 
woodpeckers  coincide  in  distribution  with  the  monkeys,  and  do  not  extend 
beyond  the  last-named  island. 

In  habits  they  are  singularly  alike,  excavating  holes  in  trees,  which  they 

drill  with  the  utmost  precision  and  with  such  accuracy  that  the  hole  appears 

as  if  it  had  been  made  by  the  most  skilled  of  carpenters.    No 

Woodpeckers,  nest  is  made,  and  the  white  eggs  are  deposited  on  the  chips 
of  wood  at  the  end  of  the  hole,  which  is  often  of  considerable 
depth.  The  note  of  our  green  woodpecker,  or  yaffle,  is  a  resounding  laugh, 
while  the  pied  woodpeckers  call  to  each  other  by  a  series  of  taps  on  the 
slender  boughs  of  the  tallest  trees,  their  ordinary  note  being  harsh  and 
unmusical. 


WOODPE  CKERS  -  PUFF-BIRDS. 


355 


An  interesting  genus  of  the  section  of  narrow-necked  woodpeckers  is  seen 
In  Thripoviax,  which  is  found  in  the  Indian  region,  and  extends  through  the 
Indo-Malayan  sub-region  and  the  Burmese  pro- 
vinces to  the  Philippines  on  the  one  hand,  and  to 
South  India  and  the  Andaman  islands  on  the  other. 
Then  the  genus,  of  which  Hargitt's  woodpecker  is 
one  of  the  most  typical  species  (fig.  88),  reappears 
in  Corea  and  the  Japanese  islands  of  Tsu-shima, 
thus  proving  that  in  the  Eastern  Hemisphere  the 
same  introduction  of  tropical  forms  unexpectedly 
occurs  in  the  palsearctic  area  as  it  does  in  the 
Western  Hemisphere. 

The  puff-birds  are  neotropical,  and  are  only  found 
in  Central  and  South  America.     They  differ  from 
the  woodpeckers  in  having  a  nude 
oil-gland  and  in  the  possession  of    The  Puff-Birds, 
caeca,  and  their   pterylography   is      —Sub-order 
different.      The  palate  is  bridged         Buccones. 
PECKER Tn.r^on^xl^mj      or  desmognathous,  and  a  vomer  is 

perforans  digitorum  tendon  leads  to  the  third  digit  only,  the  other  plantar 
tendon  serving  the  three  other  toes,  as  in  the  woodpeckers.  The  bill  is 
stout  and  curved,  and  in  the  genus  Bucco  is  hooked  at  the  end,  the  base  being 
well  furnished  with  rictal  bristles.  The  plumage  of  the  puff-birds  is  mostly 
of  a  sombre  character. 

Forty-three  species  of  puff-bird  are  known,  divided  by  Dr.  Sclater  into 
seven  genera,  Bucco  with  twenty  species,  Malacoptila  with  seven,  Micromon- 
acha  with  one,  Nonnula  with  five,  Malacoptila  with 
one,  Monacha  with  seven,  and  Chelidoptera  with  two. 
The  accounts  of  the  habits  of  these  birds  represent 
them  to  be  sluggish  and  apathetic  ;  they  inhabit  the 
forests  and  feed  on  insects,  after  which  they  fly  fiyom 
their  perch,  apparently  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of 
a  bee-eater  or  a  flycatcher.  Very  few  notes  have 
been  published  on  their  habits  or  nesting,  but  the 
eggs  are  believed  to  be  white,  and  deposited  in  the 
holes  of  hollow  trees. 

The  jacamars  are  a  small  family  of  neo- tropical 
birds,  mostly  of  metallic  plumage,  resembling  the 
puff-birds  in  much  of  their  internal 
structure  and.  their  zygodactyle  feet. 
The  bill,  however,  is  not  heavy,  as  in 

the  latter  birds,  but  is  long,  slender  and  pointed,  and  they 
usually  have  a  long  and  pointed  tail. 

The  jacamars  feed  on  insects,  which  they  dart  after  from  a  perch,  like  a 
flycatcher.  Jacamerops  aurea  is  said  to  be  casually  met  with  as  solitary  in- 
dividuals or  in  pairs,  preferring  trees  on  the  banks  of  streams  to  more  open 
places  in  the  forest.  Here  they  watch  for  passing  insects,  which  they  catch 
on  the  wing,  and  return  to  their  position.  They  often  remain  almost  motion- 
less for  hours  without  stirring  a  feather.  The  jacamars  are  said  to  tunnel 
a  small  hole  in  a  bank  and  to  lay  white  and  nearly  round  eggs.  Of  the  black- 
cheeked  jacamar  (Galbula  melanogenia)  more  has  been  published  about  the 


Fig.  89.— THE  GREATER 

PIED  PUFF-BIRD 
(Bucco  macrorhynchus). 


The  Jacamars. 
— Family 

Gcdbulidce. 


356 


A  VES— ORDER  EUR  YL&MI. 


Fig.  90.— THE  WHITE- 
BELLIED  JACAMAR 
(Galbula  leucogastra.) 


The  Broad -Bills. 
— Order 

Eurylcemi. 


habits,  and  we  learn  from  Messrs.  Salvin  and  Godnian  in  their  "Biologia" 
that  it  is  a  solitary  bird,  frequenting  deep  ravines 
overhung  with  trees  ;  it  has  a  quick,  darting  flight, 
utters  110  cry,  and  feeds  on  insects.  Mr.  Richmond 
says  that,  on  the  Escondido  River  in  Nicaragua,  he 
noticed  the  bird  jerking  its  tail  like  a  kingfisher, 
and  he  describes  the  cry  as  piercing,  and  resembling 
the  syllables  "kee-u,"  with  the  first  syllable  very 
shrill  and  strongly  accentuated. 

Before  commencing  the  account  of  the  true  perch- 
ing birds  or  Passeriformes,  there  remain  two  orders 
which  have  generally  been  placed  with  the  latter, 
but  which,  in  our  opinion,  should  be  kept  distinct. 
These  are  the  broad-bills  (Eurylcemi)  and  the  lyre- 
birds (Menurce). 

The  broad-bills  are  only  found  in  the  Himalayan 
region  in  India,  whence  they  extend  through  the  Bur- 
mese provinces  to  the  Malayan  peninsula  and  islands  to  Borneo  and  the  Philip- 
pines. They  have  a  passerine  or  segithognathous  palate,  but 
the  structure  of  the  deep  plantar  tendons  is  strikingly  different 
from  those  of  the  typical  passerine  foot,  as  the  flexor  longus  hal- 
Incis  tendon  sends  out  a  strong  band  or  "vinculum"  to  join  the 
tendon  of  the  flexor  profuudus  digitorum.  The  trachea  is  also 
peculiar,  and  the  sternum  has  no  forked  manubrial  process.  In  the  first  sub- 
family of  the  Eurylunmidce  Dr.  Sclater  places  but  one  genus,  Calyptomena,  which 
is  distinguished  by  the  frontal  plumes  covering  the  nostrils.  It  contains  but 
three  species,  which  are,  however,  the  finest  of  the  broad-bills.  Their  princi- 
pal colour  is  emerald-green,  varied  with  velvety  black,  and  C.  whiteheadi  from 
Kina  Balu  Mountain  in  Northern  Borneo,  is  the  largest  of  the  family,  mea- 
suring nearly  a  foot  in  length.  It  builds  a  good-sized  nest,  according  to  Mr. 
John  Whitehead,  who  discovered  this  splendid  species,  which  it  "suspends 
from  the  end  of  a  slender  bough  about  fifty  feet  from  the  ground.  The 
outside  is  composed  of  fresh  green  moss  bound  over  the  bough,  and  worked 
into  the  sides,  ending  in  a  long  streamer,  which  assists  in  assimilating  the 
nest  to  the  long  dripping  streamers  of  mess  and 
lichens  which  hang  from  every  bough  in  this  continual 
rainy  season.  The  inside  of  the  nest  is  very  solid, 
lined  with  dry  bamboo-leaves  above  and  below,  form- 
ing a  well -sheltered  pocket.  The  eggs  are  glossy 
creamy- white."  A  second  species  of  Calyptomena,  G. 
hosii,  a  green  bird  with  a  blue  breast,  has  been  dis- 
covered in  the  mountains  of  Savawak  by  Mr.  Charles 
Hose,  while  the  small  species,  0.  viridis,  is  found  every- 
where in  the  low  country  throughout  the  Malayan 
peninsula  and  islands. 

Of  the  Eurylaiminv,  which  have  bare  nostrils,  there 
are  six  genera,  Psarisomus  with  one  species,  Serilophus 
with  two,  Sarcophartops  with  two,  Eurylcemus  with 
two,  Gorydon  with  one,  and  Cymborhynchus  with  two. 
Psarisomus  dalhounce  of  the  Eastern  Himalayas  and 

the  hills  of  Assam  and  Burma  is  a  very  handsome  bird,  being  green,  with  a 
black  head  and  a  blue  patch  on  the  crown.     Another  fine  species  is  Hors- 


Fig.  91.  —  HORSFIELD'S 
BROADBILL 

(Eurylwmusjavanicus). 


L  YRE-BIRDS. 


357 


field's  broadbill  (E.  javanicus),  which  is  found  in  Java  and  the  Malayan 
islands  and  peninsula  as  far  north  as  Tenasserim.  The  food  of  the  broad- 
bills  appears  to  consist  of  insects,  but  occasionally  of  small  reptiles.  They 
are  inhabitants  of  the  forests,  and  are  said  to  be  sluggish  and  somewhat  stupid 
birds.  The  nests  are  suspended  from  the  boughs  of  trees,  and  are  of  a  purse^ 
like  shape,  being  composed  of  fibre  and  grass.  Unlike  the  eggs  of  Calypto- 
mena,  those  of  the  true  broadbills  are  spotted  with  black  or  brownish-red  on 
a  cream-coloured  ground. 

The  lyre-birds  have  always  been  considered  aberrant  passerine  birds,  but 
they  cannot   in  any  way,   according  to  our  ideas,   be  associated  with  the 
Passer i formes,  on  account  of  their  curious  nesting-habits  and 
downy  nestling.      In  addition  to  this,  the  lyre-birds  have    The  Lyre-Birds. 
other  anatomical  features,  which  separate  them  from  the          — Order 
true  perching  birds,  and  we  believe  that  our  separation  of         Menurce. 
the  Menurai  as  a  distinct  order  will  be  followed  by  future 
systematists,  as  the  young  lyre-bird  looks  more  like  the  nestling  of  a  petrel 
than  that  of  any  other  bird,  and  such  a  nestling  plumage  is  unknown  in  any 
species  of  passerine  bird,  the  young  of  which  are  mostly  hatched  naked. 
The  adult  lyre-bird  is  a  very  remarkable  creature. 
It  has  legs  like  those  of  a  megapode,  and  altogether 
looks  more  like  a  Game-Bird  than  anything  else,  but 
it  must  be    looked  upon,    we  think,   as  a  kind  of 
gigantic  wren,  though  in  effect  it  is,  like  so  many  of 
the  Australasian  birds,  a  form  by  itself.     We  have 
heard  it  suggested  that  the  lyre-birds  are  allied  to 
the  birds   of   paradise,  but  the  only  warranty  for 
such  a  proposition  is  that  the  plumage  of  the  tail  in 
Menura  is  fantastic,  as  is  the  decorative  plumage  of 
the  birds  of  paradise.     Three  species  of  Menura  are 
known,   all  peculiar  to  the  continent  of  Australia. 
They  are  very  shy  birds,  inhabiting  the  brush  country, 
and  living  solitary  or  in  pairs.     The  food  consists  of 
insects,  chiefly  beetles  and  centipedes,  occasionally 
varied   with   snails.      Their   strong  feet  give  them 
the  power  of  making  enormous    leaps,   and   Gould 
states  that  they  will  jump   from  the  ground  to  a 
bough  ten  feet  above  it.     The  nest  of  the  lyre-bird 
is  domed  like  that  of  a  wren  ;  it  is  of  large   size, 
formed  of  sticks,  and  lined  with  feathers,  and  it  has 
a  kind  of  outer  rough  covering,  composed  of  sticks,  moss,  and  leaves.     Only 
one  egg  is  laid,  of  a  purplish-grey  colour,  spotted  and  blotched  with  purplish 
brown. 

The  principal  character  which  distinguishes  the  Passeres  or  perching-birds 
is  the  form  of  the  palate,  which  is  segithognathous  or  passerine,  with  the 
vomer  truncated  in  front.     The  hind  toe  is  always  present, 
and  is  connected  with  the  flexor  longus  hallucis  tendon  and    The  Perching1- 
not  with  the  flexor  perforans  digitorum.      The  bulk  of  the     Birds.— Order 
Passeriformes  belong  to  the  division  Acromyodi,  in  which  the    Passeriformes, 
intrinsic  muscles  of  the  syrinx  are  fixed  to  the  ends  of  the 
bronchial  semi-rings.     Much  discussion  has  taken  place  between  ornithologists 
as  to  which  is  the  highest  form  of  bird,  and  many  are  inclined  to  think  that 
preference  should  be  given  to  the  thrushes  and  warblers,  on  account  of 


Fig.  92.— THE  LYRE-BIRD 
(Menura  superba). 


358 


AVES- ORDER  PASSERIFORMES. 


their  powers  of  song,  just  as  the  monkeys  are  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
Mammalia  on  account  of  their  man-like  aspect ;  but  in  our  opinion,  the 
crows  (Corvidce)  are  at  the  head  of  the  Passeriformes,  being,  with  the 
exception  of  their  want  of  song,  the  most  perfectly  developed  of  birds. 
The  wing  of  a  crow  exhibits  in  its  fullest  perfection  the  power  of  flight, 
every  wing-covert  and  quill  being  shown  in  the  most  complete  develop- 
ment. The  same  is  seen  in  the  feet  of  a  crow,  where  all  the  scales  on 
the  tarsi  and  toes  are  more  strongly  indicated  than  in  any  other  passerine 
bird. 

The  colour  of  the  crows  is  black  or  decidedly  sombre,  as  a  rule,  only 

relieved    by   brighter  plumage   in   the  case   of    the   magpies   (Pica),    jays 

(Garrulus),  and  the  beautiful  blue  jays  of  America  (Cyatio- 

Tlie  Crows. —     corax,  Xanthura),  etc.     All  these  forms  belong  to  the  true 

Family  Corvidce.  crows  (Oorwmce),  of  which  our  iook(Trypa'iicoraxfrugilegus\ 

carrion  crow  (Corotie  corone),  magpie  (Pica  pica),  and  jay 

(Garrulus  glandarius)  are  typical  examples.     They  all  have  the  nostrils  placed 

high  in  the  mandible,  whereas  the  choughs  (sub-family  Fregilince)  have  the 

nostril  placed  low  in  the  mandible,  nearer  to  its  lower  margin  than  to  its 

upper  one.     In  the  Fregilince  we  find  four  genera :  Graculus,  with  our  own 

red-billed  chough  (G.  graculus),  Pyrrhocorax,  with  its  single    species,  P. 

pyrrhocorax,  the  Alpine  chough,  and  Corcorax,  with  a  single  Australian  species, 

the  white-winged  chough  (G.  mtf.wiorhamphus}.     The  most  interesting  of  this 

group  of  birds,  however,  are 
the  desert-choughs  (Podoces). 
Of  these  there  are  four  species, 
all  confined  to  the  desert  re- 
gions of  Central  Asia  from 
Buchara  to  Turkestan  and 
Thibet.  They  are  sandy-col- 
oured birds,  like  most  desert- 
haunting  creatures,  but  with 
brighter  heads  and  wings  :  P. 
panderi  from  Buchara  was  the 
first  species  of  the  genus  to 
be  described,  but  nothing  has 
been  recorded  of  its  habits. 
P.  hendersoni  from  Yarkand 
Fig.  93.—  PANDER'S  DESERT-CHOUGH  (Podoces  panderi).  is  better  known,  and  Dr. 

Henderson  says  that  they  al- 
ways kept  in  pairs,  and  moved  about  from  one  sand-hill  to  another,  seem- 
ingly searching  for  insects  in  the  sand.  The  stomachs,  however,  were 
filled  with  grain,  picked  out  of  the  horse-dung  in  the  road.  The  eggs  of 
P.  panderi  are  like  those  of  crows,  but  one  species,  P.  humilis,  lays  white 
eggs. 

The  crows  are  all  ambulatores  or  walkers,  but  there  is  no  proof  that  the 
birds  of  paradise  progress  by  walking  steps,  when  on  the  ground.  On  the 
contrary,  the  Paradiseidce  are  entirely  forest  birds.  They 
differ  from  the  true  crows  in  the  structure  of  the  feet,  the 
outer  toe  being  longer  than  the  inner  one  but  shorter  than 
the  middle  one.  Their  fantastic  plumage  is  their  chief  char- 
acteristic, but  the  nest  and  eggs  are  corvine,  and  the 
paradise  birds  are  really  nothing  but  gaudy-coloured  crows. 


The  Birds  of 
Paradise. — • 

Family 
Paradiseidce. 


BIRDS  OF  PARADISE— BOWER-BIRDS.  359 


They  include  the  rifle-birds  (Ptilorhis),  and  other  sickle-billed  forms  like  the 
twelve-wired  birds  of  paradise  (Seleucides)  and  the  superb  birds  of  paradise 
(Epimachus).  In  all  the  sickle-billed 
species,  composing  the  sub-family  Epi- 
machince,  the  bill  is  long  and  curved, 
and  exceeds  the  tarsus  in  length.  Jn 
Ptilorhis  the  plumage  is  velvety  black, 
with  a  metallic  head  and  a  metallic 
green  shield  on  the  breast.  The  nest 
of  Queen  Victoria's  rifle-bird  (P.  vie- 
torice)  is  described  as  a  loosely  con- 
structed structure  of  dead  leaves  and 
green  branchlets,  the  eggs  being  of  a 
flesh-colour ,  with  streaks  and  spots  of  w  _THE  KED.PLTTMI!!D  BlRD  OF 

reddish-brown.         The   rifle-birds    are  PARADISE  (Paradisea  raggiana). 

found  in  Australia  and  New  Guinea. 

The  Papuan  Islands  and  the  Moluccas  are  also  the  home  of  the  true  birds  of 
paradise,  which  compose  the  sub- family  Paradiseince,  which  have  a  stouter 
bill,  with  the  culmen  not  so  long  as  the  tarsus.  Some  eighteen  genera  are 
to  be  found  in  this  sub-family,  including  not  only  the  true  paradise-birds, 
but  many  others  of  varied  form  and  decorated  plumage.  They  inhabit  the 
forest  country  at  different  altitudes,  and  in  some  localities,  such  as  the 
Arn  Islands,  they  are  very  abundant,  the  insensate  fashion  of  decorating 
ladies'  hats  with  the  plumes  of  these  lovely  birds  having,  wonderful  to 
relate,  not  yet  succeeded  in  exterminating  them.  They  feed  chiefly  on 
fruit. 

The  bower  birds  are  undoubtedly  closely  allied  to  the  birds  of  paradise, 
and  it  is  difficult  to  say  where  one  family  ends  arid  the  other  begins.     Such 
forms  as  the  golden  bird  of  paradise  (Xanthomelus  aureus) 
have  been  placed  with  the  Paradiseidce,  but  this  genus  and  The  Bower  Birds, 
its  allies  are  probably  bower-builders,  and  it  is  certain  that        — Family 
some    of    the    allied    forms,   like    Prionodura   newtoniana      Ptilororpyn- 
and    Amblyornis    inornata,     undoubtedly    construct    large  chidce. 

bowers. 

The  satin  bower-bird  of  Australia  (Ptilonorhynchus  holosericeus)  builds 
an  arched  bower  of  sticks,  decorated  with  snail-shells,  bleached  bones 
of  small  mammals,  and  the  bright  feathers  of  parakeets.  But  one  of 
the  most  extraordinary  of  all  these  fantastic  bowers  is  that  erected  by  the 
gardener  bird  of  North- Western  New  Guinea.  Dr.  Beccari,  who  dis- 
covered the  bower  of  this  species  in  the  Arfak  Mountains,  describes  it  as 
follows: — "The  Amblyornis  selects  a  flat  even  place  round  the  trunk  of  a 
small  tree,  which  is  as  thick  and  as  high  as  a  walking-stick  of  middle  size. 
It  begins  by  constructing  at  the  base  of  the  tree  a  kind  of  cone,  chiefly  of 
moss,  of  the  size  of  a  man's  hand.  The  trunk  of  the  tree  becomes  the  central 
pillar,  and  the  whole  building  is  supported  by  it.  On  the  top  of  the  central 
pillar  twigs  are  then  methodically  placed  in  a  radiating  manner,  resting  on 
the  ground,  leaving  an  aperture  for  the  entrance.  Thus  is  obtained  a  conical 
and  very  regular  hut.  When  the  work  is  completed,  many  other  branches 
are  placed  transversely  in  various  ways,  to  make  the  whole  quite  firm  and 
impermeable.  A  circular  gallery  is  left  between  the  walls  and  the  central 
cone.  The  whole  is  nearly  three  feet  in  diameter.  All  the  stems  used  by 
the  Amblyornis  are  the  thin  stems  of  an  orchid  (Dendrobmm)t  an  epiphyte 


360  A  VES— ORDER  PASSERIFORMES. 


forming  large  tufts  on  the  mossy  branches  of  great  trees,  easily  bent  like 
straw,  and  generally  about  twenty  inches  long.  The  stalks  had  the  leaves, 
which  are  small  and  straight,  still  fresh  and  living  on  them — which  leads  me 
to  conclude  that  this  plant  was  selected  by  the  bird  to  prevent  rotting  and 
mould  in  the  building,  since  it  keeps  alive  for  a  long  time,  as  is  so  often  the 
case  with  epiphytical  orchids.  Before  the  cottage  there  is  a  meadow  of 
moss.  This  is  brought  to  the  spot  and  kept  free  from  grass,  stones,  or 
anything  which  would  offend  the  eye.  On  this  green  turf,  flowers  and 
fruit  of  a  pretty  colour  are  placed  so  as  to  form  an  elegant  little  garden. 
The  greater  part  of  the  decoration  is  collected  round  the  entrance  to 
the  nest ;  and  it  would  appear  that  the  husband  offers  there  his  daily 
gifts  to  his  wife.  The  objects  are  very  various,  but  always  of  a  vivid 
colour." 

The  starlings  are  a  widely  distributed  group,  peculiar  to  the  Old  World. 
Our  common  starling  (Sturnus  vulgaris)  is  an  exceedingly  plentiful  bird  in 
England,  where  it  stays  all  the.  year,  receiving  an  additional 
The  Starlings,     host  of  migrants  in   the  autumn   and  winter.      Like   the 
— Family         crows,   the  starlings  are  walking,  not  hopping,   birds  like 
Sturnidce.         sparrows  and  finches.     They  differ  from  the  crows,  however, 
in   having  a  streaked   nestling,    and   they   have    no  rictal 
bristles.     Besides  the  members  of  the  genus  Sturnus,  which  contains  the 
true  starlings  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  of  which  our  own  starling  is  the  repre- 
sentative,   the    family   embraces     many     allied 
genera,  chiefly  Asiatic,  such  as  the  field-starlings 
and  mynas  (Sturnia  and   Temenuchus),  and  the 
rose-coloured  pastor  (Pastor  roseus).     The  latter 
is  an  extraordinary  bird,  on  account  of  its  nidi- 
Kcation.     It  appears  in  certain  districts  of  South- 
Eastern  Europe  in  vast  swarms,  hurriedly  rears 
its  young,  and  departs  again  with  such  rapidity 
that  its  absence  has  hardly  been  noticed  from  its 
winter  quarters.      The   starlings  have   the  first 
primary  very  short,  and  have  on  that  account 
been  associated  with  the  swallows  and  wagtails, 
but  with  these  families  they  have  nothing  to  do. 

Fig.  95.-TriE  COMMON  STAR-        Their  eggs  a™  always  W™8*1  °*  white,  and  the 
LINO  (Sturnus  vulgaris).          nest  is  a  rough  structure,  placed  in  a  hole  of  a 
tree  or  wall.     The  starlings  are  principally  in- 
sect-feeders, and  they  do  an  immense  amount  of  good  to  the  agriculturist, 
though  it  must  be  admitted  that  at  certain  times  they  commit  some  depre- 
dation among  the  fruit. 

This  family  is  for  the  most  part  Indian  and  Moluccan,  but  there  are 

several   African   and    Australian    forms.      It  contains   the  wattled   grakles 

(Eulabes)    of    the   Indian    region,    the    glossy  starlings   of 

The  Tree  Star-    Africa  (Lamprocolius),  and  the  genus  Calomis  of  the  Indian 

lings.— Family    and    Australian     regions.       These    birds    are    arboreal    in 

EidabetidcK.       their  habits,  and  differ  from  the  true  starlings  in  having 

distinct    rictal  bristles,  and  in    laying  spotted    eggs.      In 

Madagascar    the   Eulabetidce    are    represented  by   the  genus   Euryceros,    a 

chestnut  bird  with   a   huge  bill  of   a  blue   colour.      Only  one   species,   E. 

prevosti,  is  known. 

The  Dicruridai  are  black  crow-like  flycatchers,  inhabiting  Africa,  India, 


DRONGOS— ORIOLES. 


361 


They 


The  Drongos. 
— Family 
Dicruridce. 


and  China,  south  throughout  the  Malayan  Archipelago  to  Australia, 
sit  on  exposed  branches  of  trees, 
whence  they  fly  out  and  capture 
insects.  Their  nest  is  a  cradle 
suspended  between  the  fork  of  a 
branch,  and  the  eggs  are  whitish, 
with  red  markings.  In  nearly  all  the  species  the 
tail  is  very  plainly  forked,  especially  in  Buchauga, 
and  in  some  genera,  such  as  the  Himalayan 
Chibia,  the  outer  feathers  are  curved  upwards. 
Some  of  the  drongos,  such  as  Dissemurus  and 
Bhringa,  have  the  outer  tail-feathers  greatly 
prolonged,  and  ending  in  a  racket. 

The  orioles  are  an  Old  World  family  of  birds, 
the  plumage  being  of  a  bright  yellow  or  orange 
colour,  though  some  of  the  Moluccan  and  Aus- 

Fig.  96. -THE  BLACK  DBONGO     tralian    forms,   such    as  Mimeta, 


(Buchanga  atrce). 


are  dingy  enough  in  colour,  and 


The  Orioles. — 

Family 

Oriolidce. 


resemble  honey-suckers  (Meliphagidce).  The  orioles  build 
a  nest  like  the  drongos,  a  cup-shaped  cradle  between  the 
fork  of  a  branch. 

The  golden  oriole  winters  in  Africa,  and  comes  to  Southern  and 
Central  Europe  in  the  spring.  It  not  only  visits  the  British  Islands 
pretty  frequently,  but  has  certainly  bred  there. 
The  note  of  all  the  orioles  is  very  rich  and  flute- 
like,  and  their  habits  are  arboreal,  their  food  con- 
sisting of  insects  and  fruit.  The  young  birds  are 
streaked  below,  showing  an  affinity  to  the  starlings ; 
and  the  eggs  are  white,  with  black  spots. 

These  birds  are  usually  called  orioles  by  American 
naturalists,  chiefly  on  account  of  their  black  and 
yellow  colour,   which   recalls   the 
plumage  of  the  orioles  of  the  Old  The  Hang-Nests. 
World.     They  are,  however,  struc-         — Family 
turally  distinct,  and  differ  in  their         Icteridce. 
habits.     The  family  contains  many 
well-known  genera,  such  as  the  bobolink  (Delichonyx 
oryzivora)  and  the  cow  -  birds  (Molothrus),   those 
curious  parasitic  creatures  of  which  Mr.  W.  H.  Hudson  gives  such  an  inter- 
esting account  in  the  "Argentine  Ornithology."     He  gives  details  of  the  way 
in  which  the  Argentine  cow-bird  (M.  bonariensis)  victimises  many  other  small 
birds  by  placing  its  eggs  in  their  nests  ;  and  he  also  tells  us  that  when  the 
young  cow-bird  is  hatched,  the  other  occupants  of  the  nest  soon  disappear, 
though  whether  this  massacre  is  the  result  of  interference  on  the  part  of  the 
old  birds,  or  is  the  work  of  the  nestling  cow-bird  itself,  as  with  our  common 
cuckoo,  has  not  yet  been  proved. 

Another  well-known  member  of  the  family  is  the  red- winged  hang- 
nest  (Agelceus  phcRiiiceus),  popularly  known  amongst  us  as  the  red- 
winged  starling,  and  the  meadow  starlings  (Sturnella)  also  belong  to  the 
family. 

The  true  hang-nests  or  troupials  of  the  genus  Icterus  are  widely  spread 
over  the  New  World.  The  chief  element  in  their  coloration  is  a  bright  yellow 


Fig.  97. — THE  GOLDEN  ORIOLE 
(Oriolus  galbula). 


362 


A  VES— ORDER  PASSERIFORMES. 


The  Weaver- 
Birds. — Family 

Ploceidce. 


Fig.  98.— THE  BLACK-HEADED  HANG 

NEST  (Icterus  melanocephalus). 


or  orange,  but  they  differ  from  the  orioles  of  the  Old  World,  with  which  they 
are  often  confused,  by  having  only  nine 
primaries.  Nearly  140  species  of  Icteridce 
are  known,  and  some  species  of  the  genus 
Cassidix  appear,  from  the  recent  observa- 
tions of  Mr.  A.  Schulz,  to  be  parasitic  on 
each  other,  for  Dr.  Kuschel  of  Breslau  in- 
forms us  that  Cassidix  oryzivorus  deposits 
its  eggs  in  the  nest  of  C.  persicus.  The 
meadow-larks  (Sturnella)  are  ground  birds, 
as  their  name  implies. 

Intermediate  between  the  hang-nests  and 
the  finches  come  the  weaver-birds.  Al- 
though they  resemble  the 
finches  in  their  food  and  in 
many  of  their  habits,  they 
mostly  build  domed  and 
hanging  nests  like  the  Ic- 
teridce. 

Weavers  are  found  in  all  parts  of  Tropical 
Africa  and  Madagascar,  as  well  as  in  India 
and  Burma,  as  far  south  as  the  Malayan  Peninsula.  The  weaver-finches, 
which  are  an  integral  portion  of  the  family  Ploceidce,  consist  of  the  wax-bills, 
such  as  Estrilda,  Lagonosticta,  Poephila,  etc.,  are  found  in  the  Australian 
region,  as  well  as  all  over  Tropical  Africa  and  through- 
out the  Indian  region.  The  weaver-birds  build  a  sub- 
stantial nest,  purse-like  in  shape,  often  with  a  long 
stocking-like  entrance.  As  the  nests  are  generally 
suspended  from  the  ends  of  palm-branches,  or  from 
trees  which  overhang  the  water,  it  is  supposed  that 
this  stocking-like  appendage  is  added  to  the  nest  to 
prevent  the  attacks  of  monkeys  or  snakes,  both  of 
which  are  enemies  of  the  young  weaver-birds.  The 
weavers  have  no  pretensions  to  singing  powers,  and 
can  only  keep  up  an  incessant  chattering,  which  does 
duty  for  a  song.  When  kept  in  captivity,  and  supplied 
with  dried  grass  for  weaving,  a  baya  weaver  (Ploceus 
baya)  will  make  a  nest  in  a  cage,  and  the  industry  of 
the  birds  is  simply  remarkable.  The  eggs  of  weaver- 
birds  vary  to  a  great  extent,  being  pure  white,  or  bluish 
or  greenish,  with  deeper  markings  of  the  same  colours. 

These  are  brilliantly-coloured  birds  of  the  New  World,  resembling  finches 

_.     _  in  appearance,  but  distinguished  by  having  a  notch  in  the 

Family  ^  "  uPPer  mandible.      They  are   very   numerous  in   the   neo- 
Tanagridce.       tropical  region,  and  several  species  visit  North  America  in 

summer. 

These  curious  little  birds  are  allied  to  the  Tanagridce,  but  have  nevertheless 
the  habits  of  the  creepers,  and  their  creeper-like  eggs,  white 
with  red  spots,  point  to  an  alliance  with  the  tree-creepers 
(Gerthiidce).  The  principal  genera  of  the  family  are  Gerthiola 
and  Ccereba,  the  latter  containing  the  well-known  blue- 
creeper  (Ccereba  cyaned). 


Fig.  99.— THE  BLACK- 
HEADED  WEAVER-BIRD 
(Hyphantornis  melano- 
cephalus). 


The  American 
Creepers.— 

Family 
Cwrebidce. 


FINCHES— B  UNTINGS. 


363 


From  these  families  which  lie  on  the  borderland  of  the  finches,  we  pass  to 
the  family  Fringillidce.     The  latter  family  is  one  of  the  largest 
in  the  whole  series  of  the  Passeriformes.     It  is  almost  universal    The  Finches. — 
in  its  distribution,  and  comprises  three  sub-families :  the  gros-  Family 

beaks  (Coccothraustince),  the  true  finches  (Fringillince),  and      Fringillidce. 
the  buntings  (Emberizince). 

In  these  birds,  of  which  our  common  hawfinch  (Coccothraustes  coccothraustes) 
is  the  type,  the  bill  is  large  and  swollen,  and  the  nasal  bones  are  produced 
backwards  beyond  the  front  lino  of  the  bony  orbit.     There 
are  no  less  than  twenty-three  genera  of  grosbeaks,  and  they    The  Grosbeaks, 
are  represented  in  nearly  every  quarter  of  the  globe.     The     — Sub-family 
northern  forms  are  Coccothraustes   in  the  Old  World,  and  Coccothraustince. 
Ligurinus,   of    which    our    common    greenfinch   (Ligurinus 
clitoris)  is  the  type.     In  North  America  Hedymeles  is  the  prevailing  form, 
while  in  the  Himalayas  we  have  Mycerobas  and  Pycnorhamphus.     The  smaller 
grosbeaks  are  principally  neo-tropical,  and  are  represented  by  the  genera 
Spermophila,  and  in  the  Galapagos  Islands  by  Geospiza  and  Camarhynchus. 
The  cardinal  grosbeaks  (Cardinalis)  are  inhabitants  of  the  Southern  United 
States  as  far  as  British  Honduras  in  Central  America,  and  species  of  the 
genus  are  also  found  in  Venezuela  and  Trinidad. 

This  family  embraces  all  the  best  known  of  the  finches.     The  type  may  be 
said  to  be  our  common  chaffinch  (Fringilla  ccdebs),  but  all  the  linnets,  siskins, 
goldfinches,  and  other  familiar  birds  are  part  and  parcel  of 
this  sub-family.     The  bill  is  less  massive  than  in  the  gros-    The  Finches. — 
beaks,  and  the  upper  mandible  is  not  produced  backwards        Sub-family 
beyond  the  front  line  of  the  orbit  ;       Fringillince. 
otherwise  the  angle  of  the   genys  is 
much  the  same  as  in  the  grosbeaks. 

The  finches  constitute  a  very  numerous  sub-family, 
and  many  beautiful  birds  are  embraced  within  its 
limits.  Besides  our  own  European  forms  mentioned 
above,  there  are  many  interesting  tropical  genera,  such 
as  the  rose-finches  (Carpodacus),  which  are  found  in 
North  America,  as  well  as  in  Northern  Europe  and 
Asia,  being  especially  abundant  in  the  Himalayas. 
The  sparrows  all  belong  to  this  group  of  finches,  as 
well  as  the  canaries,  which  are  principally  African, 
Fig.  loo. -THE  CHAP-  an(j  the  saffron-finches  (Sycalis)  of  South  America, 

^      the  bullfinches  (Pyrrhula)  and  the  crossbills  (Loxia). 
In  the  buntings  there  is  generally  a  gap  between  the  two  mandibles,  and 
the  angle  of  the  lower  mandible  is  much  more  acute  than  in  the  finches  and 
grosbeaks.     The  buntings  are  grain  and  insect-eating  birds, 
often  of  bright  colours,  and  distributed  over  the  greater  The  Buntings. — 
part  of  the  globe,  excepting  the  Australian  and  Polynesian        Sub-family 
regions.     In  most  of  the  buntings,  as  with  the  finches,  there      Emberizince. 
is  a  complete  winter  plumage,  and   the   summer  dress  is 
gained,  not  by  a  thorough  moult,  but  by  a  shedding  of  the  edges  of  the  winter 
feathers,  so  that  the  underlying  pattern  comes  into  prominence.     One  of  the 
best  examples  of  this  phenomenon  is  the  snow-bunting  (Plectrophenax  nivalis\ 
which  arrives  in  England  in  the  winter  in  a  rufescent  dress.     The  summer 
plumage  is  gradually  assumed  by  the  shedding  of  the  pale   edges   to  the 
feathers  ;  the  black  tips  to  the  primary  coverts  disappear  by  abrasion,  and  the 


364 


A  VES— ORDER  PASSERIFORMES. 


Fig.  101.— THE  SNOW-BUNTING 
(Plectrophenax  nivalis). 


The  Larks.— 

Family 
Alaudidce. 


white  bases  of  the  primaries  extend   by  degrees,  as  the  rufous  colour  of 

the  upper  parts  is  gradually  shed, 
allowing  the  underlying  black  and 
white  plumage  to  predominate,  so  that 
the  summer  dress  of  the  snow-bunting 
is  pure  black  and  white. 

Besides  the  genus  JSmbertea,  which 
contains  our  yellow-hammer  (E.  citrin- 
clla),  cirl-bunting  (E.  cirlus\  and  or- 
tolan (E.  hortulana),  the  buntings  like- 
wise embrace  the  corn -bunting  (Mili- 
aria  miliaria),  the  Lapland  bunting 
(Calcarius  lappoiiicus),  and  a  large 
number  of  American  genera  (Zouo- 
trichia,  Poospiza,  Junco,  Spizella,  Am- 
modronus,  Melospiza,  Hcemophila,  Pip- 
ilo,  Spiza,  Pseudochloris,  Phryyilus, 
Paroaria,  etc.). 

Larks  are  chiefly  denizens  of  the  Old  World,  though  North  America  claims 
a  number  of  species  of  horned-larks  (Otocorys),  which  represent  a  circumpolar 
genus,  of  which  the  European  horned-lark  (0.  alpestris)  occurs 
in  Northern  Europe  and  Northern  Asia,  as  well  as  in  North 
America.  In  America  the  horned  larks  are  more  numerous, 
and  even  extend  into  Colombia 
in  South  America.  The  Alau- 
didce are  distinguished  from  all  other  passerine 
birds  by  the  scutellatioris  on  the  hinder  side  of 
the  tarsi  (planta  tarsi).  They  are  especially 
numerous  in  Africa,  and  also  in  the  plains  of 
India,  the  dominant  genus  Mirafra  extending  to 
the  Malayan  Islands  and  even  to  Australia.  The 
sky-larks,  of  which  our  own  familiar  species, 
Alauda  arvensis,  is  the  best  known  representa- 
tive, are  chiefly  palsearctic,  though  similar 
species  occur  in  the  Indian  region.  The  larl.s 
are,  without  exception,  ground-builders,  and  the 
eggs  are  generally  dark  brown,  or  whitish,  with 
brown  mottlings  and  speckles.  Some  twenty 
genera  are  known,  among  which  are  the  desert 
larks  (Certhilauda),  remarkable  for  their  long 
curved  bill,  the  calandra  larks  (Melanocorypha), 
the  short- toed  larks  (Calandrella),  the  crested 

larks     (Galerita),    the     wood-larks    (Lullula),    and    the    finch-larks    (Pyr- 
rhulauda). 

Like  the  larks,  the  wagtails  and  pipits  are  "  ambulatores,"  or  walking 
birds.  They  do  not  hop  like  sparrows  and  finches.  They  resemble  the 
larks  in  one  peculiarity,  viz.  the  extreme  elongation  of  the 
inner  secondaries,  which  are  as  long  as  the  primary  quills. 
The  Motacillidce  have  not  the  planta  tarsi  scutellated  as  in 
the  larks,  and  they  have  only  nine  primaries,  the  first  one 
being  absent.  In  many  of  the  larks,  however,  the  bastard- 
primary  is  present,  but  is  so  tiny  as  almost  to  defy  detection. 


Fig.  102.— THE  SKYLARK 
(Alunda  arvensis). 


The  Wagtails 

and  Pipits.— 

Family 

Motacillidce. 


WA  GTAILS— CREEPERS. 


365 


Fig.  103.— THE  PIED  WAGTAIL  (Motacilla 
lugubris). 


The  pipits  are  generally  birds  of  sombre  brown  coloration,  more  like  that 
of  the  larks.  They  build  their  nests  on  the  ground,  generally  under  some 
sheltered  portion  of  a  bank.  The  true 
pipits  (Anthus)  are  thirty-five  in  number, 
and  are  found  in  almost  every  part  of 
the  world.  The  common  meadow  pipit 
(Anthus  pratensis)  is  one  well-known 
species,  and  the  tree-pipit  (A.  trivialis) 
is  another.  The  eggs  of  these  two  pipits 
are  much  more  richly  coloured  than 
those  of  wagtails,  and  are  often  of  a 
pinkish-red  or  purplish  colour,  with 
darker  spots  and  blotches.  The  brightest 
of  the  pipits  are  the  members  of  the 
African  genera  Macronyx  and  Tmetothy- 
lacus,  the  species  of  Macronyx  having 
yellow  breasts,  while  one  species,  M.  amelice,  has  a  beautiful  pink 
breast. 

The  wagtails  arc  divisible  into  two  sections,  the  "water"  wagtails  and 
the  "  field  "  wagtails,  the  latter  being  less  frequenters  of  the  river  banks  than 
of  the  inland  pastures.  The  most  thoroughly  river-haunting  -species  in  our 
own  islands  is  the  grey  wagtail  (Motacilla  melanope\  while  the  pied  wagtail 
(M.  lugubris)  is  a  typical  ' '  water  "-wagtail,  just  as  Ray's  wagtail  (M.  campestris) 
is  a  typical  **  field  "-wagtail.  All  these  little  birds,  as  well  as  the  pipits,  feed 
on  insects,  which  they  catch  on  the  wing  or  on  the  ground,  and  they  all  have 
a  graceful  mode  of  running  and  walking,  keeping  up  the  whole  time  a  con- 
stant up-and-down  waving  of  the  tail. 

The  Mniotiltidce  embrace  a  number  of  small  warblers,  entirely  confined 
to  the  American  region,  where  they  fulfil  the  same  functions  as  our  own 
warblers  (SylviicUe)  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  feeding  on 
insects.     They  differ,  however,  from  the  Sylviidce  in  having 
nine  primaries,  nor  is  there  any  proof  that  the  Mniotiltidce 
have  a  double  moult,  in  autumn  and  again  in  spring,  like  the 
warblers  of  the  Old  World.      The  principal  genera  of  the 
Mniotiltidce  are  Dendrceca  and  Parula,  both  of  which  are 

also  denizens  of  South  America.  Some  genera,  like 
Mniotilta,  appear  to  have  an  affinity  with  the 
creepers,  while  the  genera  Basileuterus,  Setophaga, 
Myiodioctes,  etc.,  have  well- developed  rictal  bristles, 
and  are  like  flycatchers  in  their  external  appear- 


The  American 

Warblers.— 

Family 

Mniotiltidce. 


A  typical  creeper  is  easily  distinguished  from  the 
other  passerine   birds   by  its   stiffened   tail-feathers, 
which  resemble  those  of  a  woodpecker, 
and  are  of  the  same  use  to  the  birds    The  Creepers. — 
in  supporting  themselves  during  their          Family 
climb  up  an  upright  trunk.     Unlike         Certhiidce. 
the  woodpeckers,  which  only  ascend 
the   trunk,    the    tree-creepers    often    move    along  a 
bough  horizontally.      They  have  a  long  and  curved 
bill,  different  from  the  conical  bill  of  the  tits,  which 
they  resemble   in   nesting  habits  and  in  the   colour   of   the   eggs,  which 


Fig.  104.— THE  TREE- 
CREEPER 
(Certhia  familiaris). 


366 


A  VES— ORDER  PASSERIFORMES. 


are  white,  with  rufous  or  reddish-brown  spots.  The  genus  Certhia 
contains  about  ten  species,  of  which  our  tree-creeper  (Certhia  famili- 
aris)  is  the  typical  one,  but  members  of  the  genus  are  found  through- 
out Europe  and  Northern  Asia,  as  well  as  in  the  Himalayan  mountains. 
They  occur  also  throughout  North  America  and  extend  into  Central 
America. 

Just  as  in  the  climbing  birds  like  woodpeckers,  there  are  stiff- 
tailed  species  and  soft-tailed  species,  so  we  find  in  the  creepers  the  spiny- 
tailed  Certhice,  and  some  soft-tailed  genera  like  Salpornis  of  India 
and  Africa,  Climacteris  of  Australia  and  New  Guinea,  and  the  crimson- 
winged  creeper  (Tichodroma  muraria),  a  species  which 
inhabits  the  mountainous  regions  from  China  to  the 
Himalayas,  and  from  Turkestan  to  the  Alps  and 
the  Pyrenees.  It  is  a  beautiful  little  bird  of  a 
delicate  grey  colour ;  in  this  it  resembles  a  nut- 
hatch, but  the  bill  is  curved  like  that  of  a  creeper. 
Like  a  nut-hatch,  it  has  white  spots  on  the  outer 
tail-feathers,  but  has  the  wing-coverts  crimson. 

The  honey-suckers  are  one  of  those  curious  Aus- 
tralasian families  which  stand  apart   by  themselves, 
and  for  which  it  is  difficult  to  esti- 
Tlie  mate  the  correct  relationship.    Gould 

Honey-Suckers,    wrote  in  1865  a  very  excellent  note 
—Family          on  these  birds,  the  habits  of  which 

Meliphagidce.  he  had  studied  himself  in  nature  : 
— "  The  honey-eaters  are  unquestion- 
ably the  most  peculiar  and  striking  feature  in  Aus- 
tralian ornithology.  They  are,  in  fact,  to  the  farmer 
what  the  Eucalypti,  Bauksice,  and  Melalencce  are  to  the  flora  of  Australia. 
The  economy  of  these  birds  is  so  strictly  adapted  to  those  trees  that  the  one 
appears  essential  to  the  other ;  for  what  can  be  more  plain  than  that  the 
brush-like  tongue  is  especially  formed  for  gathering  the  honey  from  the  flower- 
cups  of  the  Eucalypti,  or  that  their  diminutive  stomachs  are  especially  formed 
for  this  kind  of  food,  and  the  peculiar  insects  which  form  a  portion  of  it." 
The  brush-tongue  is  the  chief  character  of  the  honey-suckers,  which  are  very 
numerous  in  Australia  and  New  Guinea,  and  extends  into  the  Moluccas  and 
Polynesia. 

The   sun-birds   are   very   similar   in   outward   aspect  to  the   neo-tropical 

humming-birds  (Trochili,  antea,    p.    347).      They  are  richly   decorated   in 

metallic    colours,    but    instead    of    hovering    in    front   of 

The  Sun- Birds,    flowers,     suspended    in    the   air   with    a   vibrating    flight, 
—Family         they  are  more   like*  tits   in   their   ways  ;    at    least,    so   we 

Nectariniidce.     gathered  from  watching  a  little  troup  of  Cinnyris  asiatica  in 
a   garden    at  Delhi,  where  they  crept   about  through  the 
bushes,  uttering  a  little  tit-like  chirp,  and   picking  off  small  insects  from 
the  leaves. 

The  Malachite  sun-bird  ( Nectarinia  famosa)  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the 
Nectariniidce,  and  is  found  in  Southern  Africa.  Most  of  the  species  of  sun- 
birds  have  square  tails,  but  N.  famosa  and  a  few  other  African  species 
have  the  central  tail-feathers  elongated.  The  sun-birds  have  an  ex- 
tensile tongue  similar  to  that  of  the  humming-birds  and  woodpeckers, 


Fig.  105.— THE  CRIMSON- 
WINGED  CREEPER 
(Tichodroma  muraria). 


SUN-BIRDS—  TITS—  WHITE- E  YES.  367 


and  Mr.  Eugene  Gates  has  shown  that  the  bill  is  serrated  for  the  terminal 
third  of  both  mandibles.  They  build  pensile-like  nests,  made  of  fine 
grass  or  rootlets,  and  generally  with  a  kind  of  hood, 
made  of  fine  grass,  above  the  entrance.  The  nest 
is  usually  attached  to  the  end  of  a  branch,  but  is 
sometimes  found  on  the  under-side  of  a  broad  leaf, 
such  as  that  of  a  plantain. 

The  flower-peckers  are  small  birds,  allied  to  the 
sun-birds,  but  differing  in  their  shorter  bills,  both 
mandibles    being    serrated    along 
their  cutting- edges.     Their  plum-  The 

age  is  mostly  brilliant,  and  they  are  Flower-peckers, 
found  in  the  Indian  and  Malayan        — Family 
regions  and  throughout  the  Moluc-         Diceidce. 
cas,   New    Guinea   and    Australia. 
Their  food  consists  of  insects  and  small  berries,  and 
Fig.  106.— THE  MALACHITE      they  are  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  their  nests, 
,,T  ,Su.N:B™D      ,  which  are  purse-like,   made  of    the  cotton  from 

(Nectannia  famosa).  ,  „       r  I  .111  ±1 

plants,  fine  grass  and   vegetable-down,   the   nests 

being  suspended  from  the  end  of  a  twig,  often  at  a  great  height  from  the 
ground.  The  two  principal  genera  of  the  flower-peckers  are  Dicceum  and 
Prionochilus. 

The  white-eyes  are  found  in  Africa,  the  Mascarene  islands,  throughout 
India  and  Ceylon,  to  the  Burmese  provinces,  China  and  Japan,  and  again 
throughout  the  whole  of  the  Malayan  region  to  Australia 
and  Polynesia.       They  are  nearly  all    birds  of  the    same  The  White-eyes, 
pattern  of  coloration,    green    or  yellowish  -  green   above,          — Family 
mostly  with  a  yellow  forehead,  sometimes  with  a  black  one,      Zosteropidce. 
while  the  majority  of  species  are  yellow  below,  or  white  with 
yellow  throats.     The  name  of  "white-eye"  is  given  to  the  Zosteropidce,  on 
account  of  a  white  ring  of  feathers  which  encircles  the  eye,  and  not  because 
the  eye  itself  is  white.     They  feed  upon  small  insects,  which  they  seek  for 
among  the  trees  ;  and  Mr.  Gates  says  that  the  Indian  species  are  generally 
seen  in  flocks,  and  utter  a  constant  twitter  as  they  search  for  food.     The 
nest  is  cup-shaped,   very  neatly  and   delicately  made   of    vegetable  fibres 
or  fine  grass,   moss  or  wool.      The   eggs  are  blue,  and  two   or  three  in 
number 

The  tits  are  a  numerous  family,  most  strongly  represented  in  the  northern 
parts  of  the  Old  and  New  Worlds,  reaching  in  the  latter  to  Central  America, 
and  in  the  former  occurring  throughout  Europe,  Africa,  and 
Asia,  but  being  absent  from  the  Australian  region.     They       The  Tits. — 
have  stout  and  conical  bills,  and  have  the  nostrils  covered  Family 

with   bristles,    and   strongly   scutellated   tarsi,   which   have         Paridce. 
suggested  to  some  ornithologists  their  affinity  to  the  crows 
(Corvidce).     There  is,  however,  in  our  opinion,  no  relationship  between  these 
families,  for  the  nesting  habits  of  the  two  are  entirely  different,  and  the 
character  of  the  eggs  suggests  no  possible  connection.     The  tits  are  all  small 
birds,  assembling  in  flocks  and  family  parties  in  winter,  when  they  associate 
with  creepers,  nut-hatches,  and  other  small  birds,  in  traversing  the  woods  in 
search  of  insect  food.     The  genera  of  tits  are  not  many,  and  they  are  mostly 
represented  in  the  avi-fauna  of  Europe.     Thus  Pants  contains  our  great  tit 
(P.  major)  and  blue  tit  (P.  cceruleus),  Pcecile,  the  marsh  tit  (P.  palustris)  and 


A  VES— ORDER  PASSERIFORMES. 


Fig.  107.— THE  BEARDED 

REEDLING. 
(Calamophilus  biarmicus). 


its  allies,  Lophophanes,  our  crested  tit  (L.  cristaius),  and  ^ffigilhalus,  our  long- 
tailed  tit  (JE.  vagans).  Nearly  all  of  these  build 
rough  nests  in  holes  of  walls  or  of  trees,  and  lay 
white  eggs  spotted  with  rufous,  from  five  to  ten  in 
number.  The  long-tailed  or  bottle  tit,  on  the  other 
hand,  lays  white  eggs,  seldom  with  any  spots,  in  an 
oval  nest  composed  of  moss,  covered  with  lichens 
and  lined  with  feathers.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  of  all  known  nests,  and  is  suspended  in  a 
tree  or  bush,  generally  at  no  great  height  from  the 
ground. 

The  bearded  reedling  (Panurus  biarmicus)  is  often 
called  the  bearded  tit,  but  it  is  not  a  true  tit,  being 
a  marsh-haunting  bird,  building  a  cup-shaped  nest 
at  the  base  of  a  bunch  of  reeds.  The  eggs  are  white, 
with  reddish  dots  and  streaks.  It  occurs  still  in  the 
Norfolk  broads  in  England,  and  extends  throughout 
Europe  to  Central  Asia  in  suitable  localities.  There 
is  more  difference  in  the  colour  of  the  sexes  in  the 
genus  Panurus  than  there  is  in  the  tits.  The  males  and  females  are  alike  in 
colour  in  the  latter  birds,  whereas  in  the  reedling  the  male  is  a  handsome 
bird,  with  a  grey  head  and  a  black  moustache,  while  the  female  is  quite  a 
plain  coloured  bird. 

The  nut-hatches  are  principally  palsearctic  and  nearctic  in  their  range.     No 

species  is  found  in  South  America,  Africa  (south  of  the  Sahara),  or  in  the 

Australian  region.     They  are   mostly   grey-coloured   birds, 

The  Nut-Hatches,  with  conspicuous  white  spots  near  the  end  of  the  tail-feathers. 

— Family         In  those  parts  of  the  world  where  true  nut-hatches  do  not 

Sittid'je.          occur,  their  places  are  taken  by  birds  of  similar  appearance 

and  habits,   though  of  brighter  coloration.     Thus,  in  the 

Himalayas  south  to  the  Burmese  provinces  and   the   Malayan  sub-region 

occurs  the  genus  Dendrositta,  represented  far  away 

in  Madagascar  by  Hypositta,  and  in  Australia  and 

New  Guinea  by  Sitella. 

The  true  nut-hatches  (Sitta),  of  which  our  common 
nut-hatch  is  the  type,  are  birds  with  the  appearance 
of  a  small  woodpecker,  and  they  climb  up  trees 
with  the  same  facility,  using  their  wedge-shaped 
bill  to  prize  off  pieces  of  bark  to  feed  on  the  insects 
which  their  prowess  discovers.  They  have,  however, 
soft-pi umaged  tails,  not  spiny  tails  like  the  wood- 
peckers and  creepers,  but  they  run  along  boughs 
exactly  as  these  birds  do,  with  the  exception  that 
nut-hatches  often  run  down  a  trunk,  which  the  other 
birds  above-mentioned  do  not  do. 

The  gold-crests  form  a  little  family  of  northern 
birds,  intermediate  between  the  tits  and  warblers, 
catching  tiny  insects  like  both  of 
these,  but  differing  from  them  in 

their  structure  and  mode  of  nidification.  They  are  very 
tiny  creatures,  our  common  gold-crest  (Regulus  regulus) 
being  the  smallest  of  our  native  birds.  Gold-crests  are 


Fig.  108.— THE  COMMON 
NUT-HATCH  (Sitta  ccesia). 


The  Gold-Crests. 
— Family 
ReguUdce. 


GOLD-  CRESTS—  WAX-  WINGS. 


369 


found  only  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  Old  and  New  Worlds,  our  own  jR. 
regulus  and  the  fire-crest  (R.  iynicapillus)  being  palsearctic,  with  a  smaller 
race  in  the  Himalayas  (R.  hitnalayensis),  and  distinct  forms  in  Madeira  (R. 
maderensis),  the  Canaries  (R.  teneriffce),  and  the  Azores  (R.  azorensis),  while 
North  America  has  the  ruby-crest  (.R.  calendula). 

Although  such  a  small  bird,  the  common  gold-crest  is  a  regular  migrant  to 
England  across  the  North  Sea,  and  sometimes  migrations  have  taken  place 
which  have  lasted  from  eighty  to  ninety  days.  The  nest  which  the  bird 
builds  is  slung  like  a  hammock  under  the  branch  of  a  yew-tree  or  a  fir  :  it  is 
made  of  moss,  and  is  generally  well  concealed,  and  lined  with  feathers,  the 
eggs  being  from  five  to  eight  in  number,  of  a  creamy  white  colour,  with  a 
darker  ring  round  the  largei  end. 

The  shrikes  are  one  of  the  most  cosmopolitan  families  of  birds,  for,  with 
the  exception  of  South  America,  where  they  are  absent,  they  are  everywhere 
distributed.  The  true  shrikes  (Laiiius\  of  which  the  great 
grey  shrike  (L.  excubitor)  is  the  type,  are  chiefly  northern  The  Shrikes  or 
birds,  but  are  distributed  also  over  Africa,  India,  and  the  Butcher-Birds.  — 
Indo-Chinese  sub-region,  but  in  the  Malayan,  Australian,  Family Laniidce. 
and  Oceanic  sub-regions  they  are  represented  chiefly  by  the 
genus  Pachycephala.  The  red-backed  shrike  (Lanius  collyrio}  and  the  wood- 
chat  (L.  senator)  are  two  of  the  commonest  of  the  European  species,  and  the 
former  visits  Great  Britain  in  the  summer.  The  members  of  this  family 
have  gained  their  name  of  "  butcher  birds  "  from  their  habit  of  impaling 
their  food  on  sharp  thorns  in  the  hedges  near  their  nests,  mice,  frogs, 
grasshoppers,  beetles,  and  other  insects  being  often  found  in  the  "larders  " 
of  these  birds. 

The  swallow-shrikes  or  wood-swallows  constitute  a  small  assemblage  of  birds, 
containing  the  genus  Artamus,  of  the  Indian  and  Australian  regions,  with 
seventeen  species,  and  Pse,udochelidon  of  West  Africa,  with 
one  species,  P.  eurystomina.  The  swallow-shrikes  are  grey 
or  brown  birds,  with  a  pointed  blue  bill  and  very  long  wings, 
and  Gould  says  that  no  one  who  has  seen  them  in  life  can 
fail  to  notice  how  closely  they  resemble  the  swallows  in  the 
actions  and  general  mode  of  life.  The  nest  of  A.  sordidus 

is  placed  in  the  fork  of  a  branch,  or  on  the  side  of  a 
tree,  and  is  made  of  fine  twigs  neatly  lined  with 
fibrous  roots.  The  eggs  are  white,  spotted  with  umber 
brown. 

The  wax  wings  are  a  nine-pi  imaried  family,  chiefly 
northern  in  their  habitat,  and  possessing  tropical 
genera  only  in  North  and  Central 
America,  where  the  crested  chatterers 
(Phainopepla  and  Pliloyonys)  occur. 

The    waxwing  (Ampelis  garrulus)  is 
found  in  North  Am  erica  and  in  Northern 
Europe  and  Asia,  and  occasionally  visits  Great  Britain, 
occurring  at  irregular  intervals  in  some  numbers.     It 
gains  its  name  from  the  wax-like  tips   which  are  de- 
veloped  on   the   secondary  quills  in    the    adult  bird. 
These  are  also  found  in  the  American  cedar-bird  (Ampelis 
cedroruw),  but  in  the  Japanese  waxwing  (A.  japonicus) 
the  secondaries  and  tail  are  tipped  with  crimson.     The  nest  of  A.  garrulus 
25 


The  Swallow- 
Shrikes.— 
Family 

Artamidce. 


The  Chatterers. 
—Family 

Ampelidce. 


Fig.  109.— THE  WAX- 

WINQ 

(Ampelis  garrulus). 


370 


AVES-ORDER  PASSERIFQRMES. 


is  a  large  and  compact  structure,  made  of  twigs  and  moss,  and  lined  with 
feathers,  the  eggs  being  stone-grey,  spotted  with  black  or  blackish-brown. 

The  Vireonidce  constitute   a   small  family  of  about   sixty  birds,  peculiar 
to   the   New  World.      They   are.  mostly  of  a   green    colour,  and  in  many 
respects  resemble  warblers,  especially  in  the  fact  that  the 
young  birds  scarcely  differ  from  the  adults,  whereas  in  the  The  Greenlets. — 
shrikes,  to  which  the  greenlets  are  undoubtedly  also  allied,  Family 

the  young  are  cross-barred.     The  species  of  the  genus  Vireo        Vireonidce. 
build  a  pendent  nest  covered  with  lichens  and  mosses,  and 
they  lay  white  eggs,  speckled  with  red. 

The  warblers  were,  until  recent  years,  considered  to  be  a  part  of  the  family 

of  thrushes  ;  but  in  1881,  they  were  separated  by  the  late  Henry  Seebohm 

on  characters  which  have  been  admitted  to  be  of  deep-seated 

The  Warblers. —  importance,  viz.,  that  the  warblers  had  a  double  moult,  one 

Family          in  spring  and  one  in  autumn,  and  the  young  were  plain- 

Sylviidce.         coloured  and  resembled   the  adults,  whereas  the  thrushes 

«••  have  only   an  autumnal  moult,  and   have   spotted   young, 

differing  from  the  plumage  of  the  adult. 

The  warblers  are  denizens  of  the  Old  World,  and  are  everywhere  distri- 
buted. Unfortunately  we  have  not  space  to  describe  the  many  forms  of 
Syh'iidcR,  which  include  some  of  the  finest  songsters  in  the  world,  such  as  the 
nightingale  (Daulias  luscinia],  the  blackcap  (Sylvia  atricapilld),  and  other 
familiar  summer  migrants,  such  as  the  willow 
warbler  (Phylloscopus  trochilus),  the  chiffchaff  (P. 
minor),  etc.  In  the  Sylviidce  are  also  placed  reed 
warblers,  like  our  own  species  (Acroeephalus 
streperus),  and  sedge  warblers  (A.  phragmitis)  ;  as 
well  as  all  the  grass- warblers  ( Cisticola,  Prinia,  and 
Sutoria).  Some  of  the  latter  group  build  very  in- 
teresting nests,  as  they  take  a  couple  of  leaves  and 
sew  the  edges  together,  so  as  to  form  a  purse,  in 
which  they  build  their  riest,  which  is  made  of  fine 
grass,  cotton  down,  and  hair.  The  eggs  are  three 
or  four  in  number,  white  or  bluish-green,  boldly 
marked  with  brownish-red.  The  warblers  are 
insectivorous  birds,  though  most  of  -them,  at  certain 
times,  feed  on  small  fruits  and  berries.  In  autumn 
many  of  them  migrate  for  very  long  distances. 

As  explained  above,  the  thrushes  have  only  one 

moult  in  the  year,  and  that  in  the  autumn,  and 

they  have  the  young  birds  thickly 

The  Thrushes.  —  spotted    and    different    from  the 

Family  adults.     Thus  in  the  family  Tur- 

Turdidce.          didcv   are   placed  the  robin    (Erythacus  rubecula)   and    its 

..'••"        allies  the  blue-throats  (Cyanecula)  and  redstarts  (Ruticilla), 

as  well  as  the  chats  (Saxicola),  and  numbers  of  tropical  genera,  such  as  the 

chat-thrushes  (Cossyphd)  of  Africa,  the  shamas  (Cittocincla),  and  the  dhayal 

birds  (Gopsychus)  of  India. 

The  thrushes  may  be  roughly  divided  into  three  groups  :  the  ground- 
thrushes  (Oreocida  and  G-eocichla),  the  true  thrushes  (Turdus),  and  the 
blackbirds  (Merula). 

One  of  the  largest  and  handsomest  of  the  ground-thrushes  is  White's  thrush 


Fig.  110.— THE  INDIAN  TAILOK 
BIRD  (Satoria  satoria). 


THR  USHES— DIPPERS. 


Fig.  111.— WHITE'S 
THRUSH  (Oreocincla  varia). 


(Oreocicla  varia),  a  species  which  comes  from  its  home  in  Siberia  to  visit 
Western  Europe  and  the  British  Islands  occasionally. 

All  the  thrushes  are  insectivorous  birds,  but  feed 
also  on  worms  and  small  molluscs,  while  in  the 
autumn  and  winter  their  food  consists  principally  of 
berries.  Most  of  the  northern  species  are  migratory, 
such  as  the  fieldfare  (Turdus  pilaris),  and  the  redwing 
(T.  iliacus),  which  come  to  us  from  Scandinavia  in  the 
winter,  while  even  our  song-thrush  (T.  musicus)  is  to 
a  great  extent  a  migrant. 

In  the  blackbirds  (Menda),  the  sexes  are  different 
in  colour,  the  female  being  always  of  a  duller  plumage 
than  in  the  male,  as  is  evidenced  by  our  common 
blackbird  (M.  merula).  The  ground-thrushes  are  dis- 
tinguished by  a  patch  of  white  under  the  wing. 
There  is  scarcely  any  part  of  the  world  from  which 
thrushes  are  absent. 

The  dippers,   or  water  ouzels,   are  aquatic  wrens. 

They  are  generally  associated  with  the  thrushes,  but  they  have  the  front 
of  the  tarsus  without  any  scutellse,  and  only  covered  with  a    ^    Dippers  — 
plain  tarsal  envelope.     Like  the  wrens,  they  have  no  rictal          FamUy 
bristles,  and   they   build    a  round  nest  of  moss  under  the        Cindidce. 
shelter  of  a  stone  or  the  root  of  a  tree,  and  lay  white  eggs. 

The  name  of  dipper  is  not  attached  to  this  bird  because  it  dips  under  the 
water,  but  on  account  of  the  curious  bobbing  motion  which  the  bird  con- 
tinually keeps  up.  Every  time  that  it  bobs 
its  head,  it  flirts  its  wings  and  slightly  erects 
its  tail.  The  bird  is  ranked  as  "  vermin  "  by 
ignorant  people,  who  suppose  that  it  devours 
the  ova  of  trout,  but  it  is  generally  allowed 
that  the  evidence  of  this  crime  on  the  part 
of  the  bird  is  open  to  doubt,  and  its  food 
consists  of  caddis-worms,  water-beetles,  and 
small  molluscs.  The  flight  of  the  dipper  is 
extremely  rapid,  and  resembles  that  of  a 
kingfisher.  It  flies  with  rapid  beats  of  the 
wings  above  the  surface  of  the  water,  and 
will  disappear  suddenly  beneath  the  stieam, 
but  more  often  it  settles  on  a  rock  and 
deliberately  walks  into  the  water,  searching  for  its  food  among  the  stones  at 
the  bottom  of  the  river. 

Of  the  dippers  about  a  dozen  species  are  known,  inhabitants  of  the  moun- 
tain-streams of  the  northern  parts  of  both  hemispheres,  extending  to  the 
Himalayas  and  China  ;  while  in  the  New  World  the  genus  is  found  in  the 
highlands  of  Central  America,  and  throughout  the  Andes  of  Colombia 
Ecuador,  and  Peru. 

The  Troglodytidce  embrace  a  number  of  small  birds  such  as  our  common 
wren  (Anorthura  troglodytes),  which  are  spread  over  the 
greater  part  of  the  globe,  being  very  abundant  in  the  New 
World,  but  absent  in  the  Australian  and  Ethiopian  regions. 
They  have  no  rictal  bristles,  and  build  domed  nests.  Many 
of  them  have  a  remarkable  power  of  song. 


Fig.  112.  -THE  COMMON  DIVPER 
(Cinclus  aquaticus). 


The  Wrens.— 

Family 
Troglodytidce. 


372 


A  VES— ORDER  PASSERIFOKMES. 


me 

Mocking-  Birds. 
—  Family 
Mimidce. 


Fig.  113.— THE  MOCKING-BIRD 
(Mimus  polyyloUus). 


The  mocking-birds  &re  an  American  family,  of   which  Mimus  polyyloUus 
and    the    cat-bird   (Galeoscoptes 
carolinensis)  are  prominent  ex- 
amples.   The  Mimidto  are  found 
throughout     temperate     North 
America,  Central   America,  the 
West   Indian   islands,   and   the 
greater  part  of  South  America,    even  to  Chili, 
Patagonia,  and  the   Galapagos   Islands.      Their 
powers  of  song  and  mimicry  are  proverbial. 

The    Timeliidce  are  short-  winged,  non  -migra- 

tory birds,  with  the  habits  of  thrushes  and  the 

rictal    bristles     of    flycatchers. 

The  Babblers.  —  They  are  mostly  ground  birds, 

Family  many  of  them,  like   Grateropus, 

Timeliidce.        proceeding  through  the  bushes 

in  flocks,  while  others,  like  Ptilo- 

cichla  are  clothed  in  dense  plumage,  resembling 

the  Formicariidee  of  South  America.     The  characters  and  limits  of  this  large 
Old  World  family  are  still  imperfectly  understood. 

The  bulbuls  are  another  family  peculiar  to  the  Old  World,  thrush-like  in 
character,  but  differing  from  the  thrushes  in  their  short  tarsi,  and  stronger 
rictal  bristles.     They  are  birds  of  quiet  habits,  but  possess  a 
sweet  song.      The  Pycnonotidie  are  found  all  over  Africa, 
and  one  species  is  an  inhabitant  of  Algeria  and  Morocco. 
They  are  strongly  represented  throughout  the  Indian  region, 
and.  extend  into  the  entire  Malayan  region. 
The  chief  character  which  distinguishes  this  Old  World  family  of   birds 
The  is  the  spiny  character  of    the  rump-feathers.        They  are 

Cuckoo-Shrikes,    found  throughout  the  Ethiopian,  Indian,  and  Australian  re- 
—  Family         gions,  and  constitute  a  link  between  the  flycatchers  and  the 
Campophagidve.   shrikes. 

The  flycatchers  are  mostly  broad  -billed,  insect-  catching  birds,  with  abun- 
dant rictal  bristles,  entirely  confined    to    the   Old  World,   over  the  whole 

of  which  they  are  distributed.     They 
TheFlycatchersvhave  spofcfced  young  like  the  thrushes, 

nr     *m  ?/         an(l  °N  this  account   it    is   often  very 

*«**»****•  difficult  to  determine  whether  some  of 
the  genera  should  be  referred  to  the  Turdidce  or  the 
Muscicapidce. 

Our  common  flycatcher  (Muscicapa  grisola)  is  a 
late  summer  migrant  to  England,  and  arrives  from 
Africa  in  May.  The  last-named  continent  is  also 
the  home  of  a  number  of  resident  species  of  the  genus 
Muscicapa,  which  is  also  well  represented  in  the  Indian 
and  Chinese  regions  by  species  similar  to  M.  grisola. 
The  nest  of  the  latter  species  is  often  placed  in  a  crevice 
of  bark  on  a  tree  and  decorated  with  lichens  and  spiders' 
webs,  which  help  to  conceal  it.  The  eggs  are  greenish- 
white  or  stone-colour,  with  reddish-brown  spots.  The 
pied  flycatcher  (Ficedula  atricapilla)  represents  another  section  of  the  Musci- 
capidw,  and  lays  blue  eggs,  the  nest  being  in  the  hole  of  a  tree.  The  fau- 


The  Bulbuls.  _ 

Family 
Pycnonotidce. 


Fig.  11 4. — T 11  E  COM  MON 
FLYCATCHER 

(Muscicapa  grisola). 


SWALLO  WS—  TYRANT-BIRDS. 


373 


Fig.  115,— THE 
COMMON  SWALLOW 
(Hiru 


tailed  flycatchers  (Rhipidura)  of  India  and  Australia  build  a  cup-shaped  nest 
on  a  bough  ;  and  besides  these  few  forms  there  are  many  others  which  we 
have  not  space  to  enumerate,  such  as  the  paradise  flycatchers  (Terpsiphone) 
of  Africa  and  India,  remarkable  for  their  long  tails,  which  form  a  kind  of 
streamer. 

The  swallows,  so  often  associated  with  the  swifts,  because  of  their  similar 
manner  of  flight  and  mode  of  living,  are  now  recognised  by  all  ornithologists 
as  being  true  Passeres.  They  have,  how- 
ever, a  different  arrangement  of  the  The  Swallows.  — 
feather-tracts  to  the  rest  of  the  perch-  Family 
ing  birds,  in  having  the  spinal  tract  HirunJinidcE. 
forked  on  the  back.  Swallows  are  found 
all  over  the  world,  and  in  summer  penetrate  very  far 
north,  our  common  swallow  (Hirundo  rustica)  having 
been  seen  near  Spitsbergen,  and  wintering  as  far  south 
as  the  Cape  Colony  and  the  Indian  Peninsula.  In 
America  the  cliff"-  swallow  (  Petroche  lidon  pyrrhono  to)  and 
the  purple  martin  (Progne  purpurea)  also  perform  migra- 
tions almost  equal  in  extent  to  those  of  the  American  barri- 
swallow  (Hirundo  erythrogaster),  which  is  the  counterpart 
of  our  H.  rustica.  Many  of  the  swallows  build  in  barns 
and  outhouses  or  in  holes  of  trees,  and  make  rough  nests 
of  mud  and  straw,  lined  with  feathers,  but  some,  like  the 
house-martins  (Chelidon)  build  their  mud  nests  under  the 
eaves  of  houses,  and  lay  white  eggs.  The  nest  of  our 
house-martin  (Chelidon  urbica)  is  an  instance  of  this  method,  and  in  this 
genus  the  eggs  are  white,  not  spotted  as  in  the  case  of  the  true  swallows. 
The  bank-martins  (Gotile)  also  lay  white  eggs,  which  are  deposited  at  the  end 
of  a  tunnel  excavated  by  the  birds  themselves. 

All  the  birds  contained  in  this  section  of  the  passeriformes  have  the  in- 
trinsic muscles  of  the  syrinx  fixed  to  the  middle  of  the  bronchial  semi-rings. 
The  first  sub-division  of  the  Mesomyodi  have  the  lower  end 
of  the  trachea  not  modified,  the  syrinx  as  in  the  oscines,  but  Section 

with  a  lesser  number  of  singing-muscles.  This  sub-division  Mesomyodi. 
is  called  the  Acromyodce.  There  are  eight  acromyodian 
families,  of  which  mention  is  made  below,  and  they  are  distinguished  by  the 
different  scutellation  of  the  tarsi.  In  the  first  division  occur  the  Tyrannidce, 
Oxyrhamphidce,  and  Pipridce  ;  in  these  the  tarsus  is  what  is  called  "exas- 
pidean."  In  the  second  division,  where  the  tarsus  is  "  pycnaspidean,"  are 
the  Cotingidce  and  Phytotomidw.  In  the  third  is  the  family  PhilepittidcK, 
with  a  "  taxaspidean  "  tarsus;  and  lastly,  the  fourth  division,  with  an 
4  *  ochreate  "  tarsus,  containing  the  Pittidw  and  Xeniscidce.  The  last  three 
families  inhabit  the  Old  World,  but  all  the  others  belong  to  the  New 
World. 

In  the  tyrants  the  "  exaspidean  "  form  of  tarsus  prevails,  i.e.,  the  scutella- 
tion of  the  fore  part  of  the  tarsus  is  continued  over  the  whole  outer  side  of 
it,  and  includes  also  the  hinder  aspect  or  the  planta  tarsi. 
The  family  is  divided  by  Dr.  P.  L.  Sclater  into  four  sub- 
families,  the  Tceniopteritue,  Platyrhynchince,  Elceniince,  and 
TyrannincK.  The  tyrants  number  more  than  400  species,  a 
certain  portion  of  which  are  migratory,  breeding  in  North 
America,  and  wandering  to  Central  and  South  America  in  winter. 


The  Tyrants 

Family 
Tyrannidie. 


By  far 


374 


AVES— ORDER  PASSERIFORMES. 


the  greater  majority  of  species  are  neotropical  in  habitat.  They  are  insect- 
feeders,  and  resemble  our  flycatchers  in  habits,  so  much  so  that  they  are 
commonly  known  as  "  flycatchers  "  in  America. 

In  the  Tyrannidce  and  Oxyrhamphidce  the  toes  are  nearly  free,  according 
to  Dr.  Sclater,  as  in  the  Oscines  or  ordinary  passerine  birds.     They  differ 
from  the  members  of  the  foregoing  family  in  having  a  straight 
The  Sharp-Bills,  and  pointed  bill,  instead  of  the  flattened  and  hooked  bill  of 
— Family         the  Tyrannidw.     As  Mr.  Salvin  well  observes,  the  position 
Oxyrhamphidw.  of  the  genus  Oxyrhamphus  is  obscure,  and  it  may  turn  out, 
when  its  anatomy  is  known,    that  it  is  not  allied  to  the 
tyrants  at  all.     In  the  male  bird,  according  to  Mr.  Salvin,  "  the  barbs  of  the 
central  portion  of  the  outer  web  of  the  outermost  primary  have  their  ex- 
tremities destitute  of  barbules,  and  these  bare  points  turned  rather  abruptly 
backwards  and   slightly  inwards,   the  margin   of  the  wing  thus  forming  a 
strongly  serrate  edge.     In  the  female  the  outer  web  of  this  feather  is  normal." 
Nothing  has  been  recorded  of  the  habits  of  the  species  of  Oxyrhamphus, 
which  are  three  in  number. 

The  Pipridce  differ  from  the  two  foregoing  families  in  having  the  toes 

united  at  the  base.     They  are  mostly  brightly-coloured  birds,  about  seventy 

in  number,  strictly  neotropical  in  habitat,  and  dwelling  in 

The  Manakins. —  the  forests.    A  curious  habit  of  one  of  the  manakins,  Chiroxi- 

Family          phialinearis,  of  Central  America,  is  recorded  by  Mr.  Nutting. 

PipridcK.         Instead  of  fighting  for  the  female,  as  is  the  case  with  most 

birds,  this  manakin  dances  himself  into  her  favour.     Mr. 

Nutting  once  saw  two  males  dancing  upon  a  bare  twig  about  four  feet  from 

the  ground.     The  two  birds  were  about  a  foot  and  a  half  apart,  and  were 

alternately  jumping  about  two  feet  into  the  air,  and  alighting  exactly  upon 

the  spot  whence  they  jumped.     They  kept  time  as  regularly  as  clock-work, 

one  bird  jumping  up  the  instant  that  the  other  bird  alighted,  each  bird 

accompanying  himself   to   the   tune  of   toledo,   tole'do,  toledo,   sounding   the 

syllable  "  to  "  as  he  crouched  to  spring,  "  le  "  while  in  the  air,  and  "  do  "  as 

he  alighted. 

In  the  Cotingidce  the  tarsus  is    "  pycnaspidean,"  with  the  scales  of  the 
hinder  aspect  of  the  tarsus  (planta  tarsi)  separate,  small  in  size,  and  generally 

arranged  without  any  order.     The 

The  American    bill  is  elongated,  compressed,  and 

Chatterers. —     not  serrated.     Six  sub-families  are 

Family          recognised  by  Dr.  Sclater,  and  all 

Cotingidce.        the  species  are  neotropical.     They 

comprise   very   varied   forms,    buti 

the  most  striking  are  the  cocks-of-the-rock  (Rupi- 

cola)  arid  the  bell-birds  (Chasmorhynchus). 

The  plant-cutters  are  only  four  in  number,  and 
are  found  in  Western  South    America  from  Peru 
to  Chili,  thence  to  the  Argentine 
The  Plant-        Republic  and  Northern  Patagonia. 
Cutters.— Family  There  is  only  one  genus,  Phytotoma, 
Phytotomidce.      which  agrees  with  the  Cotingidw, 
as  regards  the  scaling  of  the  tarsus, 
but  is  distinguished  by  its  short,  conical,  and  ser- 
rated bill. 

In  the  following  small  family  the  tarsus  is  "taxaspidean,"  with  the  spaces  on 


Fig.  116.— THE  BELL-BIRD 
(Lhasmorhynchus  niveus). 


PETLAS—  WOOD- HE  WERS. 


375 


The  Wattled 
Ant-Thrushes. — 

Family 
Philepittidce. 


Fig.  117.— THE  PURPLE 
PITTA 

natina). 


the  soles  of  the  tarsus  close  together,  rectangular,  and  arranged  in  regular 
series.     The   Philepittidce  are  ground  birds,  found   only  in 
Madagascar.     Two  species  are  known,  one  black,  the  other 
olive  above,  yellow  below,  but  both  having  a  bluish  fleshy 
carbuncle  above  the  eye. 

ThePittidce  differ  from  all  the  families  we  have  been  recently 
considering  in  having  the  tarsus  "ocreate,"  or  covered  with  an  entire  scale.  With 
the  exception  of  one  species,  Pitta  an- 

golensis,  which  inhabits  West  Africa,     The  Pittas. 

the  whole  of  the  family  are  denizens  of  Family  Pitiidce. 
the  tropical  regions  of  the  Indian  and 
Australian  regions.  The  pittas  are  birds  of  bright 
coloration,  inhabitants  of  the  forests,  and  in  many 
cases  migratory.  The  Burmese  genus  Anthocinda 
has  long  superciliary  tufts,  which  are  absent  in  the 
other  genera. 

The  Xeniscidce  agree  with  the  Pittidce  in  the  scaling 
of  the  tarsus,  but  have  only  ten  tail-feathers,  whereas 
the  pittas  have  twelve.  Three  genera  are  known  of 
these  tiny  wren-like  birds,  viz.  Acanthidositta,  Tra- 
versia,  and  Xenicus,  all  from  the  New  Zealand  sub- 
region. 

The  arrangement  of  the  voice- organs  in  the  Tracheo- 
phonce is  exactly  opposite  to  that  of  the  Oscines  or 
ordinary  passeres,  and  the  lower  end 
of  the  trachea  is  specially  modified  in  order  to  form  an  organ  Section 

of  voice,  and  the  bronchi  are  not  involved  in  the  arrange-    Tracheophonce. 
menb  at  all. 

The  four  families  composing  the  Tracheophonce  are  all  neotropical,  the 
Dendrocolaptidce  and  Formicariidce  having  only  one  pair  of  notches  in  the 
hinder  margin  of  the  sternum,  while 
the  Conopophagidce  and  Pteroptoc- 
hidce  have  two  pairs  of  posterior 
notches. 

The  wood-hewers  are  about  three 
hundred  in  number,  and  are  con- 
tained in  six  sub-families,  three  of  which,  the  Fur- 
nariince  (oven-birds),  Synallaxince,  and  Philydonnce 
have  soft-plumaged  tails,  while  the  other  four,  con- 
sisting of  the  true  wood-hewers  and  their  allies,  have 
spiny  tails.  The  species  we  have  figured  comes  from 
North  and  West  Argentina,  is  somewhat  gregarious, 
and  Mr.  Barrows  says  that  its  habits  are  somewhat 
like  those  of  a  woodpecker,  but  it  spends  much  of  its 
time  on  the. ground  searching  for  insects. 

These    are    forest    birds,    inhabiting   Central   and 
South '  America,  and   numbering  about  300  species. 
Mr.  Osbert  Salvin  divides  the  family 
into  two   groups,    those   which'  fre-  The  Ant-Birds.— 
quent  the  trees  and  bushes  and  have  short  tarsi,  and  those  Family 

whose  habits  are  terrestrial,   and  feed   on   insects   on   the     Formicariidce. 
ground.     The  habits  of  the  Formicariidce  are  not  very  well 


The 

Wood-Hewers. — 
Family  Den- 
drocolaptidce. 


Fig.  118.— BRIDGES'  WOOD- 
HEWER  (Drymornis 
bridgesi). 


376  A  VES— ORDER  PASSERIFORMES. 


known,  but  they  appear  to  make  their  nests  in  trees  and  bushes,  some  of 
them  being  pensile,  and  suspended  in  a  forked  branch  near  the  extremity  of 
a  bough.  The  eggs,  according  to  Mr.  Saivin,  vary  greatly,  from  rich  dark- 
greenish  blue  to  a  mottled  mahogany  colour,  and  many  are  pure  white,  or  are 
white  with  few  or  many  spots.  Although  commonly  known  as  "  ant  "-birds, 
whence  also  their  scientific  name,  it  is  now  believed  that  the  Formicariidce 
do  not  eat  ants,  but  only  feed  on  the  insects  driven  up  by  the  swarms  of 
foraging-ants  (Ecliiton). 

The  Conopophayidce  consist  of  a  couple  of  genera,  with  eleven  species, 
found  in  South  America,  from  Colombia  to  South-Eastern  Brazil  and  Bolivia. 
They  bear  a  general  resemblance  to  the  Formicariida:,  but  have  four  posterior 
notches  in  the  sternum. 

The  tapacolas,  or  Pteroptochidce,  are  a  family  of  small  wren-like  birds, 
occurring  in  the  Andes  of  Ecuador  and  Colombia,  but  more  plentifully  re- 
presented in  Chili  arid  Patagonia. 

In  the  AtrichiidcK  the  sternum  is  single-notched,  and  they  have  a  rudi- 
mentary f  urcula  or  "  merry-thought."  The  wings  are  so  small  that  the  power 
of  flight  must  be  very  limited,  and  the  planta  tarsi  is  scaled 
Tfce  Scrub-Birds,  like  that  of  a  lark.  Only  two  species  are  known,  both  from 
— Family  Australia.  Of  the  noisy  scrub-bird  (Atrichia  clamosa),  whom 

Atrichiidce.  Gilbert  discovered  in  Western  Australia,  Gould  says  that 
it  is  a  very  difficult  bird  to  find  among  the  tangled  beds  of 
dwarf-ferns  and  dense  thickets,  and  is  only  detected  by  its  peculiar  and 
noisy  note. 


SUB-KINGDOM  I.—  VERTEBRATA. 

CLASS  III.—REPTILIA. 
BY  R.  LYDEKKER,  B.A.,  F.R,S.,  V.P.G.S.,  &c. 

FROM  both  mammals  and  birds,  reptiles  are  broadly  distinguished  by  the 
coldness  of  their  blood,  which  has  a  temperature  but  little,  if  at  all,  raised 
above  that  of  the  surrounding  air.  Probably  to  the  popular  mind  this  is  the 
most  obvious  distinction  of  reptiles  ;  and,  in  the  ordinary  acceptation  of  the 
term,  it  does  serve  to  differentiate  the  group  from  all  other  vertebrates 
except  fishes — with  which  these  creatures  are  not  likely  to  be  confounded. 
But  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  popular  and  scientific  conceptions  of 
what  constitutes  a  reptile  are  totally  distinct.  Under  that  title  the  ordinary 
observer  includes  frogs,  salamanders,  and  newts  ;  and,  in  fact,  all  terrestrial, 
cold-blooded  vertebrates.  From  certain  structural  peculiarities  the  natural- 
ist, on  the  other  hand,  separates  the  creatures  just  named  from  reptiles,  and  in- 
cludes under  that  title  only  crocodiles,  tortoises,  turtles,  lizards  and  snakes,  with 
a  number  of  extinct  forms  with  which  we  are  not  concerned  in  this  volume. 

Although  some  reptiles,  such  as  lizards,  agree  very  closely  with  the  egg- 
laying  mammals  (Monotremata)  in  the  structure  of  the  bones  forming  the 
shoulder-girdle,  while  this  resemblance  is  still  more  markedly  displayed  by 
certain  extinct  members  of  the  reptilian  class,  yet  the  relationships  of 
modern  reptiles  are  decidedly  closer  with  birds.  Both  groups,  for  instance, 
agree  in  that  the  young  are  not  nourished  with  milk  ;  while  as  regards 
structure  there  are  several  points  in  which  they  are  identical,  and  at  the 
same  time  differ  from  mammals.  Notably,  each  branch  of  the  lower  jaw  in 
birds  and  reptiles  is  composed  of  several  distinct  bones  ;  and  the  whole  jaw 
is  jointed  on  each  side  to  the  skull  by  means  of  a  separate  ossification  known 
as  the  quadrate -bone.  In  both  groups  the  ankle-joint  is  situated  between 
the  two  horizontal  rows  of  bones  constituting  the  tarsus  ;  although  in  birds, 
as  well  as  in  some  extinct  reptiles,  these  bones  are  welded  respectively  with 
the  long  bones  of  the  leg  and  of  the  metatarsus,  A  further  distinction 
is  the  articulation  of  the  skull  to  the  first  vertebra  by  means  of  a  single 
knob-like  condyle,  instead  of  by  the  two  condyles  characterising  mammals. 

Such  are  some  of  the  features  common  to  birds  and  reptiles,  as  distinct 
from  mammals.  From  birds,  reptiles  are  broadly  distinguished  by  the  ab- 
sence of  feathers,  the  protective  structures  developed  in  the  outer  layer  of 
the  skin  taking  the  form  either  of  overlapping  horny  scales,  or  of  large 
shield-like  plates  united  by  their  edges.  As  already  said,  reptiles  are  further 
distinguished  by  their  cold  blood  ;  but  this  is  obviously  a  feature  of  much 
less  importance,  for  even  among  mammals  the  Monotremata  have  the  tem- 
perature of  the  blood  perceptibly  lower  than  is  the  case  with  the  higher 
members  of  the  class.  An  important  difference  is,  however,  found  in  the 
great  blood-vessel,  or  aorta,  by  which  the  blood  passes  from  the  heart  to  the 
body  ;  since,  whereas  in  birds  this  is  single  and  bends  over  the  left  branch  of 

377 


373  REPTILIA— ORDER  I.— CROCODILIA. 

the  windpipe,  in  reptiles  it  is  double,  and  passes  over  both  branches  of  the 
latter.  Then,  again,  no  reptiles  are  known  in  which  the  number  of  digits 
in  the  fore-limb  is  reduced  to  three  ;  while  in  no  case  are  the  two  collar- 
bones fused  together  to  form  the  forcula,  or  merrythought,  which  consti- 
tutes such  a  striking  feature  in  the  skeleton  of  a  bird.  Other  minor  differences 
might  be  pointed  out,  but  the  foregoing  are  amply  sufficient  to  distinguish 
a  bird  from  a  reptile.  In  common  with  the  egg-laying  mammals,  both  groups 
produce  their  young  from  eggs  ;  but  in  certain  reptiles  the  young  are  retained 
so  long  within  the  body  of  the  parent  that  they  are  born  alive  into  the  world. 

From  the  lower  vertebrates,  that  is  to  say  frogs,  salamanders,  newts,  and 
fishes,  reptiles  differ  in  that  they  are  never  provided  with  gills  at  any  period 
of  life,  and  when  first  hatched  are  similar  in  general  form  and  structure  to 
the  adult,  or,  in  other  words,  do  not  undergo  a  metamorphosis. 

Whereas  birds  are  remarkably  alike  in  general  appearance  and  internal 
structure,  reptiles  present  great  diversity  in  these  respects,  and  the  distinc- 
tion between  the  various  orders  of  the  latter  are  much  more  strongly  marked 
than  is  the  case  with  those  of  the  former.  If  extinct  types  be  taken  into 
account,  these  diversities  are  still  more  strongly  accentuated,  and  there  are 
certain  fossil  forms  which  walked  on  their  hind  legs  alone,  while  others  were 
capable  of  flying  in  the  same  manner  as  a  bird.  For  this  reason  the  presence 
or  absence  of  the  power  of  flight  is  not  given  as  one  of  the  distinctions 
between  birds  and  reptiles. 

Geologically,  reptiles  are  much  older  than  either  mammals  or  birds,  and 
consequently  a  large  number  of  their  orders  are  extinct,  while  one  is  repre- 
sented only  by  a  solitary  survivor.     The  existing  orders  are  as  follows  : — 
I.  CROCODILIA  (Crocodiles,  Alligators,  and  Garials). 
II.  CHELONIA  (Tortoises  and  Turtles). 

III.  SQUAMATA  (Lizards,  Chamseleons,  and  Snakes). 

IV.  RHYNCHOCEPHALIA  (New  Zealand  Tuatera.) 

In  consequence  of  their  greater  antiquity,  and  the  numerous  migrations 
which  they  have  undergone  during  early  periods  of  the  earth's  history, 
reptiles  do  not  agree  with  mammals  in  respect  to  their  geographical  distribu- 
tion ;  so  that  the  realms  and  regions  into  which  the  earth  is  divided  from  the 
evidence  of  the  present  and  past  distribution  of  mammals  do  not  hold  good 
for  reptiles.  Some  of  the  leading  features  in  the  distribution  of  the  orders 
and  sub-orders  of  the  present  class  are  mentioned  in  the  sequel. 


ORDER  I.— CROCODILIA. 
CROCODILES,  ALLIGATORS,  AND  GARIALS. 

NOBODY  can  mistake  a  crocodile  or  alligator,  or  even  their  long-snouted 
allies,  the  garials,  for  any  other  reptile  ;  and  consequently,  although  they  are 
nearly  allied  to  certain  extinct  forms,  there  is  no  necessity  here  for  giving  an 
elaborate  and  detailed  definition  of  the  order.  Great  lumbering  brutes, 
lying  like  logs  in  the  water,  but  waking  into  sudden  and  unexpected  activity 
directly  living  prey  comes  within  their  reach,  crocodiles  and  alligators  are 
specially  characterised  by  the  rows  of  large  shield-like  homy  plates  covering 
the  back  and  parts  of  the  neck,  and  in  some  cases  also  the  under  surface  of 


CROCODILES,  ALLIGATORS,  AND  GARIALS.  379 

the  body.  These  shields,  which  do  not  overlap,  but  join  one  another  by 
their  edges,  are  often  marked  on  the  back  by  more  or  less  distinctly  developed 
longitudinal  ridges,  and,  at  least  on  the  back,  are  underlain  in  the  deep  layer 
of  the  skin  by  solid  bony  plates.  In  the  case  of  the  ridged  shields,  the 
underlying  plates  are  similarly  ridged  ;  and  in  every  instance  the  plates  are 
marked  by  a  peculiar  honey-comb-like  sculpture.  A  somewhat  similar 
sculpture,  although  taking  more  the  form  of  irregular  branching  ridges  and 
grooves,  is  likewise  developed  on  the  outer  surface  of  the  bones  of  the  head  ; 
and  in  this  respect  the  skull  of  every  living  member  of  the  order  differs  from 
that  of  any  other  existing  reptile.  All  crocodilians — as  the  members  of  the 
order  may  be  collectively  designated — are  huge  ungainly  reptiles,  with  large 
flat  heads,  depressed  and  lizard-like  bodies,  short  limbs,  and  long,  compressed, 
and  powerful  tails,  bearing  on  the  upper  surface  a  crest  of  horny  lobes,  which 
is  double  in  the  basal  half  of  that  appendage.  The  toes,  which  are  five  in 
number  in  the  fore-limbs,  but  are  reduced  to  four  in  the  hinder  pair,  are 
more  or  less  completely  united  by  webs  to  form  efficient  paddles  for  swim- 
ming ;  and  on  each  foot  the  three  toes  on  the  inner  side  are  furnished  with 
strong  and  sharp  claws.  In  the  huge,  ugly  head,  the  apertures  of  the  ears 
can  be  closed  by  means  of  movable  lids,  so  as  to  prevent  the  ingress  of  water ; 
and  the  nostrils  open  at  the  very  tip  of  the  muzzle — whether  this  be  short  or 
broad,  as  in  the  alligators,  or  long  and  narrow,  as  in  the  garials,  The  vast 
and  cavern-like  mouth  is  armed  with  a  formidable  series  of  sharp,  conical  teeth, 
some  of  which  are  enlarged  into  tusks,  while  all  are  implanted  in  separate 
sockets,  and  form  a  single  row  on  the  summit  of  each  jaw.  To  keep  this 
terrible  armament  in  repair,  the  teeth  are  being  consequently  shed  and  re- 
newed, the  new  ones  coming  up  beneath  the  hollow  bases  of  the  old  ones 
and  gradually  pushing  them  out,  Sometimes  three  or  four  teeth  may  be  seen, 
one  beneath  the  other,  packed  together  like  a  nest  of  thimbles. 

If  the  dried  skull  of  one  of  these  reptiles  be  examined,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  whole  of  the  palate  is  formed  by  a  solid  roof  of  bone,  and  also  that 
the  quadrate-bone  is  firmly  and  immovably  wedged  in  between  the  adjacent 
elements  of  the  skull.  Later  on,  we  shall  see  that  this  type  of  structure 
differs  very  markedly  from  that  which  obtains  among  the  lizards,  and  thus 
forms  a  most  essential  feature  in  the  definition  of  the  order.  A  more  de- 
tailed examination  of  the  skulls  of  all  existing  crocodiles  will  also  show  that 
the  posterior,  or  internal,  nostrils  open  on  the  palate  right  at  the  hinder  end 
of  the  skull,  close  to  where  it  joins  the  backbone,  And  it  is  by  means  of  this 
arrangement  that  these  reptiles  are  enabled  to  hold  and  drown  their  prey  in 
their  open  mouths  beneath  the  surface  of  the  water  without  any  danger  of 
being  suffocated  themselves.  This  is  effected  by  means  of  the  production  of 
the  upper  extremity  of  the  windpipe  well  into  the  mouth,  where  it  enters  the 
internal  nostrils,  and  thus  forms  a  closed  tube  from  the  external  nostrils  to 
the  lungs. 

Another  peculiarity  in  the  structure  of  a  crocodile  which  has  much  effect 
on  its  movements,  is  to  be  found  in  the  vertebrae  of  the  short  neck.  From 
the  development  of  long  processes  on  the  sides  of  this  portion  of  the  back- 
bone, a  crocodile  is  totally  unable  to  turn  its  head.  Consequently,  if  a  man 
be  attacked  on  land  by  one  of  these  monsters,  he  has  but  to  await:  its  rush, 
and  then  leap  suddenly  aside,  when  his  aggressor  will  continue  its  course 
until  able  to  turn  its  whole  body, 

Members  of  the  order  are  found  in  all  the  warmer  regions  of  the  globe, 
but  are  happily  absent  from  European  rivers.  -They  frequent  alike  rivers, 


REPTILIA—ORDER  I.—CROCODILIA. 


marshes,  and  ponds  ;  and,  although  never  found  far  removed  from  water, 
will  at  times  travel  long  distances  on  land.  In  periods  of  drought,  some  of 
them,  at  least,  bury  themselves  deep  in  the  mud,  where  they  remain  in  a 
semi-torpid  condition  until  awakened  by  returning  moisture.  They  are  the 
most  thoroughly  carnivorous  of  all  reptiles ;  and  their  huge  size  and  powerful 
teeth  render  them  capable  of  seizing  and  killing  almost  all  kinds  of  living 
prey.  Animals  coming  to  drink  are  seized  by  the  nose,  and  pulled  under 
water,  to  be  ruthlessly  drowned  in  the  manner  already  indicated. 

All  crocodilians  lay  eggs,  which  are  furnished  with  a  hard  white  shell, 
and  comparable  in  size  to  those  of  a  goose.  In  number  they  usually  vary 
from  one  to  three  score.  They  are  buried  by  the  female  parent  in  the  warm 
sand,  where  in  due  course  they  hatch.  It  appears,  however,  that  in  some 
instances,  at  least,  the  female  opens  the  pit  when  the  young  are  ready  to 
burst  their  prison,  being  attracted  by  the  cries  uttered  by  the  little  crocodiles 
while  still  within  the  shell.  The  young  ones  arc  introduced  to  the  water  by 
the  mother. 

Although  all  living  crocodilians  are  included  in  the  single  family  Crocodilidce, 
they  are  divided  into  several  genera,  some  of  which  have  a  more  or  less 

limited  geographical  distribution,  while  others  have  a  very 
Caimans  extensive  range.  Of  those  with  a  restricted  range,  the  first 
(Caiman).  we  have  to  notice  are  the  caimans  (Caiman)  of  Tropical 

America.  Caimans  are  broad  and  short-snouted  crocodilians, 
with  a  bony  armour  developed  on.  the  under,  as  well  as  the  upper,  surface  of 
the  body.  In  the  skull,  the  nasal  bones  only  extend  as  far  forwards  as  the 
hinder  aperture  of  the  external  nostrils  ;  and,  as  a  rule,  both  the  first  and 
fourth  lower  teeth,  which  are  enlarged  and  tusk-like,  are  received  into  pits 
in  the  upper  jaw,  so  as  to  be  concealed  when  the  mouth  is  closed.  The 
upper  teeth  bite  on  the  outer  side  of  the  lower  ones  ;  and  the  two  branches 
of  the  lower  jaw  have  but  a  very  short  union  in  the  middle  line  at  their  front 
extremity.  A  peculiarity  of  the  genus  is  to  be  found  in  the  circumstance 
that  the  bony  plates  on  the  back  are  articulated  together.  There  are  several 
species  of  caiman,  one  of  which  ranges  as  far  south  as  the  La  Plata  River. 
Their  true  home  is,  however,  the  tropics,  and  in  the  Orinoco  and  Amazon 
they  occur  in  thousands.  In  Brazil  they  are  known  as  jacares,  and  one 
species  from  that  country  measures  from  eighteen  to  twenty  feet  in  length. 
In  capturing  these  ferocious  and  bloodthirsty  monsters,  the  native  Brazilians 
display  great  daring. 

The  alligators  are  so  closely  allied  to  the  caimans  that  they  can  only  be 
distinguished  by  anatomical  features.  The  most  easily  detected  distinction 

is  to  be  found  in  the  skull,  in  which  the  nasal  bones  extend 
Alligators  right  across  the  aperture  of  the  external  nostrils,  instead  of 
(Alligator).  stopping  short  at  their  hinder  border.  The  bony  plates  on 

the  back  differ  by  the  absence  of  any  articulation  between 
them  ;  while  those  on  the  lower  surface  are  either  very  thin  or  wanting.  Of 
the  two  well-known  species,  the  Chinese  alligator  (A.  sinensis)  is  a  compara- 
tively small  form,  approximating  to  the  caimans  in  the  retention  of 
thin  bony  plates  on  the  under  surface,  and  having  the  front  toes  free.  In 
the  gigantic  North  American  alligator  (A.  mississippiensis),  on  the  other  hand, 
there  are  no  plates  beneath  the  body,  and  the  front  toes  are  webbed ;  while 
there  are  also  differences  in  the  number  of  plates  on  the  neck  and  back,  as 
well  as  in  the  number  of  teeth,  which  aid  in  distinguishing  between  the  two 
kinds.  The  habits  of  alligators  are  very  similar  to  those  of  other  members  of 


CROCODILES,  ALLIGATORS,  AND  GARIALS. 


the  order  ;  but  the  female  buries  her  eggs — which  may  reach  a  hundred  in 
number — among  leaves  and  other  decaying  vegetable  matter,  in  order  to 
hasten  the  process  of  hatching  ;  and  during  the  pairing -season  the  males 
spend  much  of  their  time  on  land.  The  Chinese  species  feeds  largely  upon 
fish. 

The  typical  or  true  crocodiles  are  readily  distinguished  from  both  the  fore- 
going genera  by  the  circumstance  that  the  upper  teeth  interlock  with  the 
lower  ones,  and  likewise  by  the  fourth  lower  tooth  generally 
biting  into  a  notch  in  the  upper  jaw.     In  the  skull  the  nasal   True  Crocodiles 
bones  extend  only  as  far  forwards  as  the  hinder  margin  of      (Crocodiliis). 
the  nostrils  ;  and  whereas  there  are  from  seventeen  to  nine- 
teen upper  teeth,  in  the  lower  jaw  the  number  is  constantly  fifteen.     In  all, 
the  under  surface  of  the  body  is  devoid  of  bony  plates.     Crocodiles  are  repre- 
sented by  about  eleven  species,  which  are  distributed  over  the  south  of  Asia, 
Africa,  Madagascar,  the  north  of  Australia,  and  Tropical  America,  and  it  is 
not  a  little  remarkable  that  one  of  these  (Crocodilus  porosfus)  extends  from 
India  to  Queensland,  being  also  found  in  some  of  the  islands  of  Polynesia, 
such  as  the  Solomons  and  Fiji.     This  wide  distribution  is,  however,  readily 
explained  by  this  species  be- 
ing  largely  estuarine   in   its 
habits,  and  taking  readily  to 
salt  water,   whereas  all    the 
others  are    fresh-water    rep- 
tiles.     Great  difference   ob- 
tains in  the  form  of  the  skull 
in  the  various  representatives 
of  the    genus,    the    Oriental 
magar  (G.  palustris)  having  a 
short  and  broad  alligator-like 
snout,  whereas  in  the  sharp- 
nosed    crocodile    (G,    ameri- 
canus)  of    Central  America, 
the  muzzle  is  comparatively 
long,    narrow,    and   pointed. 
Even   in   this   species,   how- 
ever, the  short  front  union  between  the  two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw  is 
retained.      In  its  still  more  elongated  snout,  the  West  African  long-nosed 
crocodile  (C.  cataphractus)  forms  a  connecting  link  between  the  more  typical 
species  and  the  under-mentioned  garials.     The  species  longest  known  is  the 
Egyptian  crocodile  (G,  niloticus),  which  is  one  of  those  with  a  snout  of  medium 
proportions. 

As  a  rule,  the  favourite  haunts  of  crocodiles  are  sandbanks  in  rivers,  where 
they  lie  basking  for  hours  in  the  full  sun,  frequently  with  their  ponderous 
jaws  widely  gaping.  They  appear  to  live  for  a  great  number  of  years — dur- 
ing the  whole  of  which  they  continue  to  grow — and  often  frequent  the  same 
spot  for  long  periods  of  time.  Their  ferocity  is  too  well  known  to  need  men- 
tion ;  and  many  incautious  bathers  have  lost  their  lives  through  these  hideous 
reptiles.  On  the  Hugli  it  is  stated  that  women  coming  down  to  the  river's 
edge  to  draw  water  have  occasionally  been  seized  and  dragged  under  while 
stooping  down  on  the  marge.  Although  specimens  are  now  seldom  recorded 
of  more  than  twelve  or  thirteen  feet  in  length,  there  is  good  evidence  that 
formerly  the  Indian  magar  grew  to  at  least  eighteen  feet. 


Fig.  1.— NORTH  AMERICAN  ALLIGATOR  (A.  mississip- 
piensis). 


382 


REPTILIA— ORDER  L—CROCODILIA. 


Stumpy 

Crocodile 

(Osteolcemus). 


Garials 

( Rhynchosuchus 
and  Garialis). 


A  small  short-snouted  species  (Osteolcemus  tetraspis)  from  Sierra  Leone  has 
been  referred  to  a  genus  by  itself,  on  account  of  the  nasal  bones  extending 
right  across  the  aperture  of  the  nostrils.     Although  agreeing 
in  this  respect  with  the  alligators,  in  all  other  features  this 
species  is  a  true  crocodile. 

Two  members  of  the  order  differ  from  all  the  foregoing  in 
having  the  edges  of  the  very  long  and  slender  muzzle  nearly 
straight,  instead  of  more  or  less  distinctly  festooned,  and  likewise  by  the 
circumstance  that  the  nasal  bones  stop  considerably  short  of  the  hinder 
border  of  the  external  nostrils.  A  further  marked  differ- 
ence is  to  be  found  in  the  great  length  of  the  bony  union  be- 
tween the  two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw,  which  extends  at 
least  as  far  back  as  the  fifteenth  tooth.  The  teeth  themselves 
are  also  much  more  slender  than  in  the  preceding  genera,  the 
fish-eating  habits  of  the  garials  rendering  a  more  powerful  type  of  dentition 
unnecessary.  Of  these  two  species,  Schlegel's  garial  (Rhynchosuchus  schlegeli) 
inhabits  the  Malay  peninsula  and  Borneo,  and  has  the  snout  of  medium 
elongation  and  slenderness.  Its  claim  to  generic  distinction  is  due  to  the 
circumstance  that  the  nasal  bones  extend  forwards  on  the  upper  surface  of 
the  snout  to  reach  the  premaxillre  or  anterior  jawbones.  It  has  twenty  or 
twenty-one  upper,  and  eighteen  or  nineteen  lower,  teeth  ;  and  its  length 
varies  from  twelve  to  fourteen  feet. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  true  garial  (Garialis  gangetica),  which  inhabits  the 
Ganges,  Bramaputra,  Indus,  and  Mahanadi,  together  with  a  river  in  Arakan, 

is  distinguished  by  the  much 
greater  length  and  slenderness  of 
the  snout,  in  which  the  nasal 
bones  stop  short  of  the  pre- 
maxillse,  so  that  the  maxillae,  or 
hinder  upper  jawbones  come  into 
contact  with  one  another  on  the 
upper  surface  of  the  snout  be- 
tween the  other  two  pairs  of  bones. 
The  almost  uniformly  sized  teeth 
are  very  numerous,  varying  from 
27  to  29  in  the  upper,  and  from 
25  to  26  in  the  lower  jaw.  None 
of  the  lower  ones  bite  into  pits  in 
the  upper  jaw,  whereas  some  of 
the  former  are  so  received  in  the 
other  species.  All  the  toes  are 
fully  webbed.  In  the  adult  the 


Fig  2.— TRUE  GARIAL  (Garialis  gangetica). 


general  colour  is  dark  olive  on  the  head  and  back.  The  male  garial  may  be 
distinguished  by  the  development  of  the  expanded  extremity  of  the  muzzle 
into  a  kind  of  hump,  in  the  centre  of  which  are  situated  the  nostrils.  The 
garial  grows  to  a  length  of  about  twenty  feet,  and  feeds  entirely  on  fish. 
For  the  capture  of  its  finny  prey,  the  numerous  slender,  sharply  pointed, 
and  somewhat  curved  teeth  are  admirably  suited;  and  the  highly  developed 
swimming  powers  of  this  species  are  also  correlated  with  the  nature  of  its 
food.  The  female  deposits  her  eggs  in  the  sand  of  the  river- banks,  these 
being  generally  laid  in  two  distinct  layers,  one  above  the  other.  When  the 
young  first  make  their  appearance  in  the  world,  they  have  the  snout  propor- 


TORTOISES  AND  TURTLES.  383 


tionately  much  longer  than  in  the  adult;  but,  owing  to  the  more  rapid 
growth  of  the  body,  this  becomes  gradually  shorter.  Young  garials  have  the 
body  and  tail  ornamented  with  a  number  of  oblique  dark  bands  on  a  lighter 
ground.  Although  the  garial  is  commonly  looked  upon  with  suspicion,  it 
does  not  appear  that  it  ever  attacks  man  or  the  larger  mammals. 


ORDER  II.— CHELONIA. 
TORTOISES  AND  TURTLES. 

THE  presence  of  a  bony  shell,  in  a  more  or  less  fully  developed  state — some- 
times enclosing  the  whole  body  in  a  solid  case,  and  in  other  cases  reduced  to 
a  kind  of  dish-cover  on  the  back — is  the  grand  distinguishing  feature  of  the 
tortoises  and  turtles,  which  collectively  constitute  the  second  great  order  of 
reptiles.  Indeed,  so  far  as  their  bony  framework  is  concerned,  these  strange 
creatures  may  almost  be  described  as  reptiles  turned  inside  out.  For  the 
ribs,  which  are  generally  united  with  bony  plates  in  the  skin  to  form  the 
upper  shell,  or  carapace,  are  actually  placed  outside  both  the  blade-bones  and 
the  haunch-bones  ;  while,  when  a  shell  is  developed  on  the  under  surface  of 
the  body,  its  front  portion  is  formed  by  the  equivalents  of  the  collar-bones. 

The  presence,  in  some  form  or  other,  of  such  a  shell  serves  at  once  to 
distinguish  the  Chelonians  from  all  other  living  reptiles.  In  ordinary 
tortoises  and  turtles  the  upper  shell  is  firmly  welded  to  the  backbone ;  but 
the  under  shell,  or  plastron,  which  may  or  may  not  be  joined  by  its  edges  to 
the  sides  of  the  carapace,  is  generally  free  from  the  internal  skeleton.  Ex- 
ternally the  shell  is  covered  by  a  number  of  longitudinal  rows  of  horny 
shields,  which  can  bo  stripped  off  without  much  trouble,  and  then  reveal  the 
underlying  bony  plates.  Unfortunately  for  the  ordinary  student  of  natural 
history,  the  form  and  mode  of  arrangement  of  these  hidden  bony  plates  are 
of  the  utmost  importance  in  the  classification  of  many  of  these  reptiles. 
And  as  they  are  not  shown  in  figures  taken  from  specimens  in  the  ordinary 
condition,  he  must  either  refer  to  special  works  on  the  subject,  or  must  visit 
a  good  museum,  Both  the  superficial  horny  shields  and  the  underlying  bony 
plates  have  received  special  names  ;  and  as  some  acquaintance  with  their 
general  mode  of  arrangement  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  study  of  these 
reptiles,  a  brief  reference  to  the  subject  must  be  made  in  this  place. 

Taking  any  ordinary  Chelonian,  such  as  the  common  Greek  tortoise  of  our 
gardens,  we  find  the  following  general  arrangement  obtaining  in  the  horny 
shields.  Along  the  middle  of  the  upper  shell  runs  a  single  series  of  five 
large  symmetrical  shields  known  as  the  vertebrals.  On  each  side  these  are 
flanked  by  a  series  of  still  larger  shields,  usually  also  five  in  number,  termed 
the  costals.  The  edges  of  the  upper  shell  are  formed  by  a  numerous  series 
of  much  smaller  marginal  shields,  which  in  those  forms  with  a  complete  shell 
overlap  the  middle  of  the  sides,  and  thus  come  on  to  the  plastron.  At  the 
middle  of  the  front  edge  of  the  carapace  there  is  very  generally  a  small  un- 
paired shield  known  as  the  nuchal ;  while  the  term  caudal  is  applied  to  the 
corresponding  single  or  double  shield  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  shell.  ^  On 
the  under  surface,  or  plastron,  we  find  six  pairs  of  large  shields,  respectively 
named,  from  front  to  back,  the  gular,  humeral,  pectoral,  abdominal,  femoral. 


334  REPTILIA— ORDER  II.—CHELONIA. 


and  anal  shields  ;  while  in  some  cases  an  unpaired  intergular  is  interposed 
between  the  two  gulars.  Certain  small  shields  on  the  borders  of  the  slits  for 
the  fore  and  hind  limbs  need  not  be  further  referred  to. 

If  we  now  strip  off  the  horny  shields,  we  shall  find  that  the  underlying 
bony  plates  conform  to  a  great  extent  with  the  arrangement  of  the  former, 
although  presenting  certain  well-marked  differences.  In  the  middle  line  of 
the  upper  shell  runs  a  single  series  of  small  many-angled  plates  termed  the 
neurals,  all  attached  below  to  the  back-bone.  A  larger  unattached  nuchal 
plate  in  front,  and  one  or  two  similarly  detached  pygals  behind,  complete  this 
median  unpaired  series.  The  sides  of  the  carapace  are  formed  by  the  eight 
pairs  of  costal  plates,  which  are  firmly  welded  to  the  underlying  ribs  ;  while 
its  borders  are  composed  of  the  marginal  plates,  which  resemble  the  corre- 
sponding horny  shields  in  being  angulated,  and  some  of  which  join  the 
plastron,  when  the  latter  is  fully  developed.  Exclusive  of  these  marginals, 
the  lower  shell  or  plastron  generally  consists  of  one  unpaired  and  four  paired 
elements.  The  front  pair,  corresponding  to  the  collar-bones  of  other  verte- 
brates, are  the  epiplastrals,  behind  or  between  which  is  the  single  ento- 
plastral.  Then  follow  the  hyoplastrals,  hypoplastrals,  and  xiphiplastrals  ; 
the  latter  forming  the  hinder  extremity  of  the  lower  shell,  and  being  fre- 
quently more  or  less  deeply  notched  in  the  middle  line.  In  addition  to 
these  elements,  a  few  tortoises  have  a  pair  of  mesoplastral  bones  intercalated 
between  the  hyo-  and  hypoplastrals,  thus  bringing  up  the  total  number  of 
bones  in  the  lower  shell  to  eleven. 

Scarcely  less  peculiar  than  their  shells  are  the  jaws  of  the  Chelonia,  which 
are  invariably  cased  in  horny  sheaths,  with  sharp  cutting  edges,  like  the 
beaks  of  birds,  and  show  no  vestiges  of  teeth  at  any  period  of  life,  Gener- 
ally the  head  is  relatively  short  and  wide  ;  but  there  is  a  considerable  amount 
of  diversity  in  this  respect,  as  there  is  in  regard  to  the  structure  of  the  skull. 
In  all  cases,  however,  the  quadrate-bone  is  firmly  fixed  between  the  adjacent 
bones  of  the  skull,  to  which  its  relations  are  somewhat  different  from  those 
obtaining  in  the  Crocodilia.  There  are  many  other  peculiarities  connected 
with  the  bony  framework  of  these  reptiles  ;  but  those  mentioned  are  amply 
sufficient  to  distinguish  them  from  all  other  groups. 

The  order  is  divided  into  three  sub-orders,  respectively  known  as  the 
Cryptodira,  Pleurodira,  and  Trionychoidea ;  and  these  divisions  are  important, 
not  only  on  account  of  indicating  structural  differences,  but  also  on  distribu- 
tional grounds.  rJ  hus,  whereas  the  first  group  attains  its  maximum  develop- 
ment in  the  countries  to  the  north  of  the  Equator,  the  second  group  is  now 
entirely  restricted  to  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  and  is  the  only  one  repre- 
sented in  Australia.  No  members  of  the  order  are  found  in  New  Zealand  ; 
and  the  third  group  is  unknown  in  both  Australia  and  South  America,  as 
indeed  it  is  in  Europe,  although  this  is  probably  due  to  temperature. 

Great  differences  are  observable  in  the  mode  of  life  of  the  different 
members  of  the  order,  the  typical  tortoises  being  almost  or  quite  exclusively 
terrestrial,  the  soft  tortoises  fresh-water,  and  the  turtles  marine.  All  are, 
however,  fond  of  water,  and  even  the  most  exclusively  terrestrial  species  are 
fond  of  an  occasional  bath.  Many  of  the  so-called  terrapins  may  be  regarded 
as  amphibious  creatures,  spending  much  of  their  time  in  the  water,  but  often 
dwelling  for  a  considerable  period  on  dry  land.  Between  the  land  tortoises 
and  the  ordinary  fresh-water  terrapins  there  is  not  much  difference  in  the 
structure  of  the  feet  ;  but  in  the  turtles  these  are  modified  into  paddles, 
adapted  solely  for  swimming,  and  forming  poor  organs  of  progression  on 


TORTOISES  AND  TURTLES. 


land.  Even  these  purely  marine  forms  are,  however,  in  the  habit  of  coming 
on  shore  for  the  purpose  of  depositing  their  eggs.  It  is  important  to  re- 
member that  in  ordinary  language  the  term  turtle  is  often  applied  to  many 
of  the  fresh-water  forms,  although  it  is  preferable  to  restrict  it  to  the  marine 
species.  Whereas  all  the  other  members  of  the  order  lay  hard -shelled 
eggs,  those  of  the  turtles  are  soft-shelled.  In  the  matter  of  diet,  Chelonians 
present  as  much  diversity  as  in  their  other  habits,  some  kinds  being  ex- 
clusively carnivorous,  while  others  feed  on  vegetable  substances. 


Sub-Order  J. — Cryptodira. 

The  members  of  this  group  are  primarily  characterised  by  their  power  of 
withdrawing  the  head  within  the  margins  of  the  shell  by  an  S-like  bending  of 
the  neck  in  a  vertical  plane ;  but  as  the  same  feature  is  to  be  found  in  I  ho 
third  group  of  the  order,  supplemental  characteristics  are  necessary  to  define 
the  present  sub-order.  With  the  exception  of  the  abnormal  leathery  turtle, 
the  shell  of  all  the  forms — no  matter  what  be  its  degree  of  development — is 
furnished  with  a  complete  set  of  marginal  bones,  some  of  which  are  articu- 
lated to  the  extremities  of  the  ribs.  Accordingly,  the  Cryptodira  may  be  de- 
lined  as  Chelonians  which  retract  the  head  by  means  of  a  vertical  S-like  flexure 
of  the  neck,  and  either  possess  a  complete  set  of  marginal  bones  attached  to 
the  ribs,  or  have  the  limbs  converted  into  nippers.  These  are,  however,  by  no 
means  the  sole  distinctive  features  of  the  group.  An  important  structural 
peculiarity  is  to  be  found  in  the  circumstance  that  none  of  the  bones  of  the  pel- 
vic girdle  have  any  attachment  to  the  lower  shell  or  plastron.  Then,  again,  as  a 
general  rule,  the  latter  bears  only  six  pairs  of  horny  shields,  an  intergular  shield 
being  but  very  rarely  developed,  If  the  dried  skull  be  examined,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  ring  of  bone  surrounding  the  aperture  of  the  ear — technically  termed 
the  tympanic  ring — is  interrupted  by  a  distinct  notch  in  its  hinder  border  ; 
while  the  quadrate-bone  articulates  with  the  hinder  end  of  the  lower  jaw  by 
means  of  a  convex  knob  or  condyle,  received  into  a  pit  in  the  latter. 

With  the  exception  of  the  soft  tortoises,  this  group  includes  all  the  land 
and  fresh-water  Chelonians  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  as  well  as  the 
marine  turtles  and  the  leathery  turtle.  It  is,  however,  by  no  means  wanting 
in  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  as  there  are  numerous  forms — both  of  terres- 
trial and  fresh- water  habits — in  Africa  and  South  America,  although  none 
are  known  from  Australasia.  There  are  such  a  large  number  of  genera — to 
say  nothing  of  species — included  in  this  group,  that  limitations  of  space 
permit  of  reference  only  to  some  of  the  more  important  types. 

This  extensive  family  group  is  probably  best  known  in  the  shape  of  the 
common  Grecian  tortoise  and  European  pond-tortoise,  both  of  which  are  com- 
monly exhibited  for  sale  in  London  shops,  although  neither 
are  native  denizens  of  the  British  Islands,     In  this  family    Land-Tortoises 
are  also  included  the  giant  tortoises  of  the  Mascarene  and    and  Terrapins. 
Galapagos  Islands.     There  are  no  marine  forms;  but  while         — Family 
some  are  terrestrial,  others  are  more  or  less  amphibious,       Testudinidce. 
spending  a  largo  portion  of  their  lives  in  fresh  water.     With- 
out going  into  abstruse  and  wearisome  anatomical  details,  it  is  by  no  means 
easy  to  give  a  concise  definition  of  the  family.     It  may  be  observed,  however, 
that  while  the  head  is  capable  of  complete  retraction  within  the  margin  oi 
26 


386  REPTILIA— ORDER  TL—CHELONIA. 


the  shell,  the  limbs  arc  never  converted  into  paddles,  and  the  shell  itself  is 
nrver  heart-shaped.  Both  the  upper  and  lower  halves  of  the  shell  are  well 
developed  ;  and  they  may  be  connected  together  at  the  sides  either  by  flat- 
tened surfaces,  or  they  may  give  off  minute  interlocking  processes,  so  as  to 
be  united  by  what  are  termed  sutures.  In  no  instance  is  there  an  intergular 
shield  on  the  front  of  the  plastron.  Certain  features  connected  with  the 
bones  of  the  carapace  and  internal  skeleton  by  which  this  family  is  distin- 
guished from  those  that  follow  may  be  best  mentioned  under  the  heading  of 
the  latter.  Geographically  the  Testudinidce — like  the  typical  genus  Tcstudo 
— have  a  range  equivalent  to  that  of  the  sub-order,  of  which  they  form  by 
far  the  largest  family.  As  regards  diet,  they  are  as  diverse  ns  in  other  habits, 
soins  feeding  exclusively  on  vegetable  substances,  while  others  are  carnivor- 
ous. It  is  not  an  uncommon  belief  that  the  Greek  tortoise — which  is  mainly 
a  vegetarian — will  live  upon  black  beetles;  and  I  have  known  an  instance 
where  one  of  these  reptiles  was  installed  in  a  kitchen—  vice  a  hedgehog 
deceased — to  prey  upon  these  troublesome  insects,  with  results  sadly  to  the 
disappointment  of  the  purchaser. 

The  typical  representatives  of  the  family  are  the  land -tortoises  of  the  genus 
Testudo,  most  of  which,  like  the  common  Grecian  species,  are  comparatively 
small  creatures,  although  some  of  those  from  the  Mascarene  and  Galapagos 
Islands  have  a  shell  measuring  considerably  over  a  yard  in  length,  and  are  cap- 
able of  trotting  off  gaily  with  a  load  of  three  full-grown  men  on  their  capacious 
backs.  In  a  work  like  the  present  the  reader  must  not  expect  to  find  all  the 
characters  by  which  the  tortoises  of  this  genus  are  distinguished  from  their 
kin.  In  all  cases  the  stout  club-like  limbs  are  adapted  for  walking  on  land, 
and  are  covered  with  horny  scales  or  tubercles,  while  the  unwebbed  toes 
terminate  in  strong  claw-like  nails.  The  tail  is  always  short.  In  a  shell 
from  which  the  superficial  shields  have  been  stripped,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
neural  bones  are  wide  and  short,  with  a  quadrangular  one  generally  alternat- 
ing with  an  octagonal,  although  sometimes  most  are  hexagonal.  Of  the 
costal  bones,  one  is  wide  above  and  narrow  below,  and  the  next  the  reverse  of 
this.  As  already  said,  these  tortoises  have  a  distribution  practically  co- 
extensive with  that  of  the  family  to  which  they  belong  ;  and  all  are  her- 
bivorous. In  South  and  South-Eastern  Europe  the  genus  is  represented  by 
the  well-known  Grecian  tortoise  (T.  grce.ca),  and  also  by  the  nearly-allied 
margined  tortoise  (T.  marginata),  which  appears  to  be  confined  to  Greece, 

and  is  distinguished  by  the  absence  of 
an  enlarged  tubercle  on  the  thigh.  Cer- 
tain Indian  and  South  African  species, 
such  as  jT.  elcgans  and  T.  geometrica,  are 
distinguished  by  the  extreme  convexity 
of  the  shell,  which  is  beautifully  painted 
either  with  narrow  yellow  lines  radiating 
on  adark  ground  from  the  centre  of  eachof 
the  shields,  or  with  similar  black  lines  on 
a  light  ground.  Giant  tortoises  formerly 
existed  in  Aldabra  Island,  to  the  north- 
Fig.  3.— GRECIAN  TORTOISE  west  of  Madagascar  ;  the  Mascarenes 

(Reunion,  Rodriquez,  and  Mauritius); 

and  the  Galapagos  group,  off  the  Pacific  coast  of  South  America.  From  the 
second  group  they  have,  however,  been  exterminated,  and  have  been  greatly 
reduced  in  numbers  in  the  others,  where  they  formerly  lived  in  thousands. 


TORTOISES  AND  TURTLES.  3&7 


and"  formed  a  valuable  food  supply  for  the  crews  of  ships.  Some  of  these 
tortoises  are  remarkable  for  the  extreme  tenuity  and  relatively  small  size  of 
the  shell,  which  is  but  little  stouter  than  leather,  and  can  be  easily  pierced 
with  a  knife.  This  is  very  notably  the  case  with  T.  ephippium  of  the 
Galapagos  Islands,  fine  examples  of  which  are  now  preserved  in  the  British 
Museum.  Some  of  these  monsters  measure  over  four  feet  along  the  curve  of 
the  shell,  and  have  been  known  to  yield  close  upon  four  hundred  pounds  weight 
of  excellent  meat.  In  the  Galapagos  Islands  these  tortoises  make  regular 
tracks  to  their  drinking-places  in  the  hills,  and  feed  chiefly  upon  the 
succulent  stems  of  the  cacti,  so  common  there.  During  the  breeding  season, 
the  males,  according  to  Darwin's  well-known  account,  utter  a  loud  roar, 
audible  at  a  great  distance.  The  ordinary  tortoises  of  South  Europe,  Algeria, 
and  Egypt,  frequent  dry  sandy  localities,  where  they  have  full  opportunity 
of  basking  in  the  rays  of  the  sun.  In  Europe,  at  least,  they  hibernate  during 
the  cold  season,  by  burying  themselves  deep  in  the  earth,  reappearing  with 
the  returning  warmth  of  spring.  In  addition  to  their  normal  vegetable  food, 
these  tortoises  are  not  averse  to  an  occasional  snail  or  insect.  Fonr  peculiar 
tortoises  from  South  Africa  are  referred  to  the  distinct  genus  Homopus,  on 
account  of  the  fore  part  of  the  palate  lacking  the  distinct  median  ridge, 
characteristic  of  all  the  species  of  Testudo.  Moreover,  the  neural  bones  of 
the  carapace  are  never  alternately  quadrangular  and  octagonal,  but  always 
irregularly  hexagonal,  with  the  shorter  of  the  two  lateral  surfaces  at  the  hind 
end.  The  typical  H.  areolatus  has  but  four  toes  011  the  front  foot,  whereas 
in  another  species  there  are  five. 

The  three  species  of  hinged  tortoises  from  Tropical  Africa,  forming  the 
genus  Cinixys,  are  easily  and  broadly  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  a, 
ligamentous  hinge  across  the  hinder  third  of  the  carapace,  by  means  of  which 
the  posterior  opening  of  the  shell  can  be  completely  closed.  These  tortoises 
are  small  reptiles,  not  exceeding  some  nine  inches  in  length  ;  and  in  habits 
the  majority  are  amphibious,  thus  connecting  the  land  tortoises  with  the 
terrapins.  Madagascar  is  the  sole  habitat  of  a  single  peculiar  tortoise  (Pyxis 
arcwhnoides),  distinguished  by  having  the  front  part  of  the  plastron  articulated 
to  the  remainder  by  a  transverse  hinge.  In  this  species,  therefore,  the  front 
aperture  of  the  shell  is  capable  of  being  closed  at  the  will  of  its  owner. 

Coming  to  the  terrapins,  we  find  that  these  are  distinguished  from  the  fore- 
going by  the  toes  being  either  webbed,  or  having  rudiments  of  such  webbing, 
as  well  as  by  the  presence  of  three  (instead  of  two)  joints  in  the  middle  too 
of  both  the  front  and  hind-foot.  In  the  fore-foot  the  nietacarpal  bones  are 
also  much  longer  and  more  slender  than  in  the  preceding  group.  Foremost 
among  these  come  three  small  Oriental  genera,  respectively  known  as 
Geoemyda,  Nicoria,  and  Cyclemys,  all  of  which  differ  from  those  which  follow 
by  having  the  shorter  lateral  surface  of  the  hexagonal  neural  bones  of  the 
carapace  placed  at  the  hinder  end — a  feature  in  which  they  agree  with 
Homopus.  Of  these  forms  it  will  suffice  to  mention  that  the  species  of 
Cyclemys  differ  from  the  others  in  having  the  hinder  half  of  the  plastron 
movably  articulated  by  means  of  a  transverse  bony  hinge,  in  consequence  of 
which  they  are  commonly  spoken  of  as  hinged  terrapins. 

In  all  the  other  members  of  the  family,  the  hexagonal  neural  bones  of  the 
carapace  have  the  shorter  of  the  two  lateral  surfaces  on  each  side  situated  in 
front.  It  is  unfortunate  that  this  important  characteristic  is  hidden  from 
view  by  the  superficial  bony  shields — unless  in  the  rare  instances  where  they 
are  sufficiently  transparent  to  allow  of  the  underlying  bones  being  seen 


388 


REPTTLIA— ORDER  II.—CHEL017IA. 


through  them — but  so  it  is,  and  the  student  must  make  the  best  of  it.  If  we 
were  making  animals  ourselves,  \ve  should  doubtless  give  the  members  of  eacli 
genus  a  characteristic  mark  by  which  they  could  be  recognised  at  a  glance. 
Foremost  in  this  group  are  the  true  box-tortoises  (Cistudo)  of  North  America, 
which  agree  with  Cyclemys  in  having  a  transverse  hinge  across  the  plastron, 
the  posterior  moiety  of  which  consequently  forms  a  movable  flap,  capable  of 
closing  the  hinder  aperture  of  the  shell.  As  special  features  of  the  genus,  may 
be  noted  the  hooked  beak,  the  smooth  skin  covering  the  top  of  the  head,  the 

imperfect  webbing  of  the  toes,  and  the 
extreme  shortness  of  the  tail.  These 
tortoises  have  a  vaulted  carapace,  and,  as 
is  usual  in  such  cases,  are  mainly  terres- 
trial in  their  habits.  From  this  genus 
the  depressed  form  of  the  shell  serves  at 
once  to  distinguish  the  European  pond- 
tortoise  (Emys  orfr ten/arts),  which,  with 
an  allied  North  American  species,  alone 
represents  the  genus.  There  is  no  hook  to 
the  beak;  the  upper  and  lower  shells  arc 
ligament,  ai 


Fig  4,— POND-TORTOISE 
(Emys  orbiiularis), 


united  only  by  ligament,  and  the  hinder 
part  of  the  plastron  is  movably  articu- 
lated by  a  transverse  hinge.  The  Euro- 
pean species  not  only  inhabits  South  and 
South-Eastern.  Europe,  but  ranges  into 
Persia  and  Algeria.  Its  shell,  which  grows  to  a  little  over  seven  inches 
in  length,  is  prettily  speckled  on  the  upper  surface  with  golden  flecks  on  a 
blackish  ground.  The  pond-tortoise  is  a  carnivorous  species,  living  upon 
small  fish,  worms,  and  insects,  and  inhabiting  both  running  and  stagnant 
waters,  in  which  it  swims  and  dives  with  great  facility,  It  is  an  interesting 
and  easily-kept  denizen  of  an  aquarium. 

Of  the  remaining  genera  of  the  Testudinidce,  a  very  brief  mention  must 
suffice.  The  terrapins  of  the  genus  Clcmmys  form  a  somewhat  important 
group,  ranging  over  South  Europe,  North-Western  Africa,  and  North 
America.  In  common  with  the  four  following  genera,  Clemmys  is  characterised 
by  the  absence  of  a  median  ridge  on  the  front  portion  of  the  palate  of  the 
skull  ;  and  all  the  species  are  carnivorous  in  their  nabits.  As  in  all  the 
remaining  genera  of  the  family,  the  upper  and  lower  shells  arc  firmly  united 
by  suture,  and  there  is  no  bony  hinge  in  the  plastron.  The  two  species  of 
the  Oriental  genus  Bellia  may  be  distinguished  by  the  stronger  vertical 
buttresses  connecting  the  plastron  with  the  carapace,  and  the  small  horny 
shields  covering  the  hinder  part  of  the  head  ;  the  toes  being  completely 
\vebbed.  The  more  or  less  decided  balloon-shape  of  the  anterior  vertebral 
shields  of  the  carapace  is  likewise  a  noteworthy  feature  of  these  small  terra- 
pins. Another  allied  Oriental  genus  is  typified  by  Damotria  hamiltoni,  the 
shell  of  which  is  conspicuous  for  its  yellow  markings  on  a  black  ground,  and 
the  three  longitudinal  ridges  traversing  the  carapace.  The  North  American 
terrapins  of  the  genus  Malacodernmys  are  also  nearly  allied,  and  have  the 
whole  head  covered  with  a  smooth  skin.  One  species  frequents  brackish 
water ;  and  it  is  members  of  this  genus  that  afford  the  dish  so  well  known 
to  epicures  in  the  United  States  under  the  name  of  terrapin. 

The  other  members  of  the  family  are  mainly  vegetarian  in  their  diet,  and 
differ  from  the  foregoing  by  the  front  portion  of  the  broad  palate  bearing  one 


TORTOISES  AND  TURTLES.  389 


or  two  longitudinal  ridges.  To  this  group  belong  the  exclusively  American 
terrapins  of  the  genus  Chrysemys,  some  of  which  range  as  far  south  as  Brazil 
and  Uruguay.  Burma  and  Bengal  are  the  respective  habitats  of  two  allied 
terrapins  constituting  the  genus  Morenia,  distinguished  by  certain  features 
in  the  conformation  of  the  skull  ;  while  the  single  representative  of  Ocadia 
is  Chinese.  The  four  other  genera,  all  the  members  of  which  are  known  as 
batagurs,  are  confined  to  the  Oriental  countries,  and  include  the  largest 
fresh-water  members  of  the  whole  family,  the  shell  of  one  of  them  measuring 
as  much  as  twenty  inches  in  length.  The  batagurs,  which  are  divided  into 
the  genera  Cachuga,  Callagur,  Batagur,  and  HardeUa,  are  specially  char- 
acterised by  the  excessive  development  of  the  vertical  bony  buttresses  con- 
necting the  carapace  with  the  plastron,  which  project  as  walls  into  the 
interior  of  the  shell  in  such  a  manner  as  to  divide  it  into  three  imperfect  com- 
partments. The  different  genera  are  chiefly  distinguished  by  the  contour 
of  the  vertebral  horny  shields  of  the  carapace  ;  the  fourth  shield  in  one 
genus  narrowing  anteriorly  almost  to  a  point  in  a  manner  quite  unknown  in 
any  other  members  of  the  order.  The  batagurs  have  shells  of  extraordinary 
strength  and  solidity;  and  the  larger  species  are  almost  exclusively  aquatic, 
and  very  numerous  in  the  rivers  of  India  and  Burma.  In  spite  of  their 
herbivorous  habits,  they  are  said  to  be  dangerous  to  bathers  ;  and  it  is 
certain  that  a  snap  from  their  powerful  jaws  would  cause  a  very  serious  wound. 

A  strange-looking   aquatic   tortoise   (Platysternum   megalocephaluni)  from 
the  countries  lying  between  Burma  and  the  south  of  China  demands  specia1 
notice  as  being   the  sole  representative  of  a  family.     Ex- 
ternally, its  most  conspicuous  features  are   the  enormous  Family 
size  of  the  head  ;  the  hooked  beak  ;  the  extreme  flatness  of    Platystemidce. 
the  shell,  which  looks  as  if  it  had  no  room  to  contain  the 
internal  organs  of  the  creature  ;  the  great  length  of  the  scaly  tapering  tail ; 
and  the  rather  long  and  powerfully -clawed  legs.     The  skull  differs  from  that 
of  the  Testudinidce  in  having  the  whole  of  its  hinder  portion  covered  over  by 
a  bony  roof  ;  and  most  of  the  vertebrae  of  the  long  tail  articulate  with  one 
another  by  means  of  a  cup  behind  and  a  ball  in  front,  instead  of  in  the 
reverse  manner.     These  afford  ample  grounds  for  referring  this  tortoise  to  a 
family  apart.     The  whole  length  of  the  shell  is  only  about  six  inches.     Of 
the  habits  of  this  remarkable  reptile  naturalists  are  ignorant. 

The  mud-terrapins  (Cinosternum),  of  which  there  are  eleven  species,  all 
inhabitants  of  America  to  the  north  of  the  Equator,  alone  represent  a  third 
family,  easily  distinguished  from  all  other  Chelonia  by  the 
absence  of  the  unpaired  entoplastral  bone  of  the  plastron,    Mud-Terrapins, 
thus  reducing  the  number  of  elements  in  the  lower  shell  — Family    Cino- 
from  nine  to  eight.     The  shell  is  depressed,  with  its  two         sternidce. 
portions  firmly  united  ;   and  the  plastron  has  its  two  ex- 
tremities movable,  and  its  gular  shields  either  united  or  absent.     The  tail  is 
very  short  ;  and  the  webbed  toes,  save  the  fifth  hind  one,  terminate  in  strong 
claws.     In  habits,  these  terrapins  resemble  ordinary  fresh- water  species. 

Three  small  genera  of  terrapins  from  Central  America,  respectively  named 
Dermatemys,  Staurotypus,  and  Claudius,  form  the  fourth  family.     Together 
with  the  Cinosternidce,  these  differ  from  the  Testudinidce  in 
that  each  of  the  two  lateral  angles  of  the  nuchal  bone  of      Family  Der- 
the  carapace  gives  off  a  long  bony  stay  projecting  backwards      matemydida. 
to  underlie  the  marginal  bones.     The  skull  is  of  ordinary 
form  ;  the  plastron  has  the  usual  nine  bones,  and  the  tail  is  short.     As  in 


390 


REPTIL1A— ORDER  II.—CHELONIA. 


the  Cinosternidce  and  Ckelydriace,  an  additional  series  of  small  horny  shields 
is  interposed  between  the  marginal  shields  and  those  of  the  plastron. 
Whereas  in  the  single  representative  of  the  genus  first  mentioned,  the  plastron 
is  fully  developed,  in  the  other  two  genera  it  is  cruciform,  and  connected 
on  each  side  with  the  upper  shell  only  by  a  very  narrow  bridge. 

Far   better  known  than  the  members  of  the  last  family  are  the   large 
Chelonians  commonly  termed  snappers  and  alligator-terrapins,  all  of  which 
are  now  confined  to  the  northern  portion  of  America,  one 
Snappers  and     species  ranging  as  far  south  as  Guatemala  and  Ecuador.     In 
Alligator-        their  relatively  large  head  and  long  scaly  tails,  these  terra- 
Terrapins. —      pins  resemble  the  Platysternidve.     They  ditfer,  however,  in 
Family          the  presence  of  long,  rib-like  processes,  running  backwards 
ChdydridcK.       from  the  nuchal  bone  of  the  carapace  to  underlie  the  mar- 
ginals, and  likewise  by  the  imperfect  bony  roof  to  the  lateral 
regions  of  the  hinder  part  of  the  skull.     The  vertebrae  of  the  tail  have,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  same  structure,  the  articular  cup  being  on  the  hinder 
surface  in  the  majority.     The  small,  cross-shaped  plastron  is  but  very  loosely 
attached  to  the  upper  shell  ;  and  it  is  not  till  a  late  period  of  life  that  tho 
shell  becomes  fully  ossified,  large  spaces  long  remaining  in  both  the  uppi  r 
and  lower  halves.     The  long  tail  bears  on  its  upper  surface  a  crest,  and  all 
the  toes,  except  the  fifth  hind  one,  are  clawed.     The  front  border  of  tho 

carapace  is  notched  in  order  to 
receive  the  ponderous  head, 
which  cannot  be  withdrawn  into 
the  shell.  The  largest  member 
of  the  family  is  Temminck's 
snapper  {Macroclemmys  tem- 
mtftdbi),  which  is  generally  to 
be  seen  in  the  reptile-house  at 
the  "Zoo,"  and  ranges  from 
Missouri  to  Florida.  The  very 
large  head  has  the  eyes  lateral  ; 
and  the  tail  is  not  so  long  as  in 
the  members  of  the  second 
genus.  In  some  specimens  the  shell  measures  twenty-four  inches  in  length. 
The  two  species  of  alligator- terrapins,  or  snapping  turtles  (Chelydra),  have  the 
eyes  directed  upwards,  and  the  tail  exceeding  the  shell  in  length.  The  mem- 
bers of  both  genera  are  common  denizens  of  the  fresh-waters  of  the  United 
States,  where  they  are  found  in  rivers,  swamps,  and  ponds.  In  habits  they 
are  very  active,  rushing  on  their  prey  with  extraordinary  speed,  and  feeding 
entirely  on  animal  food.  The  extraordinary  power  of  their  jaws  (of  which 
the  upper  one  is  hooked)  renders  their  bites  very  severe  ;  and  bathers  should 
always  keep  a  good  look-out  to  see  that  none  of  these  reptiles  are  in  their 
vicinity  before  venturing  on  a  plunge.  In  captivity  they  are  dull  and  sluggish 
creatures.  Several  females  lay  their  eggs  in  the  same  spot. 

Ttie  excellence  of  the  flesh  of  one  species,  and  the  commercial  value  of  the 

tortoise-shell  yielded  by  a  second,  render  the  turtles  a  family  of  special 

importance  and  interest.     From  all  the  families  yet  men- 

The  Turtles. —    tioned  the  turtles  are  easily  distinguished  by  the  modification 

Family  of  their  limbs  into  oar-like  flippers,  adapted  solely  for  swim- 

Chelonidce.        ming,  and  also  by  the  heart-shaped  form  of  the  shell.     There 

are  never  more  than  two  claws  on  each  limb,  the  head  cannot 


Fig  5.— TEMMINCK'S  SNAPPER  (Macroclemmys 
tern  inincki). 


TORTOISES  AND  TURTLES.  391 


be  completely  retracted  within  the  shell,  and  the  tail  is  very  short.  The 
whole  of  the  hinder  region  of  the  skull  is  covered  by  a  bony  roof.  There  is 
no  bony  union  between  the  upper  and  lower  shells  ;  and  in  the  carapace 
numerous  unossified  spaces  remain  for  a  long  time,  if  not  permanently. 
Except  during  the  breeding  season,  when  the  females  resort  to  shelving 
sandy  shores  for  the  purpose  of  laying  their  eggs,  turtles  are  inhabitants  of 
the  open  sea,  where  in  calm  weather  they  may  at  times  be  seen  floating 
placidly  on  the  surface,  When  on  shore,  they  shuffle  along  in  an  awkward 
manner  ;  and  if  turned  on  their  backs  are  utterly  helpless.  Their  eggs, 
unlike  those  of  other  Chelonians,  have  soft  shells.  Like  most  denizens  of  the 
open  sea,  the  three  common  species  of  turtles  have  an  almost  world-wide 
distribution.  Of  these,  the  green  turtle  (Chelone  my  das)  is  the  one  whose 
flesh  is  used  for  culinary  purposes.  Nearly  allied  is  the  hawksbill  (G.  imbricata), 
distinguished  at  all  ages  by  the  strongly  hooked  beak,  and  also  by  the  cir- 
cumstance that,  for  a  considerable  portion  of  life  the  horny  shields  of  the 
shell  overlap  one  another  like  the  slates  in  a  roof,  instead  of  meeting  at  the 
edges.  It  is  this  species  alone  that  yields  the  tortoise-shell  of  commerce. 
More  distinct  is  the  logger- 
head (Thalassochelys  caretta), 
in  which  the  head  is  of  pro- 
portionately greater  size,  and 
there  are  five,  instead  of  four, 
pairs  of  horny  costal  shields 
on  the  carapace.  The  logger- 

head  is  the  largest  of  the  three  FJG  6._LoGGERHEAD  ToRTOJSE 

1 1  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  ( i  'halassochelys  caretta). 

whereas  the  green  turtle  is  an 

herbivorous  animal,  feeding  chiefly  upon  sea-weeds,  both  the  hawksbill  and 
the  loggerhead  are  carnivorous ;  the  food  of  the  latter  consisting  largely  of 
cuttle-fish. 

During  the  egging'- season  turtles  come  ashore  in  immense  numbers,  the 
Seychelles  and  Bahamas  being  two  of  their  favourite  resorts.  While  the 
females  are  busily  engaged  in  the  occupation  of  laying,  and  of  covering  up 
their  eggs  in  the  sand,  the  males  generally  pass  the  time  by  quarrelling  among 
themselves.  Moonlight  nights  are  those  usually  chosen  for  resorting  to  the 
coast ;  and  these,  of  course,  are  most  favourable  to  the  turtle-catchers,  whose 
object  is  to  intercept  their  victims  before  they  can  scuttle  back  to  the  sea. 
Not  only  are  the  eggs  largely  used  as  an  article  of  food,  but  they  also  yield 
an  excellent  oil.  Tortoise-shell,  when  heated,  has  the  peculiar  property  of 
welding  like  iron,  so  that  plates  of  almost  any  size  can  be  obtained  by  uniting 
a  number  of  shields.  It  can  also  be  pressed  into  moulds,  and  beautiful 
amber-like  necklaces  and  other  ornamental  articles  are  manufactured  from 
the  scraps  and  fragments. 

Although  the  huge  leathery  turtle  (Dermcchelys  coriacea) — the  giant  of  tho 
tribe — is  a  marine  species  with  flippers  for  limbs,  yet  it  differs  so  markedly 
from  the  other  turtles  in  the  structure  of  its  shell  and  tho 
conformation  of  its  skull,  that  it  unquestionably  represents  Leathery  Turtle, 
a  separate  family  by  itself.     Indeed,  as  regards  its  shell,  not          — Family- 
only  does  the  luth  (as  this  species  is  sometimes  called)  differ   Dermochelyida. 
from  other  turtles,  but  likewise  from  all  other  living  Chelonia. 
In  place  of  the  carapace  being  formed  by  a  series  of  large  regularly-shaped 
bones,  some  of  which  are  firmly  attached  to  the  backbone  and  ribs,  and  all 


392  REPTILIA— ORDER  2L  —  CHELONIA. 


invested  with  separate  horny  shields,  in  the  leathery  turtle  it  is  composed  of 
a  vast  number  of  minute  irregular  ossifications,  fitting  together  like  mosaic, 
and  having  no  sort  of  connection  with  the  internal  skeleton,  while  its  investi- 
ture takes  the  form  of  a  continuous  leathery  skin.  Seven  bold  longitudinal 

ridges  traverse  the  upper  shell 
from  end  to  end,  and  there  are 
five  similar  ridges  on  the  under 
shell,  which  is  less  fully  developed, 
Claws  are  totally  wanting  on  the 
flippers,  of  which  the  front  pair 
greatly  exceed  the  hinder  in 
length.  Although  the  structural 
peculiarities  of  the  skull  are  of  the 
highest  importance  in  determin- 
ing the  systematic  position  of  the  creature,  they  need  not  be  further 
alluded  to  in  this  place.  In  length  this  turtle  frequently  exceeds  six 
feet.  The  leathery  turtle,  which  is  now  rapidly  diminishing  in  numbers,  is 
an  inhabitant  of  the  wanner  oceans,  one  of  its  favourite  haunts  being  the 
Tortugas  Islands  off  the  Florida  coast.  It  is  known  to  be  carnivorous,  and 
its  habits  are  probably  very  similar  to  those  of  the  true  turtles.  Com- 
mercially this  species  is  of  no  value,  its  flesh  having  a  strong  and  highly  un- 
pleasant taste  of  musk. 

Sub-Order  II — Pleurodira. 

The  members  of  the  second  sub-ordinal  group  of  the  Chelonia  are  best  dis- 
tinguished externally  by  the  mode  in  which  they  withdraw  the  head  and  neck 
into  the  shell.  In  place  of  the  S-like  movement  characterising  the  preceding 
group,  these  tortoises  always  bend  the  neck  to  one  side  in  a  horizontal  plane, 
so  that  instead  of  occupying  the  middle  of  the  front  aperture  of  the  shell,  the 
head  when  retracted  lies  more  or  less  on  one  or  the  other  side,  according  to 
the  relative  length  of  the  neck.  This  very  obvious  characteristic  is,  however, 
by  no  means  the  sole  claim  of  the  group  to  distinction.  If  the  dried  skull  be 
examined,  it  will  be  found  that  the  bony  ring  surrounding  the  aperture  of 
the  ear  is  entire  instead  of  being  notched  behind,  and  also  that  the  lower 
surface  of  the  quadrate-bone  is  hollowed  in  order  to  receive  a  knob  on  the 
articulating  portion  of  the  lower  jaw.  In  all  cases  the  upper  and  lower  shells 
are  fully  ossified  and  closely  joined ;  and  both  have  a  firm  union  with  the 
bones  of  the  pelvis.  When  horny  shields  are  present  at  all,  there  is  invari- 
ably an  intergular  between  or  behind  the  two  gulars.  The  Pleurodira  are 
now  restricted  to  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  and  are  the  only  tortoises  in- 
habiting Australia  and  Papua*- 

The  first  family  of  the  sub-order  is  represented  by  eight  generic  types,  all 
of  which  are  restricted  to  South  America  and  Australasia.  As  distinctive 

features  of  the  family,  may  be  mentioned  the  presence  of 

Family  only  nine  bones  in  the  lower  shell,  the  incapacity  of  com- 

Chelyidce.         pletely  retracting  the  neck  within  the  margin  of  the  carapace, 

and  the  absence  of  the  so-called  temporal  bony  arch  on  the 
sides  of  the  skull.  The  typical  member  of  the  family  is  the  grotesque  mata- 
mata  (Chelys  Jimbriata)  of  the  Guianas  and  North  Brazil,  a  species  easily 
recognised  by  its  flattened  triangular  head,  the  peculiar  tuft-like  fifaments  on 
the  sides  of  the  broad  and  long  neck,  and  the  great  bosses  formed  by  the 


TORTOISES  AND  TURTLES. 


393 


Fig.  S,— MATAMATA  (.Chelys  fimbriata). 


shields  of  the  carapace,  which  is  serrated  on  its  margins,  In  length  the 
shell  of  the  matamata  reaches  fifteen  inches.  In  habits  this  tortoise  is  a 
fresh- water  and  chiefly  carnivorous  animal  ;  and  it  is  probable  that  the 
tufts  on  the  neck  are  for  the  purpose  of  attracting  its  prey  within  easy  reach 
of  its  jaws.  In  addition  to  its 
other  characteristics,  the  matamata 
has  a  proboscis  to  the  snout,  but 
this  is  wanting  in  the  other  South 
American  long-necked  members  of 
the  family,  which  form  the  genus 
Hydromedusa.  These  tortoises  also 
differ  in  the  comparative  smooth- 
ness of  the  shell,  and  in  having 
only  four  claws  to  each  foot.  The 
remaining  three  South  American 
genera,  namely  Hydraspis,  lihinemys,  and  Platemys,  have  the  neck  propor- 
tionately shorter.  Three  generic  types  of  the  family  are  met  with  in 
Australia  and  Papua,  one  of  which  (Ckelodina)  has  the  neck  very  long,  while 
in  the  other  two  (Elseya  and  J^mydura)  it  is  relatively  shorter. 

The  largest  member  of  the  whole  sub-order  is  the  great  fresh- water  tortoise 
of  the  Amazons  (Podocnemis  expansa),  whose  shell  often  measures  two-and-a- 
half  feet  in  length.      Together  with  its  allies,  this  species 
belongs  to  the  second  family  of  the  sub-order,  characterised  Family 

by  the  presence  of  a  pair  of  mesoplastrals  between  the  hyo-     Pclomedusidce. 
and  hypoplastral  bones,  the  total  number  of  elements  in  the 
lower  shell  thus  being  brought  up  to  eleven.     The  neck  can  be  fully  with- 
drawn into  the  shell,  and  the  skull  has  a  lateral  bony  arch.     The  genus 
Podocnemis  affords  a  remarkable  example  of  discontinuous  geographical  dis- 
tribution, six  of  the  species  being  inhabitants  of  South  America,  whereas  the 
seventh  is  found  in  the  distant  island  of  Madagascar.     In  this  genus  the 
hinder  part  of  the  skull  is  completely  roofed  over  by  bone  ;  but  this  is  not 

the  case  in  the  other  two  genera 
of  the  family.  Of  these,  Pelo- 
medusa,  which  has  only  a  single 
species,  inhabiting  both  Madagas- 
car and  Africa,  resembles  Podo- 
cnemis in  that  the  two  mesoplas- 
tral  bones  only  show  themselves  on 
the  sides  of  the  lower  shell,  and 
are  thus  widely  separate  in  the 
middle  line.  On  the  other  hand, 
in  Sternotkcerus  the  same  two 
bones  are  as  fully  developed  as 
the  other  elements  of  the  plastron, 
in  the  median  line  of  which  they 
come  into  contact  with  one  another. 
The  whole  of  the  species  of  this 
genus  are  African,  but  one  ex- 
tends its  range  into  Madagascar. 
The  great  Amazonian  species  of  Podocnemis  is  of  considerable  value  to  the 
natives  of  some  parts  of  tropical  America,  on  account  of  its  eggs,  which  are 
collected  in  vast  quantities,  mainly  for  the  sake  of  the  oil  they  yield. 


Fig.  9. — AMAZONIAN  FRESH-WATER  TOB.TOISE 
(Podocnemis  expansa), 


394  REPTILIA— ORDER  IL—CHELONIA. 


A  fresh-water  turtle  from  one  of  the  Papuan  rivers  described  under  the 
name  of  Carettochelys,  resembles  the  true  marine  turtles  in  having  the  limbs 
modified  into  flippers,  although  displaying  all  the  other  char- 
Family          acteristics  of  the  present  sub-order.     Only  two  claws  occur 
Carettochdyidce.  on  each  flipper ;  and  the  shell  is  remarkable  for  having  a 
continuous  leathery  skin  in  place  of  the  usual  horny  shields. 
There  are  certain  other  structural  features  in  this   little-known  and  rare 
Cheloriian  by  which  it  differs  from  its  allies. 


Sub-Order  III. —Trionychidce. 

The  third  and  last  sub-order  of  the  Chelonia  includes  only  the  soft  tortoises, 
represented  by  six  genera,  all  of  which  are  comprised  in  the  single  family 
Trionychidce.  All  these  tortoises  have  very  long  necks,  which  can  be  com- 
pletely withdrawn  within  the  margins  of  the  shell  by  an  S-like  flexure  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  the  Cryptodira.  The  jaws  are  hidden  by  the  fleshy  lips, 
and  the  muzzle  is  prolonged  into  a  short  proboscis.  The  feet  are  fully 
webbed,  and  only  the  three  outermost  toes  are  furnished  with  claws— a 
peculiarity  from  which  the  scientific  name  of  the  group  is  derived.  None  of 
these  features  are,  however,  of  sufficient  importance  to  justify  the  separation 
of  the  group  as  a  distinct  sub-order;  but  the  shell  is  very  peculiar.  In  place 
of  the  usual  horny  shields,  both  the  upper  and  lower  shells  are  invested  with 
a  thin,  continuous  leathery  skin,  through  which  can  be  seen  and  felt  the 
raised  sculpture  ornamenting  the  surface  of  the  underlying  bones.  Marginal 
bones,  if  developed  at  all,  are  restricted  to  the  hinder  border  of  the  upper 
shell,  and  elsewhere  the  margins  of  this  shell  are  continued  into  a  wide,  soft 
expansion  of  skin,  so  that  the  shell  itself  only  occupies  the  region  of  the  back. 
There  is  no  attachment  between  the  upper  and  lower  shells,  and  the  latter  is 
only  very  imperfectly  ossified.  A  greenish  olive  ground-colour,  upon  which 
are  yellow  or  orange  spots,  is  the  general  type  of  coloration,  the  spots  being 
replaced  by  streaks  on  the  under  surface  of  the  head.  At  the  present  day 
the  soft  tortoises  are  restricted  to  the  fresh  waters  of  the  warmer  regions  of 
North  America,  Asia,  and  Africa.  In  habits,  these  very  peculiar  Chelonians  are 
purely  aquatic,  and  although  the  majority  are  confined  to  fresh  waters,  some  fre- 
quent estuaries.  They  are  all  carnivorous ;  and,  being  extremely  bold  and  fierce, 
are  highly  dangerous  to  bathers.  All  are  mainly  nocturnal,  and  when  basking 
on  a  mud-bank,  or  on  shore,  for  the  purpose  of  laying  their  eggs,  extend  their 
long  necks  after  any  sudden  surprise  in  a  peculiarly  cautious  and  stealthy  man- 
ner. The  spherical  eggs  are  buried  in  the  mud  by  the  female  as  soon  as  laid. 

The  typical,  and  at  the  same  time  the  widest  spread,  genus  is  Trionyx,  which 
has  a  geographical  distribution  as  extensive  as  that  of  the  family,  and  is  the 
only  one  found  in  America,  fifteen  distinct  species  being  known.  In  this 
genus,  the  sculpture  on  the  surface  of  the  shell  usually  takes  the  form  of 
irregular  wavy  ridges;  while  in  the  lower  shell  the  hyoplastral  and  hypo- 
plastral  bones  of  each  side  are  separate.  A  distinctive  feature  is  the  want  of 
a  fold  of  skin  on  the  hinder  part  of  the  plastron,  which  in  some  of  the  allied 
forms  conceals  the  hind-leg.  The  head  is  relatively  short  and  broad,  with 
the  eyes  situated  far  back.  The  shell  and  leathery  disc  of  some  of  the  members 
of  this  genus  not  unf requently  measure  as  much  as  a  couple  of  feet  in  length, 
and  the  species  are  arranged  in  groups  according  to  the  number  of  bones 
entering  into  the  composition  of  the  upper  shell,  and  the  absence  or  presence 


SCALED  REPTILES.  395 


of  a  longitudinal  ridge  on  the  palatal  surface  of  the  fore  part  of  the  lower 
jaw.  Nearly  allied  to  Trionyx  are  the  general  Pelochelys  and  Chitra,  each 
represented  by  a  single  species  from  the  Oriental  countries.  In  the  former — 
which  extends  from  India  to  the  Malayan  Islands — the  eyes  have  a  more  for- 
ward position  than  in  the  type  genus,  this  feature  being  still  more  marked  in 
the  gigantic  Indian  Cfiitra,  where  they  are  situated  close  up  to  the  snout,  the 
whole  skull  being  very  long 
and  narrow.  The  foregoing 
genera  constitute  a  sub-family 
by  themselves  ;  and  a  second 
group  of  equivalent  value  is 
formed  by  the  other  three 
genera.  The  two  essential 
characteristics  of  the  second 
group  are  to  be  found  in  the 
presence  of  a  skinny  flap  be- 
neath the  under  shell— behind 

which    the    hind-foot    can   be  Fig.  10.— A  SOFT  TOUTOISE. 

withdrawn— and  the  complete 

union  of  the  hyoplastral  and  hypoplastral  elements  of  the  lower  shell.  Exter- 
nally the  shell  is  distinguished  by  the  pustular  form  of  the  sculpture.  Of  the 
three  types  of  the  sub-family,  the  Indian  Emyda  is  specially  distinguished  by 
possessing  a  series  of  marginal  bones  round  the  hinder  portion  of  the 
carapace.  There  are  but  three  species,  and  in  the  largest  of  these  the  shell 
does  not  grow  to  more  than  about  ten  inches  in  length.  Of  the  two  African 
genera,  the  one  known  as  Cycloderma  has  a  complete  scries  of  neural  bones 
running  down  the  middle  of  the  carapace  ;  whereas,  in  the  nearly  related 
Cyclanorbis  the  series  is  incomplete,  so  that  some  of  the  costal  bones  of 
opposite  sides  come  into  contact  with  one  another  in  the  middle  line. 

It  may  be  added  that  in  the  absence  of  any  connection  between  the  bones 
of  the  pelvis  and  the  lower  shell,  as  well  as  in  the  mode  of  articulation 
between  the  upper  and  lower  jaws,  and  the  notch  in  the  ring  round  the 
aperture  of  the  ear,  the  soft-tortoises  resemble  the  Cryptodira.  In  certain 
forms  an'd  certain  structural  features  of  the  skull  they  are,  however,  more  like 
the  Pleurodira. 


ORDER  III.— SQUAMATA. 

SCALED  REPTILES. 

By  far  the  largest  of  all  the  four  orders  of  existing  reptiles  is  the  one  including 
the  lizards,  chameleons,  and  snakes ;  each  of  those  groups  forming  a  sub-order 
by  itself.  And  here  it  may  be  remarked  how  unimportant  is  the  external 
form  of  reptiles  in  regard  to  their  zoological  affinities.  The  New  Zealand 
tuatera,  for  instance,  which  externally  is  like  a  lizard,  has  nothing  whatever 
to  do  with  the  Squamata,  but  forms  an  order  by  itself  ;  whereas  ordinary 
lizards  and  serpents  are  comprised  in  one  and  the  same  order.  Moreover,  the 
blindworms,  which  in  external  appearance  are  like  snakes,  form  a  portion  of 
the  sub-order  typified  by  the  lizards.  A  general,  but  by  no  means  invariable, 
feature  of  the  Squamata  is  the  covering  of  overlapping  horny  scales  on  the 


396  REPTILIA-  ORDER  II L  —SQ  UAMA  TA. 


head,  body,  and  limbs  ;  but  more  important  and  constant  structural  peculi- 
arities are  to  be  found  in  the  internal  skeleton.  Of  the  highest  import  is 
the  fact  that  in  all  the  members  of  the  present  order  the  quadrate-bone  is 
movably  jointed  to  the  other  elements  of  the  skull,  from  which  its  lower 
extremity  projects.  Secondly,  there  is  no  bony  rod  running  forwards  from 
the  outer  side  of  the  lower  extremity  of  this  bone  to  join  the  upper  jaw ;  such 
a  rod  being  always  developed  in  the  Crocodilia.  The  palate,  again,  has  a 
much  more  open  structure  than  in  either  the  Crocodilia  or  the  Chelonia ; — 
not  that  there  is  any  difficulty  in  distinguishing  between  a  lizard  or  a  snake 
and  a  tortoise  or  turtle.  If  we  turn  to  the  backbone,  equally  well-marked 
points  of  difference  present  themselves  between  the  Squamata  on  the  one 
hand  and  the  Crocodilia  on  the  other.  In  the  former  group  the  ribs  of  the 
chest  have  single  upper  extremities,  or  heads,  which  are  articulated  to 
facets,  on  the  sides  of  what  are  termed  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae — that  is 
to  say,  the  solid  cylindrical  part  underlying  the  arch  through  which  passes 
the  nerve-cord.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  Crocodilia  the  majority  of  the 
ribs  have  two  heads  ;  and  those  in  the  region  of  the  back  are  articulated  to  a 
long  horizontal  transverse  projection  arising  from  the  sides  of  the  arch  of 
each  vertebrae.  In  the  majority  of  the  order  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  are 
movably  united  by  means  of  ball-and-socket  joints  :  the  ball  being  situated 
behind  and  the  socket  in  front.  Neither  in  lizards  or  in  serpents  are  the 
teeth  ever  implanted  in  the  jaws  by  means  of  distinct  sockets.  In  all  cases 
the  teeth  are  firmly  welded  to  the  substance  of  the  jaw  itself ;  but  whereas 
in  some  forms  they  are  affixed  to  the  summits  of  the  jaws,  in  others  they  are 
attached  to  the  sides  of  the  same.  To  the  former  mode  of  attachment,  the 
name  acrodbtd  is  applied,  whereas  the  latter  is  termed  pleurodont.  Although 
the  foregoing  features  are  amply  sufficient  to  distinguish  the  Sqniamata  from 
the  Crocodilia,  it  may  be  added  that  when  the  shoulder-girdle  is  fully  de- 
veloped, there  is  a  breast-bone,  a  pair  of  collar-bones,  and  an  unpaired  median 
element,  with  the  form  of  the  letter  T,  known  as  the  interclavide. 


Sub-Order  I. — LacertHia. 
LIZARDS. 

Since  it  has  been  already  mentioned  that  the  blind- worm  belongs  to  the 
present  sub-order,  it  will  be  obvious  that  the  presence  of  limbs  will  not  suffice 
to  distinguish  between  the  lizards  and  the  serpents,  although  the  majority  of 
the  former  are  four- limbed  creatures,  and  none  of  the  latter  have  four  fully 
developed  and  functional  legs.  In  the  limbless  snake-like  lizards  the  tongue 
cannot,  however,  be  withdrawn  into  a  basal  sheath,  as  it  is  in  serpents  ;  and 
whereas  the  former  are  generally  furnished  with  eyelids  or  external  openings 
to  the  ears,  both  these  are  invariably  wanting  in  the  latter.  The  examination 
of  the  skeleton  will  also  show  that  whereas  in  all  lizards  the  two  branches  of 
the  lower  jaw  are  joined  by  bone  where  they  meet  at  the  chin,  in  the  serpents 
such  union  is  ligamentous  ;  and  it  should  further  be  observed  that  the  limb- 
less lizards  always  retain  vestiges  of  the  shoulder- girdle.  As  important 
points  of  distinction  between  the  lizards  and  the  chamaeleons,  it  must  be 
mentioned  that  such  of  the  former  as  retain  limbs  have  well-developed  collar- 
bones, and  that  the  tongue  is  flattened  and  not  dilatable. 

At  the  present  day  somewhere  about  seventeen  hundred  different  species 
of  lizards  are  known ;  these  forming  no  less  than  twenty  distinct  families, 


SCALED  REPTILES-LIZARDS.  397 


mostly  including  a  large  number  of  genera.  Hence  it  will  be  obvious  that 
only  some  of  the  leading  types  ca)i  be  even  alluded  to  in  this  volume. 
Although  lizards  are  found  everywhere  save  the  polar  regions,  the  group 
attains  its  maximum  development — both  as  regards  bodily  size  and  the 
number  of  forms — in  the  tropical  and  sub-tropic  .-if zones.  They  inhabit  both 
dry  and  moist  situations,  although  the  majority  prefer  the  former.  Most  are 
terrestrial,  but  many  are  arboreal,  while  a  few  are  aquatic,  one  species  at 
least  venturing  into  the  open  sea.  The  so-called  flying  lizard  can  take  long 
leaps  in  the  air  by  the  aid  of  a  parachute-like  expansion  of  skin  supported  by 
the  elongated  ribs  ;  and  an  Australian  species  is  stated  to  walk  on  its  hind- 
limbs  like  a  bird.  Sucker-like  pads  enable  the  geckos  to  climb  vertical  panes 
of  glass  like  flies  ;  and  some  of  the  arboreal  species  resemble  the  American 
monkeys  in  having  the  tail  endowed  with  prehensile  power.  Whereas  the 
majority  lay  eggs,  a  few  bring  forth  their  young  into  the  world  alive.  In 
spite  of  the  popular  dread  attaching  to  the  blind-worm,  no  lizards,  with  the 
exception  of  the  few  species  belonging  to  the  American  family  Helodermatidce, 
are  poisonous.  A  few  members  of  the  order  are  vegetable-feeders,  but  the 
great  majority  live  on  animal  food,  especially  insects  and  other  invertebrates. 
The  facility  with  which  many  lizards  part  with  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
tail  when  handled  is  a  familiar  fact ;  but  it  is  perhaps  less  well-known  that 
the  missing  fragment  can  be  speedily  reproduced.  As  regards  geographical 
distribution,  the  Lacertilia  are  widely  different  from  the  Chelonia.  Thus, 
whereas  Australasian  lizards  are  unlike  those  of  South  America,  between  the 
lizards  of  Australia  and  those  of  India  there  is  a  most  marked  resemblance, 
while  the  Indian  forms  differ  decidedly  from  those  of  Africa. 

The  peculiar  cry  of  some  of  its  Asiatic  members  has  given  rise  to  the  name 
by  which  the  first  family  of  the  Lacertilia  is  both  familiarly  and  scientifically 
known.  From  nearly  all  other  members  of  the  sub-order 
geckos  are  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  the  bodies  of  their  Geckos. — Family 
vertebrae  are  cupped  at  both  ends,  instead  of  articulating  by  Gcckonidce. 
a  ball  and  socket,  while  most  of  them  have  sucking  discs  on 
the  extremities  of  the  five-toed  feet.  In  form  they  are  depressed,  and  in 
coloration  dull,  and  whereas  the  head  is  covered  with  bony  granules  or  small 
scales,  the  body  is  generally  invested  with  granules  above  and  with  over- 
lapping scales  beneath.  In  no  case  are  the  scales  underlain  by  plates  of  bone. 
There  are  no  movable  eyelids,  and  the  opening  of  the  ear,  and.  generally  also 
the  pupil  of  the  eye,  is  in  the  form  of  a  vertical  slit.  The  tongue,  which  is 
short  and  devoid  of  a  sheath  at  the  base,  may  be  either  smooth  or  covered 
with  shaggy  prominences.  The  small  teeth  are  attached  to  the  jaws  in  the 
pleurodont  manner,  and  in  many  cases  the  tail  is  more  or  less  distinctly 
prehensile,  although  in  some  instances  it  is  rudimental.  Most  numerous  in 
the  Oriental  and  Australasian  countries,  the  geckos  range  over  all  the  warmer 
parts  of  the  world,  and  present  a  considerable  number  of  generic  modifica- 
tions. Among  these  the  genus  Ptyodactylns  is  familiar  to  travellers  in 
Palestine  in  the  form  of  the  little  lobe-footed  gecko.  In  common  with  its 
immediate  kindred,  this  species  has  the  toes  expanded  into  circular  lobes, 
upon  the  under  surface  of  which  are  two  rows  of  plates.  llemidactylus,  as 
represented  by  the  little  Turkish  gecko,  is  an  allied  genus,  ranging  over  all 
the  warmer  parts  of  the  world  except  Australasia,  with  dilated  toes  terminating 
in  compressed  claws,  of  which  the  tips  are  free.  Very  aberrant  is  the  single 
and  considerably  larger  species  of  the  Oriental  genus  Ptychozoum,  in  which 
the  skin  of  the  flanks  forms  a  large  expansion,  while  there  is  also  a  fringe  of 


398  REPTILIA— ORDER  IIL—SQUAMATA. 

lobes  running  along  the  two  sides  of  the  tail,  and  likewise  on  the  hinder 
borders  of  the  legs.  The  toes  also  are  completely  connected  by  web-like  dila- 
tions, the  first  in  each  limb  being  clawless.  A  peculiarly  marked  type  of 
coloration  further  aids  in  the  recognition  of  this  species.  The  countries 
bordering  the  Mediterranean  are  the  chief  habitat  of  another  genus  known  as 
Tarentola,  of  which  the  common  wall-gecko  is  the  most  familiar  representa- 
tive, all  the  species  having  the  toes  moderately  dilated,  but  only  the  third 
and  fourth  clawed.  The  genus  ranges  as  far  south  as  the  west  coast  of  Africa, 
and  is  likewise  represented  by  a  species  from  the  West  Indian  Islands. 
Whereas  a  large  number  of  geckos  frequent  trees,  walls,  or  buildings,  some 

are  found  in  open  sandy  districts,  and 
these  latter  naturally  have  feet  of  ordinary 
type,  as  adhesive  discs  would  be  useless. 
In  countries  where  these  lizards  abound, 
almost  every  house  is  tenanted  by  at  least 
a  pair.  When  undisturbed,  such  denizens 
will  scamper  over  the  walls  with  the 
greatest  speed  in  search  of  flies,  uttering 
Fig.  11.—  FRINGED  GECKO  (Ptychozoum).  now  and  then  their  shrill  cries.  It  is, 

doubtless,  owing  to  these   vocal  powers 

that  geckos  are  so  dreaded  by  the  uneducated  in  all  parts  of  the  world — an 
analagous  instance  of  the  inspiration  of  a  similar  dread  bejng  afforded  by  the 
death-watch  insects. 

A  second  family  of  geckos  (Eublepharida),  of  which  there  are  only  three 
genera,  differ  from  the  foregoing  in  being  furnished  with  eyelids,  and  also  in 
having  cup-and-ball  joints  to  the  backbone. 

The  third  family  of  the  sub-order  includes  the  three  species  of  the  Mala- 
gasy genus  Uroplates,  and  is  termed  the  Uroplatidce.    While  resembling  the  true 
geckos  in  the  doubly-cupped  vertebrae,  as  well  as  in  many 
Scale-footed       other  structural  features,  these  lizards  agree  with  the  follow- 
Lizards.—        ing  nine  families  in  that  the  inner  ends  of  the  collar-bones 
Family          lack  the  loop-shaped  expansion  characteristic  of  the  geckos. 
PyrjopodidcE.      The  next  family  is  that  of  the  scale-footed  lizards,  or  Pygopo- 
did<z,  which  are  confined  to  Australia,  and  appear  to  present 
a  considerable  resemblance  to  the  Geckonidce,  with  which  they  agree  in  the 
general  conformation  of  the  skull.     All  these  lizards  have  assumed  a  snake- 
like  form  of  body,  with  the  complete  loss  of  all  external  vestiges  of  the  front 
limbs,  although  the  hinder  pair  are  represented  by  two  large,  flap-like  scaly 
expansions,  without  any  sign  of  division  into  toes  externally.     The  commonest 
species  grows  to  a  length  of  about  twenty  inches,  and  is  coppery-grey  in 
colour,  sometimes  having  three  or  five  rows  of  blackish  spots  or  streaks. 

A  very  large  proportion  of  the  lizards  of  the  eastern  and  southern  countries 

of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere  pertain  to  the  very  extensive  and  important  family 

of  the  Agamidce, — a  family  which  includes  at  least  a  couple 

Family          of    hundred   species  ranged   under  thirty  distinct   generic 

Agamidce.        groups.     These  lizards  have  a  tongue  of  the  same  type  as 

that  of  the  geckos,  no  dilation  of  the  inner  extremities  of 

the  collar-bones,  and  no  bony  plates  beneath  the  overlapping  scales  with 

which  the  head  and  body  are  invested  ;  but  they  differ  from  all  the  foregoing 

groups  in  their  acrodont  dentition.     The  eyes,  which  are  relatively  smaller 

than  in  the  geckos,  are  furnished  with  movable  eyelids,  and  have  circular 

pupils.     Small  scales  cover  the  crown  of  the  head,  and  the  scales  on  the  lower 


SCALED  REPTILES— LIZARDS.  399 


aspect  of  the  body  are  likewise  not  enlarged.  Many  of  the  species  develop 
large  ornamental  crests  or  pouches,  either  in  both  sexes  or  in  the  male  alone. 
These  lizards  generally  have  a  long  tail,  which  is  not  brittle  ;  and  they  always 
possess  well-developed  fore-limbs,  which,  with  one  exception,  are  five-toed. 
As  a  rule,  the  teeth  are  unequal  in  size,  those  at  the  corners  of  the  jaws  being 
developed  into  tusks.  As  in  other  lizards,  the  arboreal  species  have  com- 
pressed bodies,  while  in  those  that 
dwell  on  the  ground  the  trunk  is 
more  or  less  depressed.  Although,  as 
already  said,  agamoids  are  widely  spread 
in  the  Old  World,  they  attain  their 
maximum  development  in  the  Oriental 
countries,  only  three  generic  groups 
inhabiting  Africa.  Perhaps  the  most 
remarkable  members  of  the  family  are 
the  flying  lizards  (Draco)  of  the  Oriental 
countries,  in  which  the  hinder  ribs  are 
expanded  to  support  a  kind  of  para- 
chute-like expansion  of  the  skin  of  the 
flanks.  These  folds  can  be  closed  in  a  Fig-  i2.-Fi.YiNG  LIZARD  (Draco  volans) 
fan-like  manner,  and  there  are  other 

expansions  on  the  throat.  The  entire  body  is  much  depressed,  and  the 
tail  is  very  long  and  tapering.  The  coloration  of  the  upper  surface  of 
the  body  is  metallic,  with  dark  spots  and  bands,  the  parachute  of  the 
common  species  being  bright  orange  with  black  markings.  These  lizards 
live  high  up  on  the  trees,  and  pass  from  bough  to  bough  by  taking 
flying  leaps  with  the  support  of  the  parachute.  At  times  the  expansions 
of  skin  on  the  throat  are  erected.  The  Oriental  region  is  likewise  the 
home  of  the  beautiful  tree-lizards  of  the  genus  Calotes,  which  are  also 
thoroughly' arboreal,  although  unable  to  take  flying  leaps.  They  have  the 
drum  of  the  ear  visible  externally,  a  crest  running  down  the  neck  and  back, 
the  large  keeled  scales  on  the  back  of  equal  size,  a  long,  whip-like  tail,  and 
no  distinct  fold  of  skin  on  the  throat.  Many  of  them  have  the  power  of 
rapidly  changing  their  brilliant  colours,  and  some  measure  as  much  as 
sixteen  inches  in  length.  More  curious  are  the  arboreal  horned  lizards 
(Ceratophora)  of  Ceylon,  easily  recognised  by  the  presence  of  a  horn  on  the 
nose  of  the  males,  and  sometimes  also  in  the  females.  There  is_  no  crest  on 
the  neck,  and  the  drum  of  the  ear  is  concealed.  Next  on  our  list  are  the 
numerous  species  of  the  typical  genus  Agama,  which  range  from  South- 
Eastern  Europe  over  South-Eastern  Asia,  although  absent  from  the  greater 
part  of  India  and  Ceylon.  These  lizards  are  terrestrial  in  their  habits,  and 
accordingly  differ  from  all  the  foregoing,  with  the  exception  of  the  flying- 
lizard,  in  having  the  body  markedly  depressed.  They  have  the  drum  of  the 
ear  exposed,  large  thickened  scales  in  front  of  the  vent  in  the  males,  a  fold  of 
skin  across  the  throat,  and  a  pit  on  each  side  of  the  same  part,  while  if  the 
back  is  furnished  with  a  crest,  this  is  of  small  size.  Jn  parts  of  Asia  these 
lizards  are  some  of  the  most  common  representatives  of  their  tribe,  and  may 
be  seen  in  hundreds  basking  in  the  sun. 

Many  of  the  genera  of  lizards  are  far  from  easy  to  distinguish  from  one 
another,  but  there  is  no  difficulty  in  recognising  the  extraordinary  Australian 
frilled  lizard  (Chlamydosaurus  kingi),  which  has  the  throat  surrounded  by  a 
large  frill-like  expansion  of  skin  extending  on  to  the  sides  of  the  neck. 


400 


REPTILIA— ORDER  III.— SQUAMA  TA. 


This  long-tailed  lizard,  which  grows  to  a  length  of  over  thirty  inches,  is  an 
inhabitant  of  open  sandy  deserts,  and  is  peculiar  in  that  it  habitually  walks 
on  its  hind-legs  alone.  It  does  not,  however,  hop,  but  walks  with  a  bold, 
swinging  gait.  Probably  the  frill  is  given  to  the  creature  for  the  purpose 
of  terrifying  its  enemies,  as  when  alarmed  this  lizard  sits  up  on  its  hind- 
limbs,  expands  the  frill  to  its  fullest  extent,  and  shows  its  teeth  ;  its  appear- 
ance is  then  distinctly  alarming, 
although  the  creature  is  per- 
fectly harmless  to  large  ani- 
mals. From  the  preceding 
forms  this  lizard  and  a  number 
of  allied  genera  differ  by  hav- 
ing pores  on  the  under  surface 
of  the  body  near  the  vent,  or 
on  the  thighs,  or  in  "both  of 
these  situations.  A  closely  re- 
lated species  is  the  sail-toiled 

Fig.  13,— FRILLED  LIZARD  (Chlamydosaurus  kingi).         lizard  (Lophurus  amboynensis) 

of  the  Malayan  and  Philippine 

Islands,  in  which  the  upper  surface  of  the  basal  portion  of  the  tail  carries  a 
huge  vertical  crest,  while  the  nape  and  back  are  ornamented  with  a  ridge  of 
enlarged  scales.  This  lizard,  which  has  a  compressed  body,  and  an  olive- 
green  ground-colour  with  irregular  black  markings,  is  an  inhabitant  of 
wooded  districts  near  water,  and  if  frightened,  immediately  plunges  into  the 
latter  element.  It  is  a  vegetable  feeder,  and  its  flesh  is  stated  to  be  tender 
and  well-flavoured. 

The  tail  is  an  important  part  in  distinguishing  many  of  the  lizards  of  this 
family,  and  its  characters  form  an  easy  means  of  recognising  the  thorny- 
tailed  lizards  of  Northern  Africa  and  South- Western  Asia,  which  constitute 
the  genus  Uromastix.  Whereas  the  body  is  smoothly  scaled,  the  whole  of 
the  rather  short  tail  is  invested  with  a  series  of  rings  of  large  scales  each 
armed  with  a  thorn-like  spine.  They  have  very  short  and  rounded  heads; 
the  drum  of  the  ear  is  visible,  and  there  are 
pores  in  front  of  the  vent  as  well  as  on  the 
thighs.  A  feature  in  which  these  lizards  differ 
f i-om  all  those  noticed  above  is  the  large  size 
of  the  front  teeth,  which  in  the  adult  are 
separated  from  those  on  each  side  of  the  jaws 
by  a  gap.  Thorny  lizards  are  abundant  in  the 
sandy  plains  of  Arabia,  Persia,  and  the  Pun- 
jab, where  they  live  in  burrows.  Probably  tho 
thorny  tail  is  a  means  of  defence,  as  if  one  of 
these  lizards  can  but  get  its  head  and  body  well 
within  its  retreat,  it  seems  to  be  pretty  safe 
from  attack .  The  writer  once  tried  to  drag  one 
from  its  hole  by  seizing  hold  of  the  projecting 
tail,  but  the  appendage  gave  way,  leaving 
the  creature  secure  from  further  harm.  Their  food  is  entirely  of  a  vegetable 
nature;  and  the  Arabs— by  whom  these  lizards  are  frequently  kept  in  cap- 
tivity— are  very  partial  to  their  flesh.  The  last  member  of  the  family  that 
can  be  noticed  is  the  moloch  lizard  (Moloch  horrid\^}  of  South  and  West 
Australia,  a  creature  which  looks  more  like  some  monster  in  a  pantomime 


Fig.  14.— THORNT  TAILED  LIZAIID 
(Urojuastix). 


SCALED  REPTILES— LIZARDS.  401 


than  a  living  animal.  Measuring  about  eight  inches  in  length,  and  having 
a  depressed  toad -like  body  and  rather  short  tail,  the  moloch  is  covered  all 
over  above  with  large  conical  spines,  which  attain  their  greatest  develop- 
ment immediately  over  the  eyes  and  on  the  forepart  of  the  back.  It 
frequents  sandy  districts,  is  slow  in  its  movements,  and  may  be  frequently 
seen  abroad  in  the  full  sunlight.  That  its  spiny  armour  renders  it  perfectly 
safe  from  all  ordinary  attacks,  may  be  considered  perfectly  certain  ;  and 
it  is  clear  that  the  creature's  motto  is  defence  and  not  defiance,  as  it  is 
perfectly  harmless.  It  has  the  power  of  slowly  changing  its  colour  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  in  accordance  with  its  surroundings  ;  and  its  chief  nutriment  is 
formed  by  ants,  although  it  will  also  eat  vegetable  substances.  Thorny  devil 
or  spiny  lizard  is  the  name  given  to  this  reptile  by  the  colonists. 

The  name  iguana  is  one  of  those  terms  constantly  misapplied  in  popular 
zoology,  and  it  is  very  frequently  given  to  the  monitors  of  India  and 
Australia.     As  a  matter  of  fact,  most  of  the  members  of  the 
great  iguana  tribe  are  confined  to  the  New  World,  where      The  Iguana 
they  take  the  place  of  the  Old  World  Agamidce,  which  are    Tribe. — Family 
wanting.     There  are,  however,  a  few  outlying  iguanas  in  the        Iguanidce. 
Old  World,  two  genera  being  found  in  Madagascar,  while  a 
third  occurs  in  the  Friendly  Islands  and  Fiji.    In  many  points  of  their  organisa- 
tion the  Iguanidce  are  closely  related  to  the  A  gamidce ;  but  a  ready  means  of 
distinction  between  the  two  groups  is  afforded  by  the  dentition.     Whereas 
the  latter  have  the  dentition  of  the  acrodont  type,  in  the  former  ifc  is  pleuro- 
dont ;  and  a  further  difference  is  to  be  found  in  the  nearly  uniform  size  and 
form  of  all  the  teeth  in  the  iguanas.     Very  frequently  the  teeth  have  lancet- 
shaped  crowns,  with  serrated  edges  ;  but  in  some  rare  instances  they  are 
divided  into  three  distinct  cusps.     Iguanas — of  which  there  are  fifty  different 
generic  modifications — present  a  curious  parallelism  to  the  Agamidce  in  their 
structure  and  habits,  doubtless  due  to  the  fact  that  they  have  to  fill  all  the 
situations  in  the  New  World  occupied  by  the  different  members  of  the  latter 
in  the  Eastern  Hemisphere.     Whereas,  however,  there  is  no  flying  iguana, 
this  group  contains  a  marine  type,  which  has  no  representative  among  the 
allied  family.     Nearly  all  the  American  forms  are  inhabitants  of  the  warmer 
regions  of  the  New  World  ;  most  are  insect-eaters,  a  few  are  vegetarians. 

The  beautiful  iguanas  of  the  American  genus  Anolis  may  be  regarded  as 
the  western  analogues  of  the  Oriental  tree-lizards.  These  are  long-tailed 
arboreal  species,  with  a  pyramidal  head,  moderately  long  neck,  a  slender 
body  of  variable  form,  elongated  hind-limbs,  and  large  feet  with  toes  of 
unequal  length,  in  which  the  middle  joints  are  expanded,  and  the  claws 
long  and  elevated.  The  throat  is  ornamented  with  an  appendage,  which  is 
generally  brightly  coloured  in  the  males  ;  but  there  is  no  crest  on  the  back 
and  neck.  The  teeth  are_  distinctly  three-lobed.  More  than  a  hundred 
different  kinds  of  these  lizards  are  known  to  science,  many  of  which  take  up 
their  residence  in  human  dwellings,  where  they  hunt  for  their  insect  prey, 
quite  undisturbed  by  the  proximity  of  tha  owners.  Like  their  Oriental  re- 
presentatives in  the  Agamidce)  they  have  the  power  of  changing  the  colour  of 
their  skin  even  more  rapidly  and  decisively  than  the  chamaeleons.  As  the 
species  of  Anolis  represent  Calotes  in  the  Old  World  family,  so  the  basilisks 
(Basiliscus)  simulate  the  sail-tailed  lizard  of  the  Malayan  Islands.  Tho 
American  forms  have,  however,  gone  one  better  than  their  Old  World  proto- 
type, for  whereas  in  the  latter  the  sail-like  membranous  expansion  is  confined 
to  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail,  in  the  males  of  the  former  a  similar  vertical 
27 


402 


REPTILIA- ORDER  HL—SQUAMATA. 


expansion  of  skin  runs  from  the  nape  of  the  neck  to  the  loins,  where  it  ia 
separated  by  a  short  interval  from  the  one  on  the  tail.  Tn  the  back  the 
crest  is  supported  by  the  elongation  of  the  spines  of  the  back-bone;  and  in  some 
cases  the  expansion  on  the  tail  is  strengthened  in  a  similar  manner.  The 
males  have  in  addition  a  helmet-like  elevation  on  the  hinder  part  of  the  head. 
Basilisks  are  tree-dwelling  reptiles,  nearly  always  found  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  water.  They  generally  repose  on  a  bough  overhanging  some  pool  or 
river  ;  and  when  frightened,  immediately  throw  themselves  into  the  water,  in 
which  the  males  swim  with  facility  by  the  aid  of  the  crested  tail,  which  acts 
as  a  rudder.  How  the  female  manages  to  get  along  without  the  crest  is  not 
stated. 

From  a  group  so  extensive  as  that  of  the  iguanas  it  is  difficult  to  select  the 
forms  best  deserving  of  special  notice.  There  is,  however,  no  doubt  that 
two  curious  lizards  from  the  Galapagos  Islands  demand  recognition  here.  Each 
of  these  is  the  sole  representative  of  a  genus  by  itself  ;  but  whereas  one 
(Amblyrhynchus  cristatus)  lives  to  a  great  extent  in  the  sea  and  feeds  on  sea- 
weed, the  other  (Conolophus  subcristatus)  is  a  terrestrial  creature  subsisting 
on  a  more  ordinary  vegetable  diet.  Having  pores  on  the  thighs,  and  the 

fourth  toe  of  the  hind-foot  longer 
than  the  third,  these  lizards  are 
specially  distinguished  by  the  cir- 
cumstance that  both  the  front  and 
lateral  teeth  are  three  cusped.  The 
marine  species,  which  measures  over 
fifty  inches  in  length,  and  is  con- 
siderably the  larger  of  the  two, 
takes  its  scientific  name  from  the 
extreme  shortness  and  bluntness  of 
the  head  ;  both  the  body  and  tail 
being  markedly  compressed,  and 
the  toes  furnished  with  incipient 
webs.  The  upper  surface  of  the 
head  is  ornamented  with  a  number 
of  conical  bosses  ;  and  a  strong  ser- 
rated crest  runs  from  the  nape  of 

the  neck  to  the  tip  of  the  tail.  The  habits  of  these  remarkable  lizards  have 
been  well  described  by  Darwin.  He  states  that  these  reptiles  are  seldom  found 
farther  inland  than  a  few  yards  distance  from  the  shore  ;  and  that  when  in 
the  water  they  swim  strongly  and  easily  with  a  serpentine  movement  by  the 
aid  of  the  powerful  tail  alone.  On  the  volcanic  rocks  forming  the  coasts  of 
their  native  islands  these  lizards  are  met  with  in  large  droves,  which  from 
time  to  time  proceed  to  sea  in  search  of  food.  In  spite,  however,  of  this 
fondness  for  the  sea,  they  never  take  to  the  water  when  attacked  as  a  means 
of  escape.  The  smaller  terrestrial  species  is  easily  distinguished  by  the 
cylindrical  form  of  the  tail  and  the  absence  of  any  trace  of  webbing  on  the 
toes.  The  head,  too,  is  somewhat  longer,  and  the  dorsal  crest  fully  developed 
only  in  the  region  of  the  neck.  In  weight,  they  scale  from  ten  to  fifteen 
pounds.  On  the  central  islands  of  the  Galapagos  group  these  lizards  are,  or 
were,  found  in  such  numbers  that  there  is  sometimes  a  difficulty  in  discover- 
ing a  space  of  any  size  free  from  them.  They  live  in  burrows,  and  in  the 
daytime  love  to  lie  basking  in  the  sun  for  hours  at  a  stretch  in  a  dull,  listless 
manner.  Even  when  disturbed,  they  are  slow  to  get  out  ot  the  way  ;  arid  in 


Fly.  15. — GALAPAGOS  SBA-LTZARD. 
(Ainblyrhynchus  cristatus). 


SCALED  REPTILES—LIZARDS.  403 


all  their  movements  they  are  very  unlike  ordinary  lizards.  Nearly  allied  to 
the  Galapagos  forms  are  the  two  species  of  the  typical  genus  lyuana,  which 
are  restricted  to  Tropical  America  and  the  West  Indies.  From  the  former 
they  are  distinguished  by  the  simple,  conical  front  teeth  ;  the  lateral  teeth 
being  serrated.  They  have  the  body  long  and  compressed,  the  quadrangular 
and  large  head  covered  above  with  enlarged  shields,  and  the  long  tail  invested 
with  uniform  and  keeled  scales.  The  neck,  back,  and  upper  surface  of  the 
tail  are  ornamented  with  a  continuous  spiny  crest,  and  there  is  an  appendage 
on  the  throat  which  is  incapable  of  dilation.  These  iguanas  are  essentially 
arboreal  lizards,  living  in  forests  in  the  neighbourhood  of  water,  and  fre- 
quently descending  at  night  to  the  ground  to  feed.  They  readily  take  to  water, 
in  which  they  swim  with  facility  ;  and  although  their  diet  is  mainly  of  a 
vegetable  nature,  they  will  freely  eat  insects  and  other  invertebrates.  The 
common  species  measures  as  much  as  four  and  a  half  feet  in  length.  By  the 
natives  of  the  countries  they  frequent,  iguanas  are  highly  esteemed,  and 
they  are  regularly  hunted  in  some  districts  for  food.  Their  eggs  are  also 
much  sought  after  for  the  same  purpose.  Nearly  allied  is  the  ring-tailed 
iguana  (Cydura  carinata)  of  the  West  Indies,  in  which  the  crowns  of  the 
lateral  teeth  are  tricuspid,  and  the  throat  is  furnished  with  a  pouch,  the  back 
and  tail  being  strongly  crested. 

As  the  Agamidce  possess  a  spine-clad  type  in  the  form  of  the  moloch  lizard, 
so  a  similar  type  occurs  in  the  present  family.  These  creatures  are  generally 
called  horned  lizards,  although  in  the  States  they  are  known  by  the  title  of 
Californian  toad.  The  genus  to  which  they  belong  (Phryiiosoma)  includes 
about  a  dozen  species,  which  have  a  geographical  range  extending  over  the 
United  States  and  Mexico.  From  all  other  members  of  the  family  they  are 
at  once  distinguished  by  the  numerous  spines  studding  the  skin  of  the  body, 
head,  and  tail  ;  while  they  are  further  characterised  by  their  short,  rounded 
head,  general  toad-like  form  of  body,  and  abbreviated  tail.  About  five  inches 
is  the  ordinary  length  of  these  lizards.  As  regards  habits,  these  lizards  are 
inhabitants  of  sandy  districts,  where  they  prey  upon  beetles  and  such  other 
insects  as  they  are  able  to  capture.  Some  of  them  are  among  the  few  members 
of  the  Iguanidcn  which  give  birth  to  their  young  in  a  living  condition.  This 
peculiarity,  coupled  with  their  remarkable  external  appearance,  would  be 
sufficient  to  give  these  lizards  a  claim  to  distinction  above  their  fellows.  But 
they  have  another  peculiarity.  They  spit  blood ;  and  this  not  from  their 
mouth,  but  from,  their  eyes.  Incredible  as  this  statement  may  appear,  it  is 
attested  by  several  trustworthy  observers.  When  handled,  they  have  been 
known  to  squirt  a  jet  of  blood  to  a  distance  of  more  than  a  foot  from  one  eye, 
and  soon  after  to  emit  a  similar  stream  from  the  other.  And  this  not  only 
once,  but  several  times.  Doubtless  this  most  remarkable  action  is  for  defen- 
sive purposes  ;  and  American  observers  would  do  good  service  if  they  would 
describe  in  detail  the  mode  in  which  the  operation  is  performed. 

A  peculiar  lizard  from  Mexico  is  the  representative  not  only  of  the  genus 
Xenosaumis,   but  likewise  of  the  family  Xehosauridw.      Passing  this  by  as 
being  worthy  only  of  the  attention  of  specialists,  we  come 
to  the  girdled  lizards,  of  which  there  are  four  genera  from     ^    6p      .^  s> 
Africa  south  of  the  Sahara,  and  the  island  of  Madagascar.         ZonuridL 
To  a  great  extent  the  group  is  intermediate  between  the 
preceding  family  of  the  lyuanidce  and  the  following  one  of  the  Anguidce. 
From  the  former  it  is  distinguished  by  the  hinder  lateral  regions  of  the  skull 
being  roofed  over  by  (dermal)  ossifications  in  the  skin,  and  likewise  by  the 


404 


REPTILIA— ORDER  HL—SQ UAMA TA. 


interclavicle  being  cruciform  instead  of  T-shaped  ;  while,  from  the  latter,  it 
is  differentiated  by  the  conformation  of  the  tongue — which,  as  in  the 
IgiianidcK,  is  not  divisible  into  an  interior  and  posterior  portion — as  well  as 
by  the  hollow  bases  of  the  teeth,  and  by  the  structure  of  the  bony  plates, 
which  in  one  genus  underlie  the  scales.  All  have  a  fold  of  skin  covered  with 
small  scales  along  the  sides  of  the  body,  by  which  the  upper  surface  is  denned 
from  the  lower*  The  head  is  invested  with  large  and  regular  shields  ;  but 
the  back  may  be  covered  either  with  shield-like  scales,  which  are  frequently 
provided  with  keels,  and  are  arranged  in  regular  transverse  zones,  or  with 
granules.  As  in  the  Jgpuant&Bj  the  teeth  are  pleurodont,  and  the  ba,ses  of 
those  in  use  are  hollowed  out  by  the  tips  of  their  successors,  which  rise  verti- 
cally from  beneath.  In  the  three  genera  Zonurus,  Pseiidocordylus,  and 
Platysaurus,  both  pairs  of  limbs,  are  well  developed,  but  in  Chamcesaura,  the 
general  form  is  snake-like,  the  fore-limbs  being  absent,  and  the  hind  ones 
rudimentary,  while  the  tail  is  remarkable  for  its  excessive  relative  length. 
The  only  Malagasy  form  is  a  species  of  the  genus  first  named. 

Although  in  several  groups  of  the  sub-order  the  limbs  have  more  or  less 

completely  disappeared,  in  no  case  is  the  assumption  of  a  serpent-like  form 

more  strongly  marked  than  in  the  family  typically  represented 

Snake-like        by  the  common  British  blind-worm.     It  is  to  this  family, 

/Lizards. —        accordingly,    that  the   name  of  snake-like   lizards  is   most 

Family  applicable.     While  all  these  lizards  resemble  the  members 

AnguidcK.        of  the  preceding  family  in  having  the  hinder  lateral  regions 

of   the  skull  roofed  by  bony  plates  developed  in  the  deep 

layer  of  the  skin,  they  differ  in  the  structure  of  the  teeth,     It  is  true  that 

the  teeth  are  often  attached  in  the  pleurodont  manner,  but  instead  of  having 

the  base  hollow,  this  is  solid,  the  new  teeth  coming  up  between  two  of  the 

old  ones,  instead  of  beneath  the  crown  of  the  one  immediately  above.-  Whereas 

in  most  of  the  genera  the  teeth  are  either  tubercular  or  in  the  form  of  short 

cones  firmly  attached  to  the  sides  of  the  jaws,  in  the  blind- worms  they  are 

long,  slender,  highly  curved,  and 
very  loosely  fastened  to  the  bone. 
In  these  respects  the  blind-worms 
come  very  close  to  the  snakes,  and 
also  to  the  poisonous  lizards  of  the 
family  Helodermatidce.  And  it  is 
not  a  little  remarkable  that  traces  of 
a  groove  have  been  detected  along 
the  front  surfaces  of  the  teeth  of 
the  blind-worms  which  appear  to 
correspond  to  the  poison-grooves  of 
those  of  the  family  in  question.  It 
seems,  therefore,  as  if  the  popular 
dread  of  the  blind-worm  was  in- 
stinctive, and  that  the  creature  is  either  descended  from  poisonous  ancestors, 
or  would  be  poisonous  if  it  could.  All  the  members  of  the  family  have  bony 
plates  developed  in  the  deep  layer  of  the  skin  beneath  the  scales,  these  plates, 
when  viewed  under  the  microscope,  displaying  a  system  of  canals.  Very 
peculiar  is  the  tongue,  which  is  divided  into  a  large  thick  hinder  portion, 
thickly  covered  with  shaggy  papillre,  and  a  small  thin  emarginate  front  moiety, 
of  which  the  covering  takes  the  form  of  small,  scale-like  papillae.  This  front 
portion  is  extensile,  and  also  capable  of  more  or  less  full  retraction  into  a 


Fig.  16.— BLIND-WORM  (Anguis  fragilis). 


SCALED  REPTILES— LIZARDS.  405 


sheath  formed  by  a  transverse  fold  at  the  front  of  the  hinder  portion.  A 
further  resemblance  to  snakes  is  to  be  found  in  the  circumstance  that  these 
lizards  cast  their  skins  in  a  single  piece.  As  regards  the  limbs,  great  variety 
is  presented  by  the  seven  genera  included  in  the  family,  some  having  the 
feet  fully  developed,  and  terminating  in  five  toes,  whereas  in  others  all 
external  traces  of  limbs  have  disappeared.  It  is  noteworthy  that  all  the 
limbed  forms  are  American,  and  that  Central  America  and  the  West  Indian 
Islands  are  the  head-quarters  of  the  group.  Beyond  the  New  World,  two 
species  are  found  in  Europe  and  North  Africa,  while  a  third  inhabits  Burma 
and  the  Himalaya.  Of  the  seven  genera,  GerrhonotAis&ud.  Ophisaurus  are 
peculiar  in  having  a  lateral  fold  on  the  body ;  the  former,  which  is  exclusively 
American,  having  two  pairs  of  five-toed  limbs,  while  the  latter  has,  at  most, 
external  representatives  of  the  hinder  pair.  This  genus  includes  the  well- 
known  scheltopusik  (0.  apus)  of  South  and  Eastern  Europe,  as  well  as. one 
Oriental,  and  other  American  types.  Of  those  without  folds,  the  genera 
Diploglossus,  Sauresia,  and  Panoplus  are  American  and  four-limbed,  differing 
from  one  another  in  the  number  of  the  toes,  which  vary  from  one  or  two  to 
five  on  each  foot.  Ophiodes  is  likewise  American,  but  has  only  external 
rudiments  of  the  hind-limbs.  Lastly  we  have  Anguis,  represented  solely  by 
the  familiar  blind- worm  of  Europe,  Western  Asia,  and  North  Africa,  which 
lacks  all  vestiges  of  limbs  externally,  and  has  the  lateral  teeth  large  and  fang- 
like.  This  species  is  also  peculiar  in  giving  birth  to  living  young,  all  the 
other  members  of  the  family  laying  eggs  in.  the  ordinary  manner.  All  the 

Anguidce,  live  on  animal  food,  the 
larger  kinds  killing  and  eating  small 
mammals,  birds,  and  reptiles,  whereas 
the  smaller  species  confine  themselves 
to  worms,  insects,   slugs,  and   such 
like.     As  a  rule  they  are  strictly  ter- 
restrial,   although    some    species   of 
Gerrhotwtus  will  climb  up  low  bushes. 
The    family   AnniellidtE,    as    con- 
taining only  a  single  Calif  ornian  genus 
with  two  species,  may 
be  passed  over  with-        Poisonous 
out  notice,  and  we  Lizards. — Family 
accordingly  proceed   Helodermatidce. 
to  the  family  Helo- 
dermatidce, which  also  comprises  only 

two  species,  and  ranges  from  Central 
Ftg.  17-PoisoNous  LIZARD  (Heloderma).          Amerfca  to  New  Mexbico  and  Arizona, 

In  common  with  many  of  the  poison- 
ous snakes,  these  lizards  are  distinguished  by  their  brilliant  coloration,  one 
kind  having  an  orange  or  yellow  ground-colour,  with  an  irregular  net-work  of 
dark  markings  on. the  head  and  body,  and  dark  rings  round  the  tail.  These 
lizards  possess  a  tongue  and  teeth  of  the  same  general  type  as  in  the  blind- 
worm,  but  have  the  upper  surface  covered  with  transverse  rows  of  small 
granular  tubercles,  the  under-parts  being  invested  with  squared  scales. 
From  those  of  the  blind- worm  the  teeth  differ  by  having  grooves  on  the  front 
and  back  surfaces  for  the  transmission  of  the  poisonous  fluid,  and  there  are 
certain  structural  differences  in  the  skull.  Both  species  are  included  in  the 
genus  Heloderma,  and  the  one  from  Arizona  is  rather  the  larger  of  the  two,  its 


4o6 


REPTTLIA—ORDER  III.—SQ.UAMATA. 


Monitors.- 

Family 
Varanidce. 


total  length  being  about  twenty  inches.  Both  have  the  head  broad  and  de- 
pressed, the  body  rounded  and  thick,  the  tail  moderately  long  and  cylindrical, 
and  the  limbs  relatively  small,  with  the  third  and  fourth  toes  the  longest. 
The  poisonous  lizards  are  sluggish  and  nocturnal,  inhabiting  sandy  districts, 
with  the  soil  of  which  their  coloration  is  in  admirable  harmony.  They  are 
most  commonly  seen  abroad  in  the  rainy  season,  and  are  carnivorous  in  their 
diet.  Small  mammals  are  speedily  killed  by  their  bite,  which  is  stated 
occasionally  to  have  fatal  effects  on  human  beings. 

A  third  family  of  the  sub-order  with  only  a  single  genus,  is  that  of 
the  monitors;  the -range  of  the  numerous  species  extending  from  the 
Caspian  through  Southern  Asia  to  Australasia,  and  likewise 
embracing  all  Africa,  as  well  as  the  Pacific  Islands.  They  are 
all  of  large  size,  one  measuring  between  six  and  seven  feet 
in  length.  As  compared  with  the  preceding  families,  their 
essential  characteristic  is  to  be  found  in  the  snake-like  struc- 
ture of  the  tongue,  which  is  long,  deeply  forked  at  the  tip,  extensile,  and 
capable  of  being  withdrawn  into  a  sheath  at  the  base.  They  all  have  well- 
developed,  five-toed  limbs,  a  long  and  often  compressed  tail,  small  scales  on 
the  head,  and  the  drum  of  the  ear  exposed.  Owing  to  the  presence  of  mar- 
ginal rows  of  granules,  the  scales  on  the  back  do  not  overlap,  and  in  no  case 
is  there  a  median  longitudinal  crest  in  this  region.  The  different  species  of 
Varanus  may  be  arranged  in  four  groups,  the  distinctive  features  of  which  need 
not  be  noticed  here.  They  are  generally  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  water, 

and  one  Indian  species  frequents 
the  coast,  and  will  at  times  enter 
the  sea.  In  habits, they  are  purely 
carnivorous  ;  and,  with  the  possible 
exception  of  the  Papuan  species, 
they  are  also  terrestrial.  They  are 
among  the  most  active  of  the  lizard 
tribe,  and  although  generally  harm- 
less and  avoiding  attack,  it  would  ap- 
pear from  the  folio  wing  account  that, 
when  driven  to  bay,  they  will  turn 
on  their  aggressors.  Of  the  Nile 
monitor  (V.  niloticus\  Dr.  Abel 
Smith  writes  that  "  it  is  usually  met 
with  in  rocky  precipices,  or  in  low 
stony  hills,  and,  when  surprised, 


Fig.   18  —A  MONITOR  (Varanus). 


seeks  concealment  in  the  chinks  of  the  former  or  in  the  irregular  cavities  of 
the  latter,  and  when  any  projections  exist  upon  the  surface  of  the  rocks  or 
stones,  it  clasps  them  so  firmly  with  its  toes,  that  it  becomes  a  task  of  no 
small  difficulty  to  dislodge  it,  even  though  it  can  be  easily  reached.  Under 
such  circumstances,  the  strength  of  no  one  man  is  able  to  withdraw  a  full- 
grown  individual,  and  I  have  seen  two  persons  required  to  pull  a  specimen  out 
of  a  position  it  had  attained,  even  with  the  assistance  of  a  rope  fixed  in  front 
of  its  hind-legs.  The  moment  it  was  dislodged  it  flew  with  fury  at  its 
enemies,  who  by  flight  only  saved  themselves  from  being  bitten.  After  it 
was  killed  it  was  discovered  that  the  points  of  all  the  nails  had  been  broken 
previously,  or  at  the  moment  it  lost  its  hold.  It  feeds  upon  frogs,  crabs,  and 
small  quadrupeds ;  and,  from  its  partiality  to  the  two  former,  it  is  often 
found  among  rocks  near  to  springs  or  running  streams,  which  fact  having 


SCALED  REPTILES— LIZARDS.  40? 


been  observed  by  the  natives,  has  led  them  to  regard  it  as  sacred,  and  not  to 
be  injured  without  danger  of  drought."  All  lay  eggs,  and  many,  if  not  all 
the  species,  feed  largely  upon  the  eggs  of  birds. 

A  much  larger  assemblage  is  that  of  the  greaved  lizards  of  the  New  World, 
which  there  occupy  the  position  held  in  the  Old  World  by  the  allied  family  of 
the  LacertidcB.    From  all  the  preceding  forms,  the  Teiidce  and 
following  families  are  broadly  distinguished  by  the  circum-      Greaved  Liz- 
stance  that  their  cleft  and  often  spear-like  tongues  are  covered     ards.— Family 
either  with  overlapping  scale-like  papillae,  or  are  marked  by  Teiidce. 

oblique  folds.  Then,  again,  in  place  of  the  small  scales  of 
the  Varanidce,  the  head  is  invested  with  large  symmetrically  arranged  shields; 
and  in  the  skeleton  the  inner  extremities  of  the  collar-bones  are  expanded, 
and  not  unfrequently  assume  a  looped  form.  The  Teiidce, — of  which  there 
are  five-and-thirty  genera,  and  more  than  a  hundred  species — have  the  head- 
shields  free  from  the  bones  of  the  skull,  no  bony  plates  underlying  the  scales, 
and  no  bony  roof  to  the  hinder  lateral  regions  of  the  skull,  while  the  scales 
are  arranged  in  transverse  rows.  The  teeth  are  very  variable  in  form  and 
structure,  but  are  always  solid  at  the  base,  owing  to  the  circumstance  that 
their  successors  come  up  alongside,  The  teeth  in  the  front  of  the  jaws  are 
always  conical ;  but  both  these  and  the  lateral  series  may  be  attached  either 
on  the  acrodont  or  pleurodont  plan.  Distinct  eyelids  are  generally  present ; 
the  drum  of  the  ear  is  always  visible  externally  >,  and  the  tongue  is  in  most 
cases  covered  with  overlapping  scales,  and  may  be  capable  of  retraction 
within  a  basal  sheath.  Although  most  of  these  lizards  have  five-toed  limbs, 
in  certain  cases  each  foot  has  but  four  toes,  while  in  other  instances  the  limbs 
are  represented  only  by  stumps,  and  even  all  external  traces  of  the  hinder 
pair  may  disappear.  The  numerous  representatives  of  this  important  family 
have  their  headquarters  in  equatorial  America,  although  some  forms  may  be 
met  with  throughout  the  warmer  portions  of  that  continent.  Like  the 
monitors,  they  are  active  in  their  habits,  and  feed  upon  animal  substances  ; 
but  they  may  be  found  in  all  sorts  of  situations,  some  living  in  holes  in  dry 
sandy  districts,  while  others  prefer  the  dense  herbage  of  moist  localities. 
The  number  of  genera  is  far  too  great  to  admit  of  even  mention  in  this  place. 
It  will  accordingly  suffice  to  take  as  our  representative  of  the  family  the  large 
and  handsome  species  commonly  known  as  the  tegu  (Tupinambis  tequexin\ 
which  is  a  common  and  widely-spread 
species,  ranging  from  the  Guianas  in  the 
North  to  Uruguay  in  the  South.  Measur- 
ing about  three  feet  in  length,  this  lizard 
has  a  bold  and  striking  bearing,  owing  to 
the  elevation  of  the  fore-quarters.  Its 
general  colour  is  some  shade  of  olive 
above,  ornamented  with  blotches  and  bars 
of  black,  and  indistinct  longitudinal  rows 
of  light  spots.  It  is  met  with  in  great 
numbers  among  the  virgin  forests  of  _ 

Amazonia,  where,  with  its  forked  tongue         ^  _THE  TEQU 
in  rapid  motion,  it  may  be   seen  either  tequexin). 

sitting  quietly  upon  a  branch,  or  running 
rapidly  over  the  ground.     As  is  the  case  with  some  of  the  other  members  of 
the  family,  its  flesh  is  esteemed  as  food  by  the  natives. 

As  already  mentioned,  certain  members  of  the  preceding  family  have  lost 


•408  REPTILTA— ORDER  III.—SQUAMATA. 


""all  external  traces  of  the  hinder  pair  of  limbs,  and  as  such  species  possess 
burrowing  habits,  they  may  be  regarded  as  forming  a  con- 
Family  necting  link  between  the  Teiidce  and  the  degraded  Amphis- 
Amphisbcvnidce.  bcenidce.  The  latter,  which  take  their  name  from  the  fact 
that  most  of  them  are  able  to  advance  with  equal  ease  in 
either  a  forward  or  a  backward  direction,  may,  indeed,  in  all  probability,  be 
considered  as  derivatives  from  the  ancestral  stock  of  the  former,  which  have 
little  by  little  accustomed  themselves  to  a  subterranean  mode  of  life,  till  the 
majority  have  acquired  an  almost  completely  worm-like  form  and  habit.  One 
American  species,  alone  representing  the  genus  Chirotes,  still,  however,  retains 
minute  though  well-developed  fore-limbs,  which  are  placed  close  up  to  the  head, 
and  followed  by  the  long  worm-like  body.  And  to  the  zoologist  this  form  is  of 
the  highest  importance,  as  indicating  that  all  the  other  members  of  the  family 
trace  their  origin  to  fully-limbed  ancestors.  With  the  exception  of  this  soli- 
tary species,  the  amphisbaenas  are  all  limbless,  worm-like  creatures,  in  which 
even  the  bones  of  the  pelvis  and  shoulder-girdle  are  reduced  to  the  condition 
of  rudiments.  In  all,  the  ears  are  wanting,  the  f  unctionless  eyes  are  buried 
deep  down  in  the  skin,  and  the  minute  mouth  is  often  situated  on  the  lower 
aspect  of  the  head.  The  tail  is  always  short;  and  the  few  and  large  teeth,  as 
in  the  preceding  family,  may  be  either  acrodont  or  pleurodont.  Indeed,  it  is 
chiefly  by  certain  degraded  features  of  the  skull  that  the  Amphisbcenidce  are 
distinguished  from  the  Teiidce;  and  as  such  differences  are  obviously  produced 
by  adaptation  to  their  environment,  the  amphisbsenas  are  but  little  removed 
from  their  nearest  allies.  Not  the  least  interesting  feature  in  connection  with 
these  strange  creatures  is  their  peculiar  geographical  distribution — a  distribu- 
tion which  can  only  be  understood  by  taking  extinct  forms  into  consideration. 
Of  the  existing  types,  the  true  home  is  Tropical  America,  although  two 
species— one  representing  Chirotes — are  found  above  the  northern  tropic  ; 
but  a  considerable  number  of  species  are  inhabitants  of  Africa,  and  a  few 
occur  in  the  Mediterranean  countries.  Most  remarkable  is  the  circumstance 
that  the  extensive  and  typical  genus  Amphisbcena  has  representatives  both 
in  Tropical  America  and  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara.  This,  however,  is  but 
one  out  of  many  instances  showing  a  community  between  the  faunas  of 
South  Africa  and  South  America.  The  family  is  divided  into  two  groups, 
according  to  the  mode  of  attachment  of  the  teeth.  In  the  first  group,  or 
Prosphyodontes,  which  includes  Chirotes,  Amphisbcena,  and  six  other  genera, 
the  teeth  are  welded  to  the  inner  edges  of  the  jaws  ;  whereas  in  the  second 
group,  or  EmphyodonteS)  which  is  represented  by  Trogonophis,  Pachycalmus, 
and  Agamodon,  they  are  affixed  to  the  edges  of  the  same.  Regarding  the 
mode  of  life  of  the  amphisbsenas,  Mr.  G.  A.  Boulenger  writes  as  follows  : — 
* '  All  the  members  of  this  family  are  burrowers,  and  many  live  in  ants'  nests. 
They  bore  narrow  galleries  in  the  earth,  in  which  they  are  able  to  progress 
backwards  as  well  as  forwards.  On  the  ground  they  progress  in  a  straight 
line,  by  slight  vertical  undulations,  not  by  lateral  movements,  as  in  other 
limbless  reptiles.  The  tail  of  many  species  appears  to  be  more  or  less  pre- 
Jhensile.  The  food  of  these  lizards  consists  of  small  insects  and  worms.  Little 
has  been  published  on  their  habits,  and  all  that  is  known  about  their  mode  of 
propagation  is  that  Anops  kingi  is  oviparous,  and  deposits  its  eggs  in  the 
nests  of  ants."  It  may  be  added  that  the  Amphisbcenidcz  are  peculiar  among 
vertebrates  in  having  the  right  lung  rudimental  or  absent,  whereas  the  left  is 
elongated.  In  other  snake-like  lizards,  and  in  snakes,  it  is  the  right  lung 
that  is  functional. 


SCALED  REPTILES— LIZARDS.  409 


The  typical  family  of  the  sub-order  is  exclusively  an  Old  World  one,  and  is 
spread  over  the  three  great  continents,  although  unknown  in  the  island  of 
Madagascar   and   likewise    in    the   Australasian    countries. 
From  their  New  World  cousins  the  Teiidce,  these  lizards  Family 

may  be  readily  distinguished  by  the  circumstance  that  a  com-  Lacertida'. 
plete  roof  of  bones  developed  in  the  deep  layer  of  the  skin 
covers  the  hinder  lateral  regions  of  the  skull,  and  also  by  the  fact  that  the 
shields  of  the  head  are  attached  to  the  bones  of  the  skull.  They  further 
differ — and  thereby  resemble  the  Amphisbtenidce — in  having  the  two  anterior 
upper  jaw-bones,  or  premaxillse,  immovably  united  in  front.  In  none  are  the 
limbs  aborted ;  and  in  all  cases  the  feet  terminate  in  five  complete  toes.  The 
general  form  is  too  well  known  to  require  mention  ;  and  it  is  in  these  lizards 
that  the  long  tail  breaks  off  so  readily  at  or  near  the  middle.  The  teeth  have 
hollowed  bases,  and  are  attached  to  the  jaws  in  the  pleurodont  manner  ;  and 
the  tongue  has  the  form  of  an  arrow-head.  Distinct  eyelids,  which  can  gener- 
ally be  closed,  are  developed ;  and  the  drum  of  the  ear  is  visible  from  the 
outside.  In  none  of  these  lizards  are  bony  plates  developed  in  the  skin  beneath 
the  scales  ;  and  while  the  scales  of  the  back  may  either  overlap  one  another 
or  have  their  edges  in  contact,  those  on  the  under  surface  of  the  body  are 
arranged  in  transverse  and  longitudinal  series,  and  are  usually  superior  in  size 
to  those  above.  The  family,  which  includes  seventeen  generic  types  and  some- 
where about  a  hundred  species,  attains  its  maximum  development  in  Africa, 
being  but  poorly  represented  in  the  Oriental  countries.  While  several  species 
are  met  witli  in  the  south  of  Europe,  two  only  are  found  in  Britain,  where, 
with  the  blind-worm,  they  are  the  sole  representatives  of  the  sub-order 
Lacertilia.  All  are  fond  of  sunny  localities,  where  their  brisk  movements  and 
beautiful  metallic  tints  render  them  attractive  to  all  who  do  not  possess  an 
instinctive  dislike  to  everything  in  the  shape  of  a  reptile.  Flies,  beetles,  and 
slugs  form  their  chief  food  ;  and  as  in  the  colder  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
these  are  not  to  be  seen  abroad  in  winter,  lizards  are  perforce  compelled  to 
follow  suit  and  pass  the  dull  winter  months  in  a  state  of  torpor,  either  buried 
beneath  the  ground,  or  safely  ensconced  in  clefts  and  crannies.  Although 
one  species  produces  its  young  alive,  the  rest  lay  eggs. 

Both  the  British  species  belong  to  the  typical  genus  Lacerta ;  and  of  these 
the  smaller  is  the  viviparous  lizard  (L.  vivipara),  which  grows  to  a  length  of 
seven  inches,  and  takes  its  name  from  the  aforesaid  peculiarity  in  its  domestic 
arrangements.  The  second  is  the  sand-lizard  (L.  agilis),  which  may  measure 
between  eight  and  ten  inches  in  length,  and  ranges  as  far  north  as  Sweden 
and  Norway.  More  beautiful  and  considerably  larger  than  either  of  the 
foregoing  is  the  green  lizard  (L.  mridis\  ranging  from  Southern  Europe 
through  the  Mediterranean  countries  to  Persia.  The  northern  limits  are 
Germany,  where  this  lizard  never  reaches  the  dimensions  it  attains  in  more 
favoured  climes.  Yet  another  South  European  species  is  the  pearly  lizard 
{L.  ocellata),  easily  recognised  by  the  presence  of  a  row  of  large  blue  spots 
on  each  side  of  the  body,  the  general  colour  of  the  upper-parts  being  in  some 
cases  green,  with  dots  or  a  network  of  black,  but  in  others  dark  olive  with 
yellowish  markings.  This  species  is  larger  than  any  of  the  foregoing,  some* 
times  measuring  as  much  as  twenty-three  inches  in  length.  It  would  be  im- 
possible in  the  space  available  to  give  the  names  and  characteristics  of  all  the 
seventeen  genera  included  in  the  family.  It  may,  however,  be  mentioned 
that  in  Southern  Europe  there  occur  three  lizards  belonging  to  a  closely  allied 
genus  known  as  Algiroides,  differing  from  Lacerta  by  the  larger  size  of  the 


410  REPTILIA— ORDER  III.— SQUAMA TA. 


scales  on  the  back.  Another  South  European  genus,  also  extending  into  the 
north  of  Africa,  is  Psammodromus,  the  members  of  which  differ  from  both 
the  genera  above-mentioned  by  the  slight  development  or  complete  absence 
of  a  collar  or  gorget  round  the  throat. 

A  small  neatly-made  lizard,  commonly  known  as  the  skink  (Scincus  offici- 
nalis),  which  inhabits  the  Sahara  desert  and  the  countries  bordering  the  Red 
Sea,  is  the  type  of  the  last  large  and  important  family  of  tho 
Slunk  Tribe.  Lacertilia.  It  should,  however,  be  mentioned  that  the 
—Family  small  African  family  of  the  Gerrhosauridce  includes  iive 
Scincidce.  genera,  which,  to  a  certain  extent,  serve  to  connect  the 
Lacertidce  with  the  Scincidte.  They  have,  for  instance,  the 
scales  of  the  body  underlain  by  bony  plates  of  peculiar  internal  structure,  as 
is  the  case  with  the  latter  family,  whereas  in  the  union  of  the  two  premaxil- 
lary  bones  and  the  presence  of  pores  on  the  thighs,  they  are  like  the  former. 
The  presence  of  such  bony  plates  beneath  the  scales,  the  distinctness  of  the 
two  prernaxilUe,  and  the  invariable  absence  of  pores  on  tho  limbs,  are 
characters  amply  sufficient  to  differentiate  the  IScincidce  from  the  Lacertida\ 
There  are  twenty-five  genera  included  in  the  family  under-  consideration,  in 
one  of  which  (Lygosoma)  no  less  than  one  hundred  and  fifty-nine  distinct  species 
are  recognised  by  zoologists.  With  such  a  number  of  different  forms,  it  is  not 
surprising  to  find  that  the  family  is  cosmopolitan.  Its  head-quarters  are, 
•however,  the  Australasian  and  Oriental  countries,  together  with  the  islands 
of  the  Pacific  and  Africa.  Skinks  are  essentially  terrestrial  lizards,  all  loving 
dry  sandy  deserts,  where  many  burrow  in  the  soil ;  and  it  is  probably  largely 
due  to  such  habits  that  the  lower  eyelid  is  furnished  with  a  transparent 
window  in  the  centre,  so  that  the  eye  can  be  used  when  protected  by  its 
covering.  A  peculiar  feature  of  the  family  is  to  be  found  in  the  circumstance 
that  the  young  are  almost  invariably  born  in  a  living  condition.  Whereas, 
in  all  cases  the  limbs  are  relatively  short,  in  certain  instances  one,  and  in 
others  both  pairs  are  wanting.  Many  of  the  above-mentioned  features  clearly 
indicate  that  they  are  a  highly  specialised  group.  Since  the  number  of  young 
produced  at  a  birth  may  be  as  low  as  two,  and  does  not  seem  to  exceed  half 
a  score,  the  rate  of  increase  of  these  lizards  is  comparatively  slow. 

The  common  skink  (Scincus  officinalis)  which  isasrnooth-scaled,  parti-coloured 
lizard  of  about  eight  inches  in  length,  owes  its  scientificname  to  the  circumstance 

that  its  flesh  was  formerly  employed  in 
European  medicine,  as  it  still  is  in  the 
East.  It  is  a  creature  common  enough 
in  Syria  and  Palestine,  where  it  burrows 
in  the  sandy  soil.  Its  flesh  is  stated  by 
European  travellers  to  be  by  no  means 
unpalatable  if  properly  cooked.  The 
most  extraordinary-looking  member  of 
the  entire  family  is  the  Australian  stump- 
tailed  lizard  (Trachysaurus  rugosus), 
which  is  covered  with  large  rough 
browny  scales,  underlain  by  thick  bony 
Fig.  20.— COMMON  SKINK  plates,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give  it  the 

(Scincus  offidnalis).  appearance  of  an  extremely  elongated  pine- 

cone.  The  short  and  broad  head  is  triangular  in  form ;  the  limbs  are  very  short, 
the  front  and  hind  pair  being  widely  separated  from  each  other ;  and  the  tail  is 
reduced  to  a  very  short,  wide,  rounded  stump.  In  its  habits  the  lizard  is  slow 


SCALED  REPTILES— CHAMELEONS,  41 1 


and  lethargic,  as  if  existence  were  somewhat  of  a  bore,  and  although  its  chief 
food  is  of  an  animal  nature,  it  is  stated  also  to  consume  vegetable  substances. 
Certain  worm-like  burrowing  skinks  from  the  tropical  and  sub-tropical 
regions  of  the  globe  are  degraded  types,  regarded  as  constituting  two  families 
by  themselves.  In  both  these  families — the  Anelytropidce  and  the  Dibamidce 
— the  degradation  shows  itself  not  only  in  the  loss  of  limbs,  but  likewise  in 
the  simplification  of  the  skull,  which  has  lost  all  its  lateral  arches  ;  while  the 
eyes  are  buried  beneath  the  skin,  and  the  ears  have  no  external  opening.  In 
the  first  family — which  contains  the  Mexican  genus  Anelytrojms  and  the 
African  Feylinia  and  Typhlosaums  —  the  bony  plates  beneath  theH skin  are 
retained,  but  the  two  premaxillae  have  coalesced  into  a  single  bone.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  the  Dibamidce  the  premaxillse  remain  distinct,  but  the  bony 
plates  in  the  skin  have  disappeared.  This  second  family  is  represented  only 
by  the  genus  Dilxvmus,  of  which  one  species  ranges  from  the  Moluccas  through 
Celebes  to  New  Guinea,  while  the  second  is  restricted  to  the  Nicobar  Islands. 


Sub-Order  II.  — Rhiptoglossa. 
CHAMELEONS. 

In  their  slow  and  deliberate  movements,  as  well  as  by  their  peculiar  revolv- 
ing eyes  and  generally  grotesque  appearance;  chatmeleons  suggest  the  idea 
that  they  do  not  properly  belong  to  the  present  order  of  things,  but  are  sur- 
vivors from  some  ancient  epoch  in  the  earth's  history,  when  strange  and 
uncouth  monsters  were  to  the  fore.  Nevertheless,  we  have  no  evidence  that 
such  is  really  the  case,  since  such  fossil  chamseleons  as  are  known  belong  to  a 
comparatively  late  era,  and  the  extreme  specialisation  of  these  strange  crea- 
tures is,  perhaps,  rather  in  favour  of  their  modern  origin.  Although  in 
popular  language  chamoeleons  come  under  the  designation  of  lizards,  they  are 
structurally  so  different  from  the  Lacertilia  that  there  can  be  no  hesitation  in 
regarding  them  as  the  representatives  of  a  distinct  sub-order.  Apart  from 
the  peculiarities  of  their  external  appearance,  they  are  broadly  distinguished 
from  lizards  by  the  conformation  of  the  tongue.  Anyone  who  has  seen  a 
tamie  charneeleon  harpoon  a  fly  at  a  distance  of  half  a  dozen  inches  from  its 
lips,  will  not  readily  forget  the  appearance  of  the  long  extensile,  worm-like 
organ  which  is  shot  out  from  the  mouth  with  the  speed  of  an  arrow,  to  be 
withdrawn  immediately  after  with  the  hapless  victim  adhering  to  its  viscid 
and  club-shaped  tip.  The  feet,  too,  are  as  unique  in  their  way  as  is  the 
tongue,  some  of  the  toes  turning  in  one  direction  and  the  remainder  in  the 
other,  so  as  to  form  a  grasping  organ  of  unrivalled  power.  Whereas  in  the 
front  feet  three  toes  go  to  form  the  inner  half  of  the  grasping  organ,  and  two 
to  the  outer,  in  the  hind-limbs  this  arrangement  is  reversed.  The  large  re- 
volving and  prominent  eye  is  in  the  form  of  an  egg,  with  most  of  the  exposed 
portion  invested  by  a  thick  continuous  lid  of  a  granular  texture,  in  the  centre 
of  which  is  the  minute  perforation  for  the  pupil.  Each  eye  can  be  moved 
independently  of  its  fellow  ;  and  these  movements  serve  to  heighten  the 
general  grotesqueness  of  the  creature's  appearance.  Owing  to  the  frequent 
development  of  three  tall  backwardly-projecting  ridges  on  the  hinder  part  of 
the  skull,  the  head  often  assumes  a  casque-like  form  ;  arid  the  small  triangu- 
lar and  compressed  teeth  are  affixed  to  the  jaws  in  the  acrodont  manner.  In 
all  the  species  the  body  is  so  much  compressed  as  to  be  much  deeper  than 


4i2  REPTILIA— ORDER  HI.—SQUAMATA. 


wide,  while,  owing  to  the  great  relative  length  of  the  lanky  limbs,  it  is  raised 
high  above  the  ground.     The  long  tapering  tail  is  as  good  a  grasping  organ  as 
that  of  an  American  monkey.     Externally,  the  whole  surface  is  covered  with 
granules,  or  small  tubercles,  so  that,  properly  speaking,  chamseleons  do  not  come 
under  the  title  of  Squamata.     In  their  skeleton,  chameleons  differ  from  all 
lizards  with  fully-developed  limbs  by  the  complete  loss  of  their  collar-bones. 
Chamseleons  are  all  so  closely  related  to  one  another  that  a  single  family — 
the  Ghamceleontidce — suffices  for  the  group.     Moreover,  with  the  exception  of 
three  Malagasy  species  forming  the  genus  Brookesia, 
and   two   others  from  Africa,    which   are   separated 
as  Rampholeon,  all  the  forms  may  be  included  in  the 
typical  genus  Chamcdeon,  of  which  forty -four  specific 
representatives  are    recognised.     As    regards    their 
geographical    distribution,    chamreleons    are    chiefly 
characteristic  of  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara  and  Mada- 
gascar ;  but  the  common  Chamceleon  vulgaris  is  an 
inhabitant  of  many  of  the  Eastern   Mediterranean 
countries,  and  is  also  found  in  Andalusia  and  Algeria. 
India  and  Ceylon  likewise  possess  a  representative  of 
the  same  genus,  while  South  Arabia  is  the  home  of  a 
third,   and   Socotra   of  a   fourth.     Great  difference 
exists  in  the  bodily  size  of  the  various  members  of  the 
family  ;    the   smallest  being   a  species  of  Brookesia 
measuring   less  than  three  inches  in  length,   while 
Fig.  21.— A  CHAMELEON.      many  of  the  larger  kinds  grow  to  considerably  more 

than  a  foot. 

Chamseleons  are  essentially  arboreal  animals,  mostly  living  in  trees  or 
bushes  abundantly  clothed  with  leaves,  and  in  localities  where  moisture  is 
plentiful.  Although  these  reptiles  have  long  been  celebrated  for  their  power 
of  changing  the  colour  of  their  skins,  yet  it  appears  that  the  phenomenon  is 
by  no  means  so  strongly  marked  in  this  group  as  it  is  among  certain  lizards. 
Still  there  is  considerable  change  ;  and  whereas  most  chameeleons  are  gener- 
ally of  an  apple-green  colour  in  daylight,  it  is  stated  that  during  the  night  the 
tint  of  the  skin  fades  to  a  greyish-white.  If  during  the  daytime  a  chamseleon 
passes  from  a  leaf  to  a  bough,  its  skin  soon  assimilates  to  the  sombre  hue 
of  the  latter  ;  and  if  seized  in  the  hand  the  change  is  even  more  rapid.  In  spite 
of  the  partiality  of  nearly  all  the  species  for  dense  tropical  or  sub- tropical  vegeta- 
tion, a  few  have  betaken  themselves  to  spots  in  desert  districts  where  they  find 
herbage  enough  for  their  needs.  All  are  insectivorous,  their  favourite  food 
being  flies  ;  and  the  rapidity  with  which  one  of  these  insects  is  seized  by  the 
tongue  forms  a  strange  contrast  to  the  otherwise  sluggish  and  deliberate  move- 
ments of  these  reptiles. 

Sub-Order  IIL—Ophidia. 
SNAKES/ 

The  leading  structural  features  by  which  snakes  are  distinguished  from  the 
limbless  lizards  having  been  already  given  under  the  heading  of  the  sub-order 
Lacertilia,  these  need  not  be  recapitulated,  and  attention  may  accordingly  be 
directed  to  some  of  the  other  characteristics  of  the  former  group.  Everybody 
is  aware  that  snakes  are  scaly  reptiles,  crawling  on  the  ground  without  the 


SCALED  REPTILES— SNAKES.  413 


aid  of  limbs ;  but  it  is  probably  less  widely  known  that  certain  members  of 
the  group  retain  vestiges  of  the  hind-legs  in  the  shape  of  two  spur-like  pro- 
jections from  the  body  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  vent.  And  in  such 
forms,  if  the  skeleton  be  examined,  it  will  be  found  that  there  are  remnants 
of  the  bony  framework  of  the  pelvis  and  upper  part  of  the  hind-limbs.  All 
these  facts  clearly  show  that  snakes  trace  their  descent  from  reptiles  endowed 
with  four  complete  limbs.  Under  the  heading  of  the  Lacertilia  it  has  been 
mentioned  that  the  two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw  of  a  snake  are  united  at  the! 
chin  by  a  ligament,  so  as  to  be  capable  of  wide  separation  from  one  another; 
and  in  many  members  of  the  group  the  capacity  of  the  mouth  can  be  further 
augmented  by  a  similar  arrangement  in  the  upper  jaw,  the  bones  of  both  the 
jaws  themselves,  and  likewise  those  of  the  palate,  being  movably  joined  to-, 
gether.  This  arrangement  permits  these  reptiles  to  devour  a  prey  of  con- 
siderably larger  size  than  the  normal  calibre  of  their  mouth  and  throat.  In 
place  of  movable  eyelids,  snakes  have  a  continuous  transparent  skin  stretched 
over  the  eyes,  which  is  periodically  cast  with  the  slough  ;  and  in  ho  case  is 
there  any  external  opening  to  the  ears.  A  peculiar  feature  in  a  serpent  is 
the  enormous  number  of  vertebrae  contained  in  the  backbone,  not  less  re- 
markable being  the  number  of  pairs  of  ribs.  In  fact,  from  the- head  to  a  long 
way  down  the  tail,  each  joint  of  the  backbone  carries  a  pair  of  these  append- 
ages, which  increase  gradually  in  length  from  the  head  to  the  fore-part  of  the 
trunk,  and  thence  as  gradually  diminish  to  the  tail.  There  being  no  vestiges 
of  collar-bones  or  breast-bone,  each  rib  terminates  below  in  a  free  point. 

In  order  to  give  extra  flexibility,  and  at  the  same  time  strength,  to  this 
exceedingly  elongated  backbone,  the  vertebrae  of  serpents  are  provided 
with  extra  articulations,  a  wedge-like  projection  from  one  fitting  in  to  a 
corresponding  hollow  in  the  next.  Such  additional  articulations  are,  however, 
by  no  means  confined  to  snakes ,  but  also  occur  in  some  lizards,  notably  the 
monitors.  In  ordinary  land  vertebrates  the  ribs  are  largely  connected  with 
the  function  of  breathing  ;  but  in  snakes  —in  addition  to  supporting  the  walls 
of  the  trunk,  and  thus  keeping  open  the  cavity  of  the  chest — their  chief 
function  is  in  progression,  so  that  these  reptiles  may  really  be  described  as 
rib- walkers.  On  the  under  surface  of  the  body  the  majority  of  snakes  have 
a  series  of  large  transverse  horny  shields,  which  are  much  wider  than  long, 
and  in  the  trunk-region  extend  right  across  the  lower  surface  ;  these  shields, 
it  may  be  remarked,  being  absent  in  the  limbless  lizards.  In  the  tail  the 
enlarged  shields  not  unfrequeritly  form  a  double  longitudinal  series.  Each 
of  the  complete  transverse  shields  corresponds  to  the  termination  of  a  pair  of 
ribs.  By  holding  on  to  the  inequalities  of  the  surface  they  are  traversing  by 
the  free  edges  of  the  shields — which  project  backwards — and  then  by  drawing 
closer  together  the  ribs  of  one  side  of  the  body,  and  afterwards  those  of  the 
other,  a  snake  produces  the  well-known  lateral  undulations  of  its  body.  By. 
straightening  out  the  front  part  of  the  body  when  a  firm  hold  is  obtained, 
and  then  drawing  after  it  the  hinder  portion,  progression  is  effected.  On  a 
smooth  surface  movement  is  impossible,  and  no  snake  ever  produces  vertical 
undulations  of  its  body.  All  snakes  have  a  prehensile  forked  tongue,  capable 
of  retraction  within  a  basal  sheath,  and  during  their  waking  hours  kept  hi: 
constant  movement.  Usually  the  head  of  a  snake,  both  above  and  below,  is 
invested  with  a  number  of  large  and  symmetrically-arranged  polished  horny; 
shields,  to  each  of  which  a  distinctive  name  is  given.  Internally,  snakes  are- 
remarkable  for  the  great  elongation  of  the  lungs,  or  rather  lung,  since,  as  a. 
rule,  only  the  one  on  the  right  side  is  functional. 


4M  KEPTILIA-ORDER  HL-SQUAMATA. 


As  regards  their  biting  organs,  harmless  snakes  generally  have  two  rows  of 
teeth  in  the  upper,  and  a  single  row  in  the  lower  jaw,  such  teeth  being 
slender,  sharp,  and  comparatively  short.  In  some,  however,  either  one  or 
two  pairs  of  teeth  of  the  outer  upper  series  may  be  larger  than  the  rest,  and 
provided  with  a  groove,  or  completely  tubular,  such  a  type  probably  always 
indicating  more  or  less  developed  noxious  properties.  In  some  of  the  most 
deadly  members  of  the  sub-order,  the  arrangements  for  the  injection  of  the 
poison  are  of  a  more  complicated  nature.  Here  the  short  maxillary  bones  are 
capable  of  being  moved  so  as  to  become  at  right  angles  to  the  bones  of  the 
rest  of  the  palate,  while  each  carries  a  large  channelled  tusk,  which,  at  the 
moment  of  biting,  assumes  an  erect  position.  Through  this  pair  of  tusks,  or 
fangs,  the  poison  is  conveyed  from  the  secreting  glands,  which  are  placed 
below  and  behind  the  eyes.  In  some  kinds  these  glands  are  short,  those  of  the 
cobra  being  of  the  size  of  an  almond  ;  but  in  others  they  extend  far  down  the 
body.  Regarding  the  mode  of  operation,  an  Australian  writer  observes  that 
"the  curious  structure  of  the  fang  makes  it  almost  certain  that  the  poison 
shall  be  injected  under  the  skin.  The  opening  of  the  groove  is  not  at  the 
very  tip,  where  it  would  be  liable  to  get  plugged  up  with  skin  or  flesh,  and  so 
prevent  the  passage  of  the  poison,  but  a  little  way  up  from  and  in  front  of 
this,  so  that  the  sharp  point  goes  in  first,  and  makes  a  little  hole  into  which 
the  poison  flows.  In  fact  the  poison  fang  is  the  model  of  the  medical  inject- 
ing syringe,  and  is  exactly  adapted  to  its  purpose.  The  secretion  of  the 
gland  varies  in  different  snakes  in  quantity  and  in  quality.  It  is  a  clear 
viscid  fluid,  which  can  retain  its  deadly  properties  for  long,  and  does  not  even 
lose  them  when  dissolved  in  water  or  alcohol.  Sir  J.  Fayrer,  the  great 
authority  on  Indian  snakes,  found  that  the  blood  of  an  animal  killed  by  snake 
poison  was  itself  poisonous,  and  he  transmitted  the  venom  through  a  series  of 
three  animals  with  fatal  results." 

It  was  long  supposed  that  harmless  and  noxious  serpents  were  broadly  dis- 
tinguished from  one  another  by  definite  external  characters,  but  this  is  now 
known  to  be  incorrect  ;  and  it  is  only  by  an  examination  of  the  teeth  that  ifc 
can  be  determined  whether  or  no  any  particular  serpent  is  hurtful.  The 
destruction  of  human  life  by  snake-bite  in  India  is  something  appalling,  as 
may  be  gleaned  by  a  recent  return  of  the  Indian  Government.  It  is  there 
stated  that,  whereas  in  1892  the  deaths  caused  by  snake-bite  in  the  lower 
provinces  of  Bengal  were  9,510,  in  1893  the  number  rose  to  10,797.  Though 
the  deaths  in  Bengal,  as  might  be  supposed  from  its  larger  area,  exceeded 
those  in  the  other  provinces,  there  was  apparently  nothing  permanent  in  the 
rise,  as  the  number  fell  to  9,856  in  1894.  The  decrease  of  mortality  during 
1894  is  ascribed  in  Bengal  and  Assam  to  the  low  flood-levels,  the  snakes  not 
having  been  dislodged  from  their  usual  haunts,  as  happens  when  the  water  is 
high.  In  Assam  the  mortality  is  the  lowest  recorded  in  the  last  ten  years. 
The  loss  of  life  from  snake-bite  was  highest,  in  proportion  to  the  population, 
in  Bengal,  Ajmir,  the  North- Western  Provinces,  and  Oudh  and  the  Central 
Provinces.  If  all  the  provinces  be  taken  together,  one  person  was  killed  in 
this  manner  among  every  10,267  of  the  population  in  1894,  as  compared  with 
one  in  every  10,424  in  1893.  The  apparent  increase  in  Assam  is  ascribed  to 
more  accurate  reporting.  In  the  Central  Provinces  the  same  explanation  has 
been  offered  for  a  continuous  increase  ;  but  the  statistics  in  general  are  viewed 
with  distrust.  The  number  of  venomous  snakes  reported  to  have  been 
destroyed,  and  the  rewards  granted  oil  this  account  shown  in  the  return,  fell 
respectively  from  117,120  to  102,210,  and  from  Rs.  12,607  to  Rs.10,150. 


SCALED  REPTILES— SNAKES.  415 

Anything  that  can  check  this  frightful  mortality  must  be  welcomed  ;  and, 
after  the  trial  of  many  so-called  remedies,  it  appears  that  a  real  antidote  is  the 
blood-serum  of  animals  which  have  been  previously  immunised  to  snake- 
poison  or  in  that  of  venomous  serpents  themselves.  Regarding  the  former 
method,  Dr.  J.  G.  M'Pherson  writes  that  its  discoverer — Professor  Fraser  of 
Edinburgh — first  proved  that  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  toleration  for 
snake-poison  in  animals.  "  Having  ascertained  the  minimum  dose  required 
to  cause  the  death  of  an  animal,  he  started  below  that  amount  and  gradually 
increased  the  dose  after  intervals  of  ten  days.  By  this  process  of  gradual  .n- 
creases  in  the  dose  of  the  snake-poison,  he  found  the  animal  receiving  is 
much  at  one  time  as  fifty  times  the  amount  of  the  minimum  lethal  dose  with- 
out it  causing  any  perceptible  bad  effects.  In  fact,  its  general  health 
seemed  to  improve,  as  he  had  the  animals  weighed  once  and  sometimes  twice 
every  day ;  and  all  the  time  he  was  administering  the  venom  there  was  a 
steady  increase  in  weight.  In  the  meantime  Professor  Fraser  has  not  carried 
his  experiments  of  quantity  further  than  fifty  times  the  minimum  lethal  dose 
at  one  time  ;  but  still,  when  he  had  got  to  that  point,  the  animal  was  receiv- 
ing in  a  single  dose,  without  being  affected,  enough  to  kill  fifty  animals  of  the 
same  size  and  weight.  One  of  the  animals  which  he  had  treated  by  this 
gradually  increasing  quantity  had,  in  two  months,  received  enough  poison  to 
kill  three  hundred  and  seventy  fresh  animals  of  equal  size  and  weight,  sup- 
posing that  each  just  got  the  minimum  lethal  dose.  He  then  described  a 
second  series  of  experiments  in  which  he  used  the  blood-serum  of  these 
animals  which  had  been  immunised  as  an  antidote  for  the  venom.  He  mixed 
an  equal  part  of  this  blood -serum  and  venom  together,  and  injected  the  mix, 
ture  into  a  fresh  animal.  This  produced  no  effect,  the  serum  counteracting 
the  action  of  the  poison.  Next  he  injected  some  of  the  immunised  blood- 
serum,  which  he  has  named  antivenine,  into  a  fresh  animal,  and  then  some 
venom  afterwards,  but  the  serum  hindered  any  action  of  the  venom.  Then 
he  took  another  fresh  animal  and  injected  the  venom,  waiting  till  symptoms 
of  poisoning  were  manifest ;  at  once  he  injected  his  antivenitie,  and  put  a  stop 
to  any  further  progress  of  the  poisoning.  The  same  results  took  place  after 
many  experiments.  All  this  points  to  the  conclusion  that  this  antivenine,  or 
blood-serum,  in  an  animal  that  has  been  able  to  stand  with  impunity  fifty 
lethal  doses  at  a  time  by  the  increasing  dose  process  is  really  an  antidote  to 
the  poison  of  snakes."  Subsequent  experiments  have  shown,  as  was  not 
unanticipated,  that  the  blood-serum  of  venomous  snakes  is  likewise  an  anti- 
dote to  their  own  poison. 

Nearly  all  snakes  feed  upon  the  bodies  of  animals  that  they  have  killed 
themselves,  the  few  exceptions  to  this  rule  subsisting  on  eggs.  Owing  to  the 
extensile  structure  of  the  mouth  and  jaws,  already  mentioned,  as  well  as  to 
the  separation  of  the  lower  ejvls  of  the  ribs,  and  the  power  of  extension  exist- 
ing in  the  stomach,  snakes  c,in  devour  animals  of  larger  circumference  than 
the  ordinary  girth  of  their  own  bodies.  Both  absolutely  and  proportionately 
the  largest  animals  are  swallowed  by  the  pythons  and  boas  ;  and  as  these 
snakes  kill  their  prey  by  encircling  it  in  the  folds  of  their  bodies,  and  thus 
crushing  it  to  death,  the  carcase  is  rendered  soft  and  plastic,  and  thus  more 
easily  swallowed  than  would  otherwise  be  the  case.  Occasionally  these  ser- 
pents will  swallow  members  of  their  own  species,  as  happened  not  long  ago 
in  the  menagerie  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London.  In  this  instance,  two 
large  boas  occupied  the  same  compartment  in  the  reptile-house,  the  one 
measuring  nine  and  the  other  eight  feet  in  length.  One  night  the  two  were 


4i6  REPTILIA— ORDER  III.— SQUAMA TA. 


seen  all  safe  at  closing  time,  but  when  the  house  was  opened  next  morning, 
"  only  one  boa  was  found  in  the  cage  ;  the  other  had  disappeared.  Though 
the  survivor  was  only  a  foot  longer  than  the  other  snake,  there  was  no  reason 
to  doubt  that  it  had  completely  swallowed  its  companion.  It  was  so  dis- 
tended that  the  scales  were  almost  separated,  and  it  was  unable  either  to  coil 
itself  or  to  move.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  in  accomplishing  this 
almost  incredible  feat  the  snake  acted  by  mistake,  and  that  it  devoured  its 
companion  by  what  deserves  to  be  called  an  accident.  The  larger  boa  was  fed 
with  a  pigeon  before  the  house  was  closed  for  the  night.  It  swallowed  the 
bird,  and  the  other  boa  was  then  given  a  pigeon,  which  it  had  begun  to 
swallow  when  the  snakes  were  left  for  the  night.  It  is  believed  that  the 
larger  snake  then  caught  hold  of  the  part  of  the  pigeon  which  projected  from 
the  other's  mouth,  and  gradually  enveloped  not  only  the  bird,  but  the  head 
of  the  other  snake.  Once  begun,  the  swallowing  process  would  go  on  almost 
mechanically.  As  the  swallowed  snake  was  only  one  foot  less  in  length  than 
the  swallower,  and  of  nearly  equal  bulk,  weighing  about  fifty  pounds,  the 
gastric  juices  must  have  dissolved  the  portion  which  first  entered  the  snake's 
stomach  before  the  remainder  was  drawn  into  the  jaws.  Though  still  rather 
lethargic,  the  surviving  boa  is  not  injured  by  its  meal.  It  coils  itself  up  with- 
out difficulty,  and  its  scales  have  the  beautiful  iridescent  bloom  peculiar  to 
the  skin  of  snakes  when  in  perfect  health."  Within  about  a  fortnight  the 
cannibal  had  completely  recovered  its  usual  condition.  The  majority  of 
snakes  swallow  their  prey  while  still  living,  as  may  be  often  witnessed  when 
a  common  English  water-snake  seizes  an  unfortunate  frog.  Vipers  and 
cobras,  on  the  other  hand,  first  kill  their  prey  by  the  injection  of  venom. 
But  few  meals  suffice  for  a  snake,  in  spite  of  the  circumstance  that  these  rep- 
tiles digest  their  food  with  great  rapidity. 

In  their  general  mode  of  life  serpents  show  much  variation,  some  living  in 
sandy  deserts,  others  haunting  swampy  localities,  while  yet  others  spend  a 
large  portion  of  their  time  in  fresh  water.  Some,  again,  are  mainly  arboreal, 
and  the  members  of  one  group  are  marine,  and  may  be  met  with  swimming 
in  the  open  sea  far  away  from  land.  The  aquatic  snakes — both  fresh-water 
and  marine — as  well  as  vipers,  give  birth  to  living  young  ;  whereas  the  others 
lay  soft-shelled  eggs.  Generally  these  are  left  to  hatch  by  themselves,  aided 
sometimes  by  such  heat  as  may  be  produced  by  the  decomposition  of  the 
heaps  of  leaves  and  other  vegetable  substances  in  which  they  are  not  infre- 
quently deposited  ;  but  pythons  actually  brood  their  eggs.  It  might  be 
thought  that  incubation  by  a  cold-blooded  creature  would  not  aid  develop- 
ment ;  but  it  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  at  such  seasons  the  temperature  of  the 
blood  of  these  snakes  is  raised  slightly  above  the  normal. 

Serpents  attain  their  maximum  development,  both  as  regards  numbers  and 
size,  in  the  steamy  tropical  and  sub-tropical  zones  ;  and  it  is  here  also  that 
the  most  venomous  forms  are  met  with.  Even  in  such  localities  there  is, 
however,  great  variation  in  the  relative  proportions  of  noxious  and  innocuous 
kinds  ;  and  in  the  large  proportion  of  the  former  the  Oriental  countries  bear 
an  evil  reputation,  as  they  also  do  in  respect  to  the  abundance  of  snakes  in 
general.  Next  to  these  countries  comes  Tropical  America  in  point  of  numbers ; 
whereas  Africa  has  only  about  half  as  many  snakes  as  inhabit  the  Indian  and 
Malayan  countries.  The  African  serpents  are,  as  a  whole,  unlike  those  of 
Madagascar  ;  while  the  latter  show  a  considerable  resemblance  to  South 
American  types.  The  Australian  snake-fauna  is  allied  to  that  of  India  and 
the  Malayan  countries,  as  is  well  exemplified  by  the  occurrence  in  both  of 


SCALED  REPTILES— SNAKES.  417 


pythons.  In  temperate  regions  snakes  become  gradually  less  common  as  we 
proceed  north  in  the  one  hemisphere  and  south  in  the  other ;  but,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  New  Zealand  and  the  polar  regions,  the  group  may  be  considered 
to  enjoy  practically  a  world-wide  range.  Nine  families  of  snakes  are  recognised 
by  zoologists  ;  and  these  include  a  very  large  number  of  genera,  and  probably 
more  than  fifteen  hundred  distinct  species.  With  such  a  vast  assemblage,  it  is 
of  course  impracticable  in  our  limited  space  to  do  more  than  notice  the  leading 
and  most  important  types.  And  even  treating  the  group  in  this  manner, 
there  is  considerable  difficulty  in  giving  the  student  a  proper  idea  of  the 
subject,  on  account  of  the  close  structural  similarity  between  many  of  the 
families.  To  understand  snakes  thoroughly  requires  an  intimate  acquaintance 
with  a  mass  of  structural  details,  and  the  acquisition  of  a  host  of  technical 
terms  ;  and  these  can  only  be  acquired  by  a  patient  practical  study  of  the 
group. 

At  the  head  of  the  sub-order  are  now  placed  the  two  comparatively  unim- 
portant families  of  blind-snakes,  which  differ  from  all  the  rest  in  lacking 
teeth  in  either  the  upper  or  the  lower  jaw.  In  form,  these 
snakes  are  cylindrical  and  worm-like,  with  relatively  short  Blind-Snakes. — 
heads  and  tails ;  while  in  habits  they  likewise  resemble  Families 
worms,  passing  most  of  their  lives  in  tunnels  driven  by  Typhlopidce  and 
themselves  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Here  they  Glanconiidce. 
subsist  by  feeding  upon  such  insects  or  their  larvse  as  they 
happen  to  encounter,  ants  being  apparently  a  very  favourite  dish.  Dull, 
rainy  weather  will  occasionally  tempt  them  above  ground.  Living  in  such 
subterranean  haunts,  the  large  inferior  transverse  shields  of  ordinary  serpents 
would  be  useless,  and  we  accordingly  find  the  bodies  of  the  blind-snakes 
covered  all  round  with  scales  of  equal  size,  although  there  are  some  large 
shields  on  the  fore  part  of  the  head,  beneath  a  pair  of  which  are  buried  the 
rudimental  and  useless  eyes.  Unlike  most  of  their  kindred,  these  snakes 
cannot  expand  their  jaws  ;  and  the  small  aperture  of  the  mouth  is  placed  on 
the  under  side  of  the  head.  That  these  snakes  are  nearly  related  to  limbed 
reptiles  is  proved  by  the  retention  in  the  skeleton  of  more  or  less  distinct 
vestiges  of  the  pelvis.  An  important  feature  in  the  structure  of  the  bony 
palate,  which  need  not  be  considered  in  detail  here,  suffices  to  distinguish 
them  from  all  the  other  members  of  the  sub-order,  to  which  it  seems  likely 
that  they  have  no  close  relationship.  Indeed  it  is  quite  probable  that  whereas 
the  blind-snakes  are  descended  from  one  group  of  lizard-like  reptiles,  all 
other  ophidians  may  trace  their  origin  to  a  second.  In  the  first  of  the  two 
families  into  which  the  blind-snakes  are  divided,  it  is  the  lower  jaw  which  has 
lost  its  teeth,  and  the  pelvis  is  represented  by  a  single  pair  of  bones.  The 
family,  which  includes  three  distinct  genera,  with  about  a  hundred  species, 
ranges  over  all  the  warmer  countries  ;  one  species  of  the  large  typical  genus 
Typhlops  occurring  in  Southern  and  Eastern  Europe.  On  the  other  hand, 
in  the  Glauconiidce  it  is  the  upper  jaw  that  has  no  teeth,  while  two  pairs  of 
bones  remain  to  represent  the  pelvis.  The  family  includes  only  the  genus 
Glaucouia,  of  which  there  are  nearly  thirty  species  ranging  over  Africa,  the 
south-west  of  Asia,  and  America. 

Of  far  more  importance  than  the  last  is  the  great  family  of  boas  and 
pythons,  which  include  the  largest  of  all  living  snakes,  and  are  characterised 
by  their  habit  of  killing  their  prey  by  crushing  it  in  the  folds  of  their  bodies. 
Like  the  blind-snakes,  these  huge  serpents  retain  external  vestiges  of  the 
hind-limbs,  and  likewise  internal  traces  of  the  pelvis  ;  but  as  they  differ  con- 
28 


4i8  REPTIL1A— ORDER  II1.—SQUAMATA. 


siderably  from  the  former  in  the  conformation  of  the  bony  palate  of  the  skull, 

it  is  most  probable  that  they  have  a  totally  distinct  origin.      Since  they 

agree  in  this  respect  with  the  other  seven  more  specialised 

Boa  Tribe. —  families  included  in  the  sub-order,  it  is  not  improbable  that 
Family  Boida&.  these  snakes  are  the  survivors  of  the  ancestral  stock  from 
which  all  the  latter  have  originated.  The  jaws,  too,  are  un- 
like those  of  the  blind-snakes  in  that  both  are  armed  with  a  complete  series  of 
teeth.  The  vestiges  of  the  hind-limbs  usually  take  the  form  of  a  pair  of 
spurs  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  vent.  The  other  distinctive  features  of 
the  family  are  mainly  connected  with  the  structure  of  the  skull ;  and  as  the 
only  other  snakes  with  vestiges  of  limbs  are  the  small  Ilysiidce,  which  are  not 
likely  to  be  confounded  with  the  members  of  the  present  family,  it  will  be 
superfluous  to  allude  further  to  these  peculiarities.  The  family,  which  ranges 
over  all  the  warmer  regions  of  both  hemispheres,  is  divided  into  the  two  sub- 
families of  the  pythons  or  rock-snakes  (Pythonince),  and  the  boa-constrictors 
and  sand-snakes  (Boince).  All  the  species  included  in  the  former  are  re- 
stricted to  the  Old  World  ;  but  whereas  the  typical  boas  are  solely  American 
and  Malagasy,  some  other  members  of  the  second  group  are  widely  distributed 
in  the  Eastern  Hemisphere.  The  first  sub-family  is  particularly  characterised 
by  the  presence  of  an  additional  pair  of  bones — the  supraorbitals — in  the 
roof  of  the  skull,  which  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  margins  of  the  eye- 
sockets.  The  members  of  the  genus  Python  are  all  large  serpents,  having 
teeth  in  the  premaxillary  or  front  upper  jaw-bones,  and  a  double  series  of 
shields  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  tail,  the  latter  being  distinctly  prehensile. 
Still  more  important  is  the  presence  of  'pits  in  two  of  the  shields  on  each 
side  of  the  fore  part  of  the  head  ;  while  other  distinctive  features  are  to  be 
found  in  the  characters  of  the  teeth,  as  well  as  in  the  vertical  slit  formed  by  the 
pupil  of  the  eye.  There  are  nine  different  species  of  pythons  recognised  by 
zoologists  ;  and  these  range  over  Africa  and  the  Oriental  countries,  together 
with  Australia  and  New  Guinea.  Fifteen  and  even  twenty  feet  is  by  no 
means  an  uncommon  length  for  the  larger  kinds,  such  as  the  Indian  P. 
molurus ;  and  occasionally  specimens  grow  to  between  twenty  and  thirty  feet. 

A  python,  after  having  suffocated  its  victim  by  enveloping  it  in  the  coils 
of  its  body,  proceeds  to  swallow  it  by  seizing  it  by  the  head  and  gradually 
drawing  it>  down.  Greatly  exaggerated  notions  are  prevalent  as  to  the 
size  of  the  animals  which  can  be  swallowed  by  pythons  and  boas  ;  and  the 
stories  of  whole  buffaloes  and  large  deer  are  obviously  unworthy  of  credence. 
Indeed,  it  seems  probable  that  even  a  full-grown  sheep  is  too  large  for  the 
capacity  of  the  leave  of  even  the  biggest  of  the  tribe  ;  and  a  sheep  of  half 
the  full  size  would  seem  to  be  about  the  limit.  In  habits,  pythons  are  chiefly 
nocturnal,  and  they  are  partial  to  damp  forest  districts  where  water  is  easy 
of  access.  In  such  situations  they  not  unfrequeritly  take  up  their  residence 
in  the  roofs  of  houses  when  made  of  straw  or  other  vegetable  substances;  and 
a  well-known  account  of  the  discovery  of  such  an  unwelcome  intruder  into 
his  temporary  abode  is  narrated  by  Mr.  Wallace.  Perhaps  the  most 
peculiar  circumstance  in  the  life-history  of  these  serpents  is  the  incuba- 
tion of  the  eggs.  These,  which  comprise  a  large  number,  are  arranged 
in  a  pyramidal  heap,  round  which  the  parent  coils  her  body  ;  this  posture 
being  in  some  instances  maintained  for  nearly  two  months.  Regarding 
the  appetite  of  a  python  (miscalled  a  boa)  formerly  in  his  possession, 
Captain  Hey  land  writes  as  follows  : — "The  animal  was  brought  to  me  early 
in  January,  and  did  not  taste  food  from  that  time  until  the  July  follow. 


SCALED  REPTILES— SNAKES.  419 


ing.  During  this  period  he  generally  drank  a  quart  of  water  daily,  The 
man  who  brought  him  stated  that  he  had  been  seen  to  eat  a  hog-deer  the 
dciy  before  he  was  taken.  One  evening  early  in  July,  hearing  a  noise,  I 
went  out,  and  discovered  that  the  snake  had  left  his  harbour  under  the 
boards  of  a  stable  where  he  generally  lay,  and  having  entered  a  small  shed 
in  which  some  fowls  were  roosting,  had  swept  eleven  from  the  perch,  and 
destroyed  them  by  pressing  them  between  his  folds.  Then  taking  them  one  by 
one  head  foremost  into  his  mouth,  swallowed  the  whole  down  in  twenty  minutes. 
The  largest  animal  that  he  ate  while  in  my  possession  was  a  calf,  which  he 
killed  and  gorged  in  two  hours  and  twenty  minutes.  He  never  attacked 
dogs,  cats,  or  pigs.  Of  these  last,  indeed,  he  seemed  to  be  in  dread,  for 
whenever  one  was  presented  to  him,  he  retired  to  a  corner  and  coiled  himself 
up  with  his  head  undermost.  If  fed  with  animals  not  larger  than  a  duck,  he 
ate  readily  every  day,  but  after  the  meal  of  a  goat  refused  food  for  a  month." 
In  Australia  the  genus  is  represented  by  P.  apilotis,  of  which  one  variety  is 
commonly  termed  the  diamond -snake,  the  other  the  carpet-snake. 

An  Australian  writer  observes  that  "  of  our  two  pythons  or  rock-snakes, 
one,  the  diamond-snake,  does  not  occur  farther  south  than  New  South 
Wales,  whilst  the  carpet-snake  has  a  wider  range,  extending  from  Queens- 
land to  even  as  far  as  Southern  > Victoria.  These  pythons  may  reach  the 
length  of  sixteen  feet,  but  a  more  usual  length  is  eight  feet  to  ten  feet. 
The  diamond-snake  has  a  yellow  spot  in  the  centre  of  each  of  its  black 
scales,  whilst  the  carpet-snake  has  a  series  of  lighter  patches  with  dark 
centres  along  each  side,  producing  a  fancied  resemblance  to  the  pattern  of  a 
carpet.  They  are  really  nocturnal  animals,  feeding  on  birds  and  small 
mammals,  whilst  in  turn  the  blacks  will  eat  their  flesh  with  avidity."  Krefft 
thus  describes  the  way  in  which  they  secure  their  prey: — "Coiled  on  the 
branch  of  a  tree,  the  reptile  moves  only  the  head  and  part  of  the  body, 
advancing  and  retreating,  in  fact  measuring  its  distance,  with  its  head  and 
neck  bent  into  the  form  of  a  horizontal  S.  When  pretty  sure  of  its  aim,  the 
snake  darts  forward  with  open  jaws,  fastens  upon  its  victim,  and  in  an 
instant  brings  it  within  a  loop  formed  by  a  portion  of  the  body,  which 
gradually  tightens  till  the  prey  is  suffocated.  In  this  position  the  snake  will 
remain  for  twenty  minutes  or  half  an  hour,  holding  the  body  of  the  animal 
tightly.  It  then  gradually  uncoils,  and,  if  inclined  to  feed,  begins  the  pro- 
cess of  swallowing  with  the  head.7'  In  Africa  the  best  known  representative 
of  the  genus  is  Python  selm,  commonly  termed  the  Natal  rock-snake  in  the 
southern  parts  of  that  continent.  Nearly  allied  to  the  pythons  are  the  genera 
Laxocemus,  Nardoa,  and  Liasis;  the  first  including  a  single  small  species 
from  Mexico,  the  second  one  inhabiting  New  Ireland,  while  the  third  has 
several  representatives  ranging  from  Timor  to  New  Guinea  and  Northern 
Australia.  All  these  resemble  the  true  pythons  in  having  the  premaxillre 
toothed,  but  in  the  Papuan  Chrondropython,  as  well  as  in  the  North  Australian 
Aspidites  and  the  West  African  Calabaria,  those  bones  carry  no  teeth. 

The  absence  of  prernaxillary  teeth  is  likewise  characteristic  of  the  members 
of  the  sub-family  Boince,  which  are,  however,  specially  distinguished  by  the 
want  of  the  aforesaid  supraoccipital  bone  in  the  skull.  All  have  teeth  on  the 
palate,  and  likewise  most  of  the  shields  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  tail 
arranged  in  a  single  series  ;  but  in  these  respects  they  resemble  some  of  the 
three  genera  last  mentioned.  Most  of  the  boa  tribe  have  the  head  well 
marked  off  from  the  neck,  and  the  tail  with  a  certain  amount  of  prehensile 
power.  Foremost  among  these  are  the  tree-boas  of  the  genus  Epicrates,  in  all 


420  REPTILTA— ORDER  IH.—SQUAMATA. 


of  which  the  teeth  in  the  fore  part  of  the  jaws  are  superior  in  size  to  those  be- 
hind, while  the  head  is  covered  with  shields,  the  scales  on  the  body  are  smooth, 
and  there  are,  at  most,  but  shallow  pits  in  the  so-called  labial  shields  of  the 
muzzle.  All  the  members  of  the  genus  are  inhabitants  of  Tropical  America, 
the  largest  not  exceeding  seven  feet  in  length.  The  presence  of  deep  pits  in 
the  labial  shields  serves  to  distinguish  the  species  of  the  nearly  allied  genus 
Corcdlus,  of  which  four  are  from  Tropical  America,  while  the  fifth  is  found  in 
Madagascar.  Four  other  snakes  from  the  Moluccas,  New  Guinea,  and 
Oceania,  constitute  the  genus  Enygrus,  which  differs  from  both  the  preceding 
in  having  ridges  on  the  scales  of  the  body.  These  boas  do  not  appear  to 
molest  human  beings,  but  the  case  is  different  with  the  anaconda  (Eunectes 
murinus)  of  Tropical  America,  which  grows  to  thirty  feet  or  more  in  length. 

In  common  with  three  other  genera  from  the  same  countries,  two  of 
which  are  respectively  represented  by  a  single  species,  while  the  third  in- 
cludes several,  the  anaconda  differs  from  all  the  foregoing  in  that  the  front 
teeth  are  not  greatly  enlarged,  the  whole  series  gradually  diminishing  in 
height  from  before  backwards.  Among  the  distinctive  generic  characters  of 
the  anaconda  may  be  noticed  the  small  size  of  the  scales.  Its  general  colour 
is  olive  or  greyish-brown  on  the  upper  surface,  upon  which  are  one  or  two 
rows  of  large,  dark,  transversely- elongated  blotches,  and  one  or  two  of  eye- 
like  spots  on  the  sides.  The  anaconda  is  essentially  a  water-snake,  and  in 
those  parts  of  its  habitat  which  are  subject  to  a  long  period  of  drought,  it 
buries  itself  in  the  dried  river  mud  till  the  return  of  moister  conditions.  In 
the  anaconda  one  of  the  pairs  of  shields  on  the  head,  technically  known  as 
nasals,  come  into  contact  with  one  another  in  the  middle  line  behind  the 
muzzle,  but  in  the  nearly-allied  snakes  forming  the  genus  Boa  a  median  line 
of  small  scales  separates  all  the  nasal  shields.  Of  the  seven  species  of  true 
boas,  five  are  from  the  warmer  parts  of  Central  and  South  America,  whereas 
the  other  two  are  met  with  in  far  distant  Madagascar.  The  common  boa-con- 
strictor (Boa  constrictor)  has 
a  wide  geographical  range, 
being  found  from  Venezuela 
to  the  inland  districts  of  the 
Upper  Argentine.  Although 
marvellous  stories  are  current 
as  to  the  rapacity  of  this 
species  —  whose  maximum 
length  is  about  a  dozen  feet 
— it  appears  that  its  usual 
Fig.  22. -BOA  CONSTRICTOR.  fOO(j  consists  of  the  smaller 

mammals,  while  even  eggs  are 

sometimes  swallowed.  It  will,  however,  occasionally  attack  and  kill  deer  or 
peccaries.  All  its  victims  are  destroyed  by  the  crushing  effect  of  the  com- 
pression of  the  encircling  folds  of  the  body.  A  snake  from  a  small  island 
near  Mauritius,  forming  the  genus  Cdsarea,  differs  from  the  true  boas  in  having 
distinct  keels  on  its  scales,  as  well  as  in  the  greater  relative  length  of  the  tail. 
The  only  other  members  of  the  family  that  can  be  noticed  are  the  sand- 
snakes  (Erifx)  of  South-Eastern  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  and  East  Africa, 
which  differ  from  the  boas  in  the  want  of  any  distinct  line  of  demarcation 
between  the  head  and  neck.  These  snakes  derive  their  name  from  frequent- 
ing open  sandy  districts,  where  they  frequently  enter  the  burrows  of  small 
mammals  and  lizards  for  the  purpose  of  preying  on  their  rightful  occupants. 


SCALED  REPTILES— SNAKES.  421 


Two  small  and  comparatively  unimportant  families  of  the  sub-order  claim  a 
few  lines.  The  first  of  these,  which  includes  but  three  genera,  with  a  total 
of  five  species,  is  that  of  the  llysiidce,  all  the  members  of 
which  resemble  the  pythons  and  boas  in  the  retention  of  Cylinder-Snakes 
external  vestiges  of  the  hind  pair  of  limbs,  but  differ  in  the  and  Shield-Tails, 
conformation  of  the  skull.  The  typical  form  is  the  coral  — Families 
cylinder-snake  (Ilysia  scytale),  a  small  species  from  the  upper  Ilysiidce  and 
part  of  the  valley  of  the  Amazon  and  the  Guianas,  the  others  Uropdtidw. 
being  the  various  species  of  Oylindrophis  from  South-Eastern 
Asia,  and  the  one  representative  of  the  nearly-allied  Aiiomalochilus,  which  is 
Sumatran.  The  Uropeltidce,  which,  in  common  with  all  the  remaining  snakes, 
have  lost  all  external  traces  of  limbs,  form  an  allied  ,-family  agreeing  with  both 
the  preceding  in  the  structure  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  taking  their  name  from 
the  peculiar  conformation  of  the  tail.  Although  in  one  genus  it  has  a 
coating  of  keeled  scales,  in  all  the  rest  this  appendage  terminates  in  a  bare 
roughened  disc,  and  is  thus  quite  unlike  that  of  all  other  snakes.  In  all 
cases  the  tail  is  very  short,  the  body  is  cylindrical,  and  there  is  no  distinct 
neck,  while  botli  the  mouth  and  the  eyes  are  relatively  small.  These  snakes, 
which  are  all  of  small  size,  and  frequently  brightly  and  handsomely  coloured, 
are  found  only  in  the  mountains  of  India  proper  and  Ceylon,  where  they 
generally  spend  their  time  in  tunnels  channelled  at  a  considerable  depth 
below  the  surface,  although  in  rainy  weather  they  frequently  skulk  beneath 
stones  and  wood,  and  sometimes  even  venture  out  among  grass  and  other 
herbage.  In  addition  to  the  typical  Uropeltis,  they  include  six  generic  types, 
the  total  number  of  species  recognised  in  1893  being  forty-one,  of  which  only 
one  pertains  to  the  type  genus.  It  may  be  added  that  a  snake  from  South- 
Eastern  Asia  known  as  Xenopeltis  uiticolor  is  regarded  as  representing  by 
itself  the  family  of  the  Xenopdtidw,  the  reason  for  this  reference  being  that 
in  the  structure  of  the  skull  it  exhibits  distinct  indications  of  relationship 
with  the  Boidce,  although  agreeing  with  the  next  family  in  the  number  of 
bones  entering  into  the  composition  of  the  lower  jaw. 

Together  with  the  aforesaid  Xenopeltis,  the  snakes  included  in  the  two  great 
and  important  families  of  the  Colubridcv  and  Viperidca  are  broadly  differentiated 
from  the  BoidcE  and  their  allies  by  having  one  bone  less  in 
each  lateral  branch  of  the  lower  jaw,  the  missing  bone  being    Colubrine  Tribe, 
termed  the  coronoid.     It  is  unfortunate  that  this  important         — Family 
distinctive  feature  is  not  visible  in  the  living  animal  ;  but  so        Colubridw. 
it  is,  and  the  student  must  make  the  best  of  it.     As  already 
said,  none  of  these  snakes  retain  external  vestiges  of  limbs.     The  colubrine 
tribe  is  an  extremely  large  group,  embracing  as  it  does  many  more  snakes 
than  any  of  the  other  families  into  which  the  sub-order  is  divided.     All  are 
characterised  by  the  circumstance  that  the  maxilke  of  the  upper  jaw  are 
horizontal,  and  incapable  of  movement.     Whereas,  however,  some,  such  as 
the  common  water-snakes,  are  perfectly  harmless — except  to  the  small  crea- 
tures upon  which  they  prey— others,   like  the  sea-snakes  and  cobras,  are 
among  the  most  deadly  of  all  serpents.     In  such  a  vast  assemblage  it  is  im- 
possible to  do  more  than  notice  some  of  the  leading  types. 

As  an  example  of  the  first  of  the  three  great  sections  into  which  it  has  been 
found  advisable  to  divide  the  family,  we  may  take  the  water-snakes  of  the  genus 
Tropidonotus,  of  which  the  common  British  ringed-snake  ( T.  natrix)  is  the  most 
familiar  representative.  From  the  fact  that  all  the  teeth  are  completely  solid 
throughout,  showing  no  traces  of  either  an  external  groove  or  a  deeper 


422  REPTIL1A— ORDER  IIL—SQUAMATA. 


channel,  the  section  to  which  this  genus  belongs  is  technically  known  as  the 
Aglypha.  And  this  fact  alone  is  sufficient  to  indicate  that  all  the  members  of 
the  section  are  innocuous.  It  will  be  superfluous  to  point  out  all  the 
characteristics  by  which  the  water-snakes  differ  from  their  immediate  allies — 
more  especially  as  many  of  these  are  deep-seated,  and  require  a  considerable 
amount  of  anatomical  knowledge  for  their  proper  apprehension.  It  may  be 
mentioned,  however,  that  teeth  are  present  throughout  both  the  upper  add 
lower  jaws,  and  that  those  in  the  hinder  part  of  the  upper  series  exceed  in 
size  those  near  the  muzzle,  while  all  those  in  the  lower  jaw  have  approxim- 
ately the  same  dimensions.  The  relatively  large  eye  has  a  circular  pupil, 
the  scales  are  arranged  in  regular  series  running  lengthwise,  and  between 
the  openings  of  the  nostrils  are  placed  a  pair  of  internasal  shields. 

Of  water-snakes  there  are  forty  or  fifty  species  ;  and  the  range  of  the 
genus  embraces  the  greater  portion  of  the  globe,  with  the  exception  of 
South  America  and  Australia  south  of  the  tropic.  The  species  are,  however, 
less  numerous  in  Africa  than  in  the  other  countries  of  the  Old  World.  All 
are  fond  of  water,  in  which  they  swim  well,  and  their  favourite  haunts  are 
damp  situations  where  access  to  a  river  or  pond  is  easy.  They  live  on  frogs 
and  other  small  animals,  which  are  seized  in  the  mouth  and  swallowed  as 
rapidJy  as  possible,  without  being  killed  by  crushing  in  the  folds  of  the  body.  In 
addition  to  the  ringed  snake,  several  other  species  of  the  genus  inhabit  Europe. 
Another  familiar  European  species  is  the  smooth  snake  (Coronella  hevis), 
which  belongs  to  a  rather  large  genus.  The  so-called  fierce  snakes  (Zamenis) 
are  also  well  represented  on  the  Continent,  among  such  being  the  dark  green 
snake  (Z.  yemouensis)  and  the  horseshoe-snake  (Z.  hippocrcpis).  To  the  same 
genus  belongs  the  well-known  Indian  rat-snake  (Z.  mucosns).  Although 
many  or  all  of  the  foregoing  will  at  times  ascend  trees  in  search  of  their  prey, 
the  section  includes  others  which  are  truly  arboreal,  and  in  coloration  re- 
semble the  foliage  among  which  they  dwell.  Such  are  the  American  wood- 
snakes  of  the  genus  Herpctodryas,  and  their  Old  World  cousins  included  in 
the  genera  Dendrophis  and  Dendrelaphiy.  In  all  these,  the  eyes  are  pro- 
portionally much  larger  than  in  the  water-snakes,  and  the  body  is  more 
or  less  strongly  compressed.  Some  are  remarkable  for  being  able  to  change 
the  colour  of  their  skin  to  harmonise  with  their  surroundings  after  the  manner 
of  the  chamseleons  and  certain  lizards.  Far  more  interesting  than  any  other 
member  of  the  family  is  the  small  South  African  egg-eating  snake  (Dasypeltis 
scabra).  It  may  well  be  asked  how  a  snake,  with  its  long  pointed  teeth, 
manages  to  seize  and  swallow  the  eggs  of  birds  without  losing  their  savoury 
contents.  And  if  the  egg-eating  snake  had  the  ordinary  dental  armature,  it 
would  doubtless  find  this  a  very  difficult  task,  But  special  arrangements 
have  been  made  to  suit  its  particular  diet.  Whereas  teeth  are  wanting  in  the 
fore  part  of  the  jaws,  the  upper  surface  of  the  throat  is  provided  with  a  long 
series  of  tooth-like  organs  formed  by  the  elongation  of  the  lower  spines  of  the 
joints  of  the  backbone,  which  project  through  the  membranes  into  the 
throat.  Taking  an  egg  into  the  nearly  toothless  mouth,  the  snake  gradually 
passes  it  downwards  into  the  throat,  where  it  is  split  by  the  pressure  of  the 
mill-like  teeth,  and  its  contents  safely  swallowed.  Although  this  snake  is  a 
very  small  creature,  it  will  at  a  pinch  cram  a  hen's  egg  into  its  mouth,  when 
it  looks  somewhat  like  a  football  with  a  tail  to  it.  How  it  manages  to  force 
such  a  huge  object  into  its  throat,  and  still  more,  how  it  cracks  it  when  once 
there,  we  are  not  told. 

The  second  section  into  which  the  family  Colubridce  is  divided  takes  its 


SCALED  REPTILES— SNAKES.  423 


name  of  Opisthoglypha  from  the  circumstance  that  either  one  or  several  pairs 
of  teeth  in  the  hinder  part  of  the  upper  jaw  are  traversed  by  a  longitudinal 
groove  for  the  purpose  of  conveying  poison  from  the  secreting  gland. 
Whereas  all  are  more  or  less  noxious,  many  are  deadly.  In  habits  and  form 
many  of  these  curiously  simulate  the  members  of  the  first  section  of  the  family. 
The  ^roup  is  but  poorly  represented  in  Europe,  but  among  the  Continental 
species  is  the  so-called  cat-snake  (Tarbophis  vivax),  forming  a  genus  by  itself. 
This  snake  belongs  to  a  sub-family  of  the  section — the  Dipsadomorphince, — in 
which  the  nostrils  are  always  situated  on  the  sides  of  the  muzzle.  It  frequently 
grows  to  a  yard  or  so  in  length,  and  is  grey  or  brownish-yellow  in  general 
colour,  with  various  dark  spots  and  blotches,  and  a  chestnut  patch  on  the 
head-shields.  It  is  fond  of  warm  sunny  spots  among  rocks,  where  it  feeds 
chiefly  on  lizards,  which  it  kills  by  the  injection  of  poison.  The  typical  repre- 
seiitalivesof  the  sub-family  are  the  arboreal  snakes  of  the  genus  Dipsadomorphus 
which  are  widely  spread  through  the  warmer  regions  of  the  Old  World,  where 
they  have  precisely  the  same  mode  of  life  as  the  arboreal  forms  included  in 
the  section  Aglypha.  In  colour  they  incline  to  black  and  brown,  while  in 
length  they  may  exceed  a  couple  of  yards.  Many  of  them,  at  least,  are 
purely  nocturnal  snakes,  and  whereas  some  feed  on  birds,  others  prey  almost 
or  quite  exclusively  on  the  smaller  kinds  of  mammals.  Occasionally  they 
descend  from  their  leafy  haunts  to  wander  on  the  ground.  Of  similar  habits 
arc  the  Indian  whip-snakes  (Dryophis),  in  which  the  somewhat  compressed 
body  and  tall  are  remarkable  for  their  extreme  length  and  slenderness.  This 
ha  bit  of  body  enables  these  snakes  to  curl  their  tail  tightly  round  a  bough, 
whence  they  strike  to  a  long  distance  at  any  passing  prey.  Here,  too, 
belongs  the  Tropical  American  and  West  Indian  genus  Philodryas,  which  in- 
cludes a  considerable  number  of  arboreal  species,  characterised  by  the  green 
tone  of  their  coloration.  This  genus  is  also  represented  in  Madagascar.  The 
number  and  arrangement  of  the  teeth 
form  important  features  in  the  distinc- 
tion of  these  genera  of  tree-snakes.  In 
the  present  section  the  place  of  the 
water-snakes  among  the  section  Agly- 
pha is  taken  by  the  fresh-water  snakes 
of  the  genera  Homalopsis  and  Cantoria, 
which  range  from  India  to  New  Guinea 
and  the  North  of  Australia.  These 
snakes,  few  of  which  grow  to  more  than 
a  yard  in  length,  are  far  more  aquatic 
in  their  habits  than  the  species  of 
Tropidonotus,  and  but  seldom  leave 
the  water  at  all ;  and  some  of  them 

even  descend  rivers  to  enter  the  sea.  Fig>  2^TTHE  CORAL-SNAKE 

Their  food  consists  of  fish  and  other  (Elaps  corallinus). 

aquatic  creatures  ;  and  they  give  birth 

to  living  young  while  in  the  water.  A  considerable  number  lie  in  wait  for 
their  prey  by  anchoring  themselves  to  roots  or  sunken  branches  by  means  of 
the  prehensile  tail. 

In  snakes,  beauty  and  venom  frequently  go  together,  and  an  excellent 
instance  of  this  association  is  afforded  by  the  coral-snake  (Elaps  corallinus}  of 
South  America  and  the  West  Indies.  Together  with  the  remaining  members 
pf  the  colubrine  family  here  noticed,  the  coral-snake  belongs  to  the  section 


424  REPT1LIA— ORDER  TIL—SQUAMATA. 


Proteroglypha.  The  essential  feature  of  that  section  is  to  be  found  in  the 
circumstance  that  it  is  the  front,  instead  of  the  hinder,  upper  maxillary  teeth 
that  are  grooved  for  the  transmission  of  the  poisonous  secretion.  Needless 
to  say,  all  are  venomous — some  highly  so.  The  genus  in  which  the 
coral-snake  is  included  comprises  many  other  species,  of  which  the  majority 
inhabit  the  warmer  parts  of  America,  although  a  few  are  found  in 
Southern  Africa.  They  typify  a  sub-family  (Elapince)  in  which  the  tail 
has  a  cylindrical  form,  and  all  the  members  of  which  live  either  on 
the  ground  or  in  trees.  The  coral-snake,  which  grows  to  rather  more 
than  a  couple  of  feet  in  length,  is  easily  recognised  by  its  brilliant  colora- 
tion, the  whole  body  and  tail  being  divided  into  a  number  of  segments 
of  cinnabar-red,  separated  by  shorter  segments  of  black,  with  indistinct 
borders  of  greenish  -  white.  The  coral  -  snake,  which  frequents  wooded 
districts,  is  a  strictly  terrestrial  species,  feeding  upon  other  reptiles  and 
insects.  Nearly  allied  are  the  resplendent  adders  (Callophis)  of  the  warmer 
parts  of  Asia,  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  a  groove  traversing  the  whole 
front  surface  of  the  upper  fangs,  and  likewise  by  the  scales  forming  thirteen 
rows.  These  slender  snakes  are  generally  found  in  rocky  districts. 

The  dreaded  crait  (Bungarns  ccervleus),  and  its  relative  the  banded  adder, 
or  raj-samp  (B.  fasciatus),  are  well-known  Indian  representatives  of  a  genus 
whose  geographical  range  extends  from  India  and  Ceylon  to  the  south  of 
China.  From  Callophis,  in  which  all  the  teeth  behind  the  fangs  are  chan- 
nelled, this  genus  differs  in  that  from  one  to  three  of  the  same  teeth  are  solid 
throughout ;  a  connecting  link  being  formed  by  the  genus  Hemibnnyarus,  in 
which  there  is  one  unperforated  tooth  in  the  hinder  portion  of  each  side  of 
the  upper  jaw.  Although  the  banded  adder  is  larger  than  the  crait,  it  does 
not  appear  to  be  so  fatal  to  human  life  in  India  as  the 
latter,  owing  to  the  circumstance  that  it  mainly  keeps  to 
the  open  country.  The  crait,  on  the  other  hand,  is  one  of 
the  snakes  most  commonly  met  with  in  human  dwellings, 
where  it  is  fond  of  hiding  in  all  kinds  of  unsuspected 
places.  In  colour,  the  crait  is  very  dark  brown  above, 
marked  with  narrow  rings,  bars,  or  streaks  of  white. 

Whereas  the  crait  and  its  immediate  allies  have  the  head 
passing  imperceptibly  into  the  neck,  and  lack  the  power 
of  inflating  the  latter,  the  cobras  (Naia)  possess  a  dis- 
tinctly defined  neck,  the  lower  part  of  which  can  be  dilated 
at  will ;  while  they  further  differ  by  the  equality  in  the 
size  of  the  scales  of  the  back  with  those  of  other  parts. 
Cobras  are  represented  by  half  a  score  of  species,  some  of 
which  are  Oriental,  while  the  others  are  African ;  the  best 
o  known  being  the  Egyptian  asp  (N.  haie)  and  the  common 

*CoBRM^E^N        Indian  cobra  (N.  tripndians).     The  latter  is  familiar  as 
tripudians),  being  the  species  commonly  exhibited  by  Indian  snake- 

charmers,  and  as  it  has  been  described  in  so  many  popular 
works,  while  newspapers  are  always  giving  accounts  of  its  ravages,  nothing 
in  the  way  of  description  need  be  given  in  this  place.  Ordinarily  this  species 
does  not  exceed  six  feet  in  length ;  but  Capt.  F.  Hawkins  writes  in  the  Asian 
newspaper  of  August  5th,  1892,  that  in  Sangor  a  specimen  was  killed  measuring 
seven  feet  three  inches.  The  giant  cobra  (N.  bungarus)  of  the  Oriental 
countries  is,  however,  a  considerably  larger  species.  Mr.  P.  A.  Bulkley, 
writing  from  Burma,  observes  that  "it  may  interest  your  readers  to  know 


SCALED  REPTILES— SNAKES. 


425 


that  about  ten  years  ago,  while  shooting  in  the  jungle,  I  came  upon  a  fine 
specimen  of  the  snake  in  question  over  12^  feet  long,  and,  after  an  exciting 
chase,  succeeded  in  capturing  it  alive  and  uninjured.  I  kept  it  in  captivity 
for  some  months  at  Castle  Rock  in  a  large  case,  giving  an  occasional  exercise 
in  the  spare  room  of  my  bungalow,  and  eventually  took  it  to  England  for  the 
reptile-house  at  the  Zoological  Gardens.  At  Brindisi  I  had  to  leave  the  snake 
to  complete  its  journey  by  steamer  to  London,  and  upon  opening  its  case  on 
arrival  at  the  Zoo,  it  was,  unfortunately,  found  to  be  dead.  The  body,  how- 
ever, was  in  good  preservation,  and  may  be  seen  in  a  large  case  of  alcohol  in 
the  reptile-room  of  the  Natural  History  Museum  at  South  Kensington." 
Although  there  are  no  cobras  in  Australia,  that  country  is  the  home  of  an 
equally  deadly  serpent  known  as  the  death-adder  (Pscudcchis  porphyriacd). 
In  this  snake  the  cylindrical  body  is  extremely  long  and  slender,  the  head  is 
but  imperfectly  denned  from  the  neck,  and  the  scales  are  smooth.  The 
species, which  grows  to  as  much  as  seven  feet  in  length,  is  commonly  knqwn 
in  its  native  country  as  the  black  snake. 

The  last  group  of  the  present  section  of  the  Colubriche  is  that  of  the  sea- 
snakes,  which  form  the  sub -family  HydrophiiiKK.  They  differ  from  the 
Elapinw  by  the  compressed  and  oar-like  form  of  the  tail,  and  also  by  the 
scales  on  the  under  surface  being  either  nearly  similar  to  those  on  the  upper 
parts,  or  if  enlarged  into 
shields,  by  their  being  much4 
smaller  than  in  ordinary  ter- 
restrial snakes.  As  their 
name  implies,  the  sea-snakes 
are  peculiar  in  the  sub-order 
for  their  marine  habits.  Most 
of  them,  indeed,  pass  the 
whole  of  their  time  in  the 
open  sea,  where  they  produce 
their  young  alive  without  the 
intervention  of  eggs  ;  but 
there  are  certain  species  which 
are  partly  terrestrial,  and 
serve  to  connect  the  more 
typical  representatives  of  the 
sub-family  with  the  crait  and 
its  allies.  Sea-snakes  are 
most  abundant  in  the  tropical 

portions  of  the  Western  Pacific  and  the  Indian  Ocean,  although  a  few  enjoy 
a  much  more  extensive  range.  They  are  all  highly  venomous,  and  most  are 
handsomely  and  brilliantly  tinted,  the  coloration  being  always  variegated. 
They  feed  on  fish  and  other  marine  creatures,  and  frequently  associate  in 
companies  of  considerable  size.  When  cast  on  shor,e  by  the  waves,  the 
majority  are  utterly  helpless,  lying  where  they  are  thrown  until  they  die. 
Unlike  other  members  of  the  sub-order,  sea-snakes  change  their  skins  piece- 
meal instead  of  entire  ;  the  renovation  taking  place  very  frequently.  They 
also  differ  from  ordinary  snakes  in  the  shortness  of  the  tongue  ;  and  while 
at  sea  only  the  extreme  tips  of  this  organ  are  thrust  out  through  a  couple  of 
small  notches  from  the  closed  mouth.  The  three  species  constituting  the  genus 
Platurus  are  those  which  serve  to  connect  the  rest  with  the  crait  group,  and 
are  distinguished  by  having  the  under  surface  of  the  body  and  tail  covered 


Fig.  25. — BANDED  SEA-SNAKE  (Pla turns  laticaudatus). 


426  REPTTLIA-ORDER  UL—SQUAMATA. 


with  transversely  elongated  shields,  while  the  upper  surface  is  invested  with 
smooth  overlapping  scales.  One  of  the  most  common  kinds,  which  grows  to 
a  length  of  about  three  feet,  is  met  with  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal  to  Oceania. 
These  snakes  can  crawl  with  ease  on  land,  and  specimens  have  been  from 
time  to  time  met  with  at  considerable  distances  inland.  In  addition  to  certain 
features  connected  with  the  nostrils,  the  more  typical  members  of  the  sub- 
family— which  are  arranged  under  several  separate  genera — differ  from  the 
preceding  in  having  the  under  surface  scaled  like  the  back,  although  in  some 
forms  more  or  less  distinct  vestiges  exist  of  the  enlarged  shields.  These 
genera  are  to  a  great  extent  distinguished  from  one  another  by  the  characters 
of  the  teeth,  the  most  important  among  them  being  Hydrus,  Hydrophis,  and 
Distira.  Emerson  Tennent  writes  that>  "sea-snakes  are  found  on  all  the 
coasts  of  Ceylon.  I  have  sailed  through  large  shoals  of  them  in  the  Gulf  of 
Manaar,  close  to  the  pearl-banks  of  Aripo.  The  fishermen  of  Calpentyn,  on 
the  west,  live  in  perpetual  fear  of  them,  and  believe  their  bite  to  be  fatal. 
In  the  course  of  an  attempt  which  was  made  to  place  a  lighthouse  on  the 
great  rocks  of  the  south-east  coast,  known  by  seamen  as  the  Basses  or  Baxos, 
the  workmen  who  first  landed  found  the  portion  of  the  surface  liable  to  be 
covered  by  the  tides  honeycombed  and  hollowed  into  deep  holes  filled  with 
water,  in  which  were  abundance  of  fishes  and  some  molluscs.  Some  of  these 
cavities  also  contained  sea-snakes  from  four  to  five  feet  long,  which  were 
described  as  having  the  head  hooded  like  the  cobra,  do  capello,  and  of  a  light 
grey  colour  slightly  speckled.  They  coiled  themselves  like  serpents  on  land, 
and  darted  at  poles  thrust  in  among  them.  The  Singhalese  who  accompanied 
the  party  said  that  they  not  only  bit  venomously,  but  crushed  the  limbs  of 
any  intruder  in  their  coils." 

A  small  group  of  snakes,  the  members  of  which  are  externally  very  similar  to 
those  of  the  sub-family  Dipsadomorphinte  in  the  Colubridtt:,  are  considered  to 

form  a  family  by  themselves.  From  the  Dipsadomorphince  they 

Blunt-Heads. —    are  distinguished  externally  by  the  absence  of  a  groove  on  the 

Family  chin.  They  resemble  the  Colubridne  in  having  the  maxilhe  fixed 

Amblyce2)ha-      in  a  horizontal  position,  but  differ  both  from  that  family  and 

lidos.  from  the  Viperida  by  the  shortness  of  those  bones  in  the  hinder 

part  of  the  palate  known  as  the  pterygoids,  which  do  not 
extend  sufficiently  far  back  to  reach  either  the  hinder  ends  of  the  lower  jaw 
or  the  quadrate  bone.  Both  jaws  are  provided  with  teeth,  all  of  which  are 
solid,  so  that  these  snakes  are  non-venomous.  The  slight  expansibility  of 
the  mouth  indicates  that  they  prey  upon  small  animals,  while  the  relatively 
large  dimensions  of  the  eye,  in  which  the  pupil  is  vertical,  proclaim  nocturnal 
habits.  Five  genera  of  these  snakes  are  known,  two,  namely,  AmblycepJialus 
and  Haplopeltura,  being  confined  to  the  Oriental  countries,  whereas  Dipsas, 
Pseudopareus,  and  Leptognathiis  are  from  Tropical  America. 

The  last  family  of  snakes  is  a  large  one,  and  includes  the  vipers,  pit-vipers, 
puff-adders,  and  rattle-snakes  ;   all  being  highly  venomous.     The  essential 

distinctive  feature  of  the  Vvperidw  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact 

The  Viper  Tribe,  that  the  short  maxillae  of  the  upper  jaw  are  armed  with  a 

— Family        pair  of  large  perforated  fangs,  and  can  be  erected  so  as  to 

Viperidat.         become  situated  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  the  hinder 

portion  of  the  palate.  Obviously,  this  gives  to  the  fangs 
the  most  favourable  position  for  inflicting  severe  wounds.  In  the  viperine 
snakes  the  head  is  always  more  or  less  flattened,  and  is  frequently  triangular 
in  shape ;  while  the  body  is  plump  and  thick,  and  the  tail  abbreviated.  In 


SCALED  REPTILES— SNAKES.  427 


accordance  with  their  chiefly  nocturnal  habits,  the  eye  has  its  pupil  in  the 
form  of  a  vertical  slit.  Only  a  few  vipers  climb,  and  none  are  aquatic  ;  while, 
so  far  as  present  information  goes,  all  give  birth  to  their  young  in  a  fully 
developed  state  without  laying  eggs.  In  almost  all  countries  popular  report 
declares  that  the  females  of  many  species  receive  their  young  into  their 
mouth  when  alarmed,  whence  they  apparently  pass  down  the  throat ;  and 
although  many  attempts  have  been  made  to  discredit  such  statements,  it  is 
difficult  to  believe  that  they  have  not  some  foundation  of  truth. 

Of  the  two  sub-families  into  which  these  snakes  are  divided  by  zoologists, 
the  typical  vipers,  or  Viperince,  are  confined  to  the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  and 
are  characterised  by  the  absence  of  pits  or  depressions  in  the  pair  of  head- 
shields  known  as  the  loreals.  The  common  British  viper  (Vipera  berus)  is 
the  most  familiar  representative  of  the  typical  genus,  all  the  members  of 
which  have  two  longitudinal  series  of  shields  on  the  under  surface  of  the  tail, 
while  the  scales  on  the  body  are  keeled  and  arranged  in  from  nineteen  to 
thirty-one  straight  longitudinal  rows,  and  the  upper  surface  of  the  head  is 
invested  either  with  relatively  small  shields  or  with  scales.  There  are  about 
twenty  different  kinds  of  true  vipers,  and  these  are  distributed  over  the  greater 
part  of  the  Old  World,  although  there  are  none  in  Australasia  or  Madagascar, 
and  only  one  in  India.  The  common  viper  enjoys  a  very  wide  geographical 
distribution,  extending  from  the  Arctic  Circle  to  Spain  and  Portugal,  and 
from  the  latter  country  eastwards  to  Siberia.  It  not  unfrequently  grows  to 
ten  inches  in  length,  and,  like  its  kindred,  is  partial  to  warm  sandy  heaths. 
The  sand-viper  (V.  ammodytes)  of  Southern  and  Eastern  Europe  is  remark- 
able for  having  a  flexible  horn-like  and  scaly  appendage  surmounting  the  tip 
of  the  muzzle,  the  use  of  which  has  not  yet  been  explained.  To  the  genus 
Bitis  belongs  the  dreaded  African  puff-adder  (B.  arietans),  in  which  the 
head  is  broader  and  more  distinctly 
triangular  than  in  any  of  its  kindred. 
As  this  noxious  serpent  has  a  habit 
of  lying  with  only  its  head  exposed, 
it  is  frequently  not  noticed  by  men 
and  animals  until  too  late  ;  and 
it  is  consequently  responsible  for 
many  deaths.  Even  large  mam- 
mals are  said  to  succumb  very 
speedily  to  the  bite  of  this  loath- 
some monster.  The  name  of  puff- 
adder  is  derived  from  the  habit 
possessed  by  this  snake  of  blowing 
itself  out  with  air  when  excited.  Fig.  26.— PUFF-ADDER  (Bitis  arietans). 

Nearly  allied  to  the  true  vipers  are 

the  horned  vipers  of  the  genus  Cerastes,  so  named  from  the  presence  of  a  pair 
of  scaly  horns  situated  above  the  eyes  of  the  males,  and  in  some  species  in 
the  females  also.  The  scales,  too,  are  arranged  in  oblique  instead  of  straight 
series.  Both  species  of  the  genus  are  inhabitants  of  those  parts  of  Northern 
Africa  lying  to  the  eastward  of  Morocco,  but  one  is  also  found  in  Arabia. 
They  grow  to  about  a  couple  of  feet  in  length,  and  assimilate  remarkably  in 
coloration  to  the  sandy  deserts  they  frequent.  They  may  be  often  seen  so 
deeply  buried  in  the  sand  that  only  the  head  and  a  portion  of  the  neck  pro- 
ject above  the  surface.  Another  nearly  allied  genus  is  that  of  the  saw- vipers, 
or  JEchis ;  these  snakes  being  distinguished  from  the  last  by  the  absence  of 


428  REPTILIA— ORDER  IIL—SQUAMATA. 


horns  on  the  head,  and  by  the  shields  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  tail  forming 
a  single  instead  of  a  double  series.  This  genus  is  likewise  represented  by 
two  desert-haunting  species,  but  one  of  these  has  a  much  wider  geographical 
range  than  either  of  the  horned  vipers,  extending  from  Northern  Africa  to 
India,  whereas  the  second  is  restricted  to  Palestine  and  Arabia.  Whereas 
the  puff-adder  produces  a  prolonged  hissing  sound  by  the  expulsion  of  the 
air  which  has  been  drawn  in  to  blow  out  the  body,  the  Indian  saw- viper 
gives  rise  to  a  somewhat  similar  sound  in  a  totally  different  manner.  In  this 
species  the  keels  on  the  scales  of  the  sides  of  the  body  are  distinctly 
serrated  ;  and  by  rubbing  the  folds  of  the  body  together  the  contact  of  these 
saw-like  keels  gives  rise  to  a  kind  of  grating,  or  even  hissing  noise.  This 
snake  is  a  very  fierce  species,  often  attacking  without  provocation  ;  and  a 
large  percentage  of  the  deaths  from  snake-bite  in  India  may  be  attributed  to 
this  species  and  to  the  equally  deadly  Russell's  viper  (Vipera  russelli). 

The  second  sub-family,  or  OrotdHtUEj  the  members  of  which  may  be  col- 
lectively termed  pit-vipers,  are  typified  by  the  well-known  rattle-snakes  of 
the  New  World,  although  several  other  genera  belonging  to  the  same  sub- 
family are  found  in  various  parts  of  Asia.  There  are,  however,  no  representa- 
tives of  this  group  in  Africa,  where,  on  the  other  hand,  the  typical  vipers,  or 
Viperivwe,  attain  their  maximum  degree  of  development.  The  distinctive 
feature  of  the  pit- vipers,  and  the  one  from  which  they  take  their  name,  is  the 
presence  of  a  pair  of  deep  pits  in  the  fore  front  of  the  head,  situated  between 
the  eyes  and  the  nostrils  in  the  so-called  loreal  shields.  Doubtless  these 
pits  have  some  special  function  in  the  economy  of  these  reptiles,  but  what  this 
may  be  naturalists  do  not  seem  to  have  hitherto  discovered.  The  peculiar 
jointed  horny  appendage  to  the  tail  known  as  the  rattle  gives  to  the  snakes 

of  the  typical  genus  Crotalus  their 
distinctive  name,  and  at  the  same 
time  serves  to  distinguish  them 
at  a  glance  from  all  the  other 
members  of  the  sub-order.  This 
rattle  increases  in  size  by  the  inter- 
calation of  new  joints  between  its 
terminal  button  and  the  scaly  por- 
tion of  the  tail,  young  specimens 
having  only  the  button.  The  longer 
a  rattle-snake  lives,  the  more  joints 
it  has  to  its  rattle  ;  and  formerly 
Fig.  27. -A  BATTLE-SNAKE  (Crotalus).  specimens  with  as  many  as  twenty 

rings  were  by  no  means  uncommon, 

although  at  the  present  day,  owing  to  the  war  of  extermination  waged  against 
these  noxious  reptiles,  such  are  very  rare.  Very  diverse  views  have  been 
entertained  as  to  the  precise  use  of  the  rattle  to  its  owner,  and  since  the 
question  is  by  no  means  even  yet  decided,  it  need  not  be  discussed  in  this 
place.  All  rattle-snakes  are  characterised  by  the  unusually  large  size  of  their 
venom-glands,  and  they  are  consequently  among  the  most  deadly  of  serpents. 
Most  of  the  eleven  representatives  of  the  genus  are  North  American, 
although  one  species  extends  to  South  America.  In  their  general  habits 
they  are  very  similar  to  vipers,  frequenting  dry  sandy  districts ;  but  in  parts 
of  North  America  rattle-snakes  frequently  take  up  their  abode  in  the  warrens 
of  the  prairie-marrnot,  where  they  prey  on  the  young  of  the  rightful  owners. 
In  the  colder  parts  of  their  habitat,  these  snakes  become  torpid  during  the 


SCALED  REPTILES— THE  RATTLE-SNAKES.  429 


winter  months  ;  and  in  certain  rocky  districts  they  were  formerly  wont  to 
assemble  in  enormous  numbers,  passing  the  winter  huddled  up  together  111 
caves  where  they  kept  one  another  warm.  At  the  approach  of  the  cold 
season,  thousands  of  these  snakes  might  be  seen  travelling  from  all  points  of 
the  compass  to  their  own  special  cave  ;  and  marvellous  stories  have  been 
told  of  attacks  made  upon  these  haunts  when  the  hapless  reptiles  were  sleep- 
ing in  fancied  security.  It  is  somewhat  curious  that  rattle-snakes  lack  the 
power  of  hissing  ;  and  it  is  highly  probable  that  this  disability  has  some 
connection  with  the  presence  of  the  rattle.  Nearly  allied  to  the  rattle-snakes 
is  the  equally  deadly  bushmaster  (Lachesis  mutus)  of  tropical  South  America, 
which  has  a  spine  in  place  of  a  rattle  at  the  tip  of  the  tail,  while  the  lower 
surface  of  the  latter  bears  a  number  of  spiny  scales.  There  is  often  a  well- 
marked  keel  running  down  the  middle  of  the  back,  of  which  there  is  no  trace 
in  the  typical  genus.  This  snake  is  one  of  the  few  serpents  which  do  not  flee 
at  the  presence  of  man,  always  standing  its  ground  and  endeavouring  to  in- 
flict a  blow.  Since  it  frequently  grows  to  ten  feet  and  over,  and  its  bite  is 
rapidly  fatal  even  to  large  mammals,  it  is  one  of  the  mOst  dangerous  of  jts 
tribe,  and  were  it  more  common  than  it  actually  is,  fatalities  would  be  very 
numerous.  By  Mr.  Boulenger  the  serpents  formerly  designated  Trigono- 
ce2)halus  and  Trimeresanrns  are  now  included  in  Lachesis.  These  differ  from 
the  typical  forms  in  having  the  whole  of  the  top  of  the  head  covered  with 
small  scales,  instead  of  large  scales.  Some  species  are  arboreal,  and  have 
the  tail  prehensile  ;  some  of  these  inhabiting  Tropical  America,  and  others 
South-Eastern  Asia.  Whereas  the  species  from  the  latter  area  have  two 
rows  of  shields  beneath  the  tail,  those  from  the  former  have  only  a  single 
row.  Among  the  American  forms  with  a  non-prehensile  tail,  one  of  the  most 
formidable  is  the  jararaca  (L.  lanceolatus). 

The  so-called  halys  vipers,  forming  the  genus  Ancistrodon,  have  represen- 
tatives alike  in  the  northern  half  of  the  American  Continent  and  Asia,  while 
one  kind  is  found  in  the  Ural  Mountains.  Although  none  have  a  rattle,  in 
some  kinds  there  is  a  small  spine  at  the  tip  of  the  tail,  which  appears  to  be 
a  vestige  of  that  organ.  Of  the  Transatlantic  species  one  of  the  most 
dreaded,  and  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  handsomest,  is  the  so-called 
copper-head  (A.  contortrix).  It  takes  its  name  from  the  metallic  coppery 
hue  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  body  ;  this  ground-colour  being  ornamented 
with  a  number  of  brown  bands  with  darker  edges.  The  copper-head,  which 
frequents  damp  situations,  has  a  wide  geographical  distribution.  It  is  one 
of  the  species  furnished  with  a  spine-like  horny  appendage  to  the  tail ;  and 
differs  from  some  of  its  kindred  in  having  a  single  instead  of  a  double  series 
of  shields  on  the  under  surface  of  the  tail. 


ORDER  IV.— RHYNCHOCEPHALIA. 

IF  we  were  to  trust  solely  to  external  features  a  lizard-like  reptile  inhabiting 
certain  small  islands  to  the  north-eastward  of  New  Zealand,  and  locally 
known  as  the  tuatera,  would  almost  certainly  be  included  in  the  order  Squa- 
mata.  When,  however,  the  internal  structure  of  this  creature  is  examined, 
differences  so  important  are  observable  that  there  can  be  no  question  of  its 


430  REPTILIA— ORDER  IV.—RHYNCHOCEPHALIA. 


total  distinctness  from  that  order.  Accordingly,  the  tuatera,  which  is  tech- 
nically known  as  Sphenodon  pundatus,  not  only  represents  by  itself  the 
family  Sphenodontidee,  but  also  a  distinct  order.  This,  however,  is  only  true 
at  the  present  day,  for  in  past  epochs  of  the  earth's  history  there  flourished 
a  number  of  reptiles  evidently  belonging  to  the  same  ordinal  group,  several 
of  which  lived  in  Britain.  The  tuatera,  which  grows  to  a  length  of  about 
twenty  inches,  is  characterised  by  the  presence  of  a  ridge  of  spines  extend- 
ing from  the  back  of  the  head  to  the  base  of  the  tail,  and  represented  on  the 

latter  by  a  less  distinct  crest. 
Superiorly,  the  body  is  covered 
with  a  mixture  of  small  tubercles 
and  granular  scales  ;  but  the  lower 
aspect  is  invested  with  somewhat 
quadrangular  large  scales  forming 
regular  transverse  bands.  The 
toes,  which  are  five  in  number  on 
each  foot,  are  partially  webbed,  and 
Fig.  28.— TUATERA  (Sphenodon  pundatus).  terminate  in  claws.  In  the  eye 

the  pupil  takes  the  form  of  a  ver- 
tical slit,  and  there  is  no  external  opening  to  the  ear.  None  of  these  fea- 
tures are,  however,  sufficient  to  distinguish  the  tuatera  from  the  lizards  ;  and 
to  understand  the  distinction  the  skull  must  be  examined.  In  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  Squamata  it  was  stated  that  in  all  the  members  of  that  order  the 
quadrate-bone  is  loosely  connected  with  the  other  bonefl  of  the  palate,  and 
there  is  no  bony  arch  connecting  the  former  with  the  maxilla.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  the  tuatera  the  quadrate  is  firmly  and  immovably  wedged  in 
between  the  other  bones,  and  is  connected  with  the  upper  jaw  by  the  afore- 
said arch.  There  are  likewise  important  differences  in  the  structure  of  the 
bony  palate,  which  is  of  a  more  primitive  type  than  that  of  the  lizards. 
Indeed,  in  many  respects  the  skull  is  more  like  that  of  a  crocodile,  or  even  a 
tortoise,  than  that  of  a  lizard.  The  teeth,  too,  are  very  peculiar.  In  the 
front  of  the  jaws  are  a  pair  of  chisel-like  teeth,  giving  the  form  of  a  beak  to 
this  part  of  the  skull :  while  the  sides  of  the  upper  jaw  and  palate  bear  a 
double  row  of  closely  approximated  teeth  separated  by  a  groove,  and  in  that 
.groove  are  received  the  single  row  of  lower  teeth,  which  aro  attached  to  the 
jaw  in  the  acrodont  manner.  Although  there  are  many  peculiar  features  in 
this  strange  reptile,  it  will  suffice  to  mention  that  within  the  skin  of  the 
hinder  part  of  the  under  surface  of  the  body  are  a  number  of  abdominal  ribs, 
forming  a  structure  which  corresponds  anatomically  with  the  plastron  of  a 
tortoise. 

Although  now  becoming  scarce,  tuateras  were  formerly  abundant  in  their 
native  islands,  where  they  might  be  seen  in  parties  basking  in  the  sun 
within  easy  reach  of  the  sea.  In  captivity,  where  they  flourish  well,  tuateras 
eat  freely  of  meal-worms  and  other  insects,  but  it  is  probable  that  vegetable 
substances  form  a  part  of  their  diet.  Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  feature 
about  this  reptile  is  the  vestige  of  an  unpaired  median  eye  situated  deep 
down  among  the  tissues  of  the  head,  and  now  totally  functionless.  Doubt- 
less, however,  in  its  ancestors  this  eye  was  functional,  so  that  the  original 
form  may  have  been  a  veritable  cyclops. 


SUB-KINGDOM  L— VERTEBRATA. 

CLASS  IV.— AMPHIBIA. 
BY  R.  LYDEKKER,  B.A.,  F.R.S.,  V.P.G.S.,  &c. 

IN  popular  natural  history  nearly  every  cold-blooded  verebrate  that  breathes 
atmospheric  air  by  means  of  lungs  is  commonly  spoken  of  as  a  reptile,  whether 
it  crawls  or  creeps  on  the  ground  like  a  lizard,  a  frog,  or  a  snake,  or  swims 
in  the  water  like  a  newt ;  and  if  we  take  their  adult  condition  alone  into 
consideration,  there  is  a  good  deal  to  be  said  in  favour  of  regarding  frogs 
and  salamanders  as  reptiles,  since  they  agree  in  many  of  their  essential 
characters  with  the  creatures  to  which  the  naturalist  restricts  that  term. 
The  case  is,  however,  very  materially  altered  when  the  developmental  history 
of  frogs  and  salamanders  is  taken  into  consideration.  As  every  one  knows, 
these  creatures — with  a  few  exceptions — commence  their  active  existence 
after  leaving  the  egg  in  the  form  of  a  tadpole.  And  as  a  tadpole  is  an  aquatic 
creature,  breathing  the  air  dissolved  in  water  by  means  of  gills,  and  being 
provided  with  a  fish-like  tail,  it  is  obvious  that  we  have  here  a  very  important 
distinction  from  reptiles,  which,  at  the  commencement  of  life,  are  mere 
miniatures  of  the  adult.  It  may  be  said,  indeed,  that  frogs  and  salamanders 
commence  life  as  fishes,  but  turn  into  reptiles  when  they  become  adult, 
and  the  existence  of  this  remarkable  change  or  metamorphosis  serves  to 
differentiate  these  creatures  from  reptiles  as  a  distinct  class,  for  which  the 
name  Amphibia  is  now  usually  adopted,  although  the  alternative  term 
Batrachia  is  also  extant.  It  is  true  that  in  certain  cases  no  such  metamor- 
phosis exists,  the  egg  developing  at  once  into  a  perfect  air-breathing  frog, 
while  in  some  other  instances  the  gills  of  the  larval  state  are  retained  through- 
out life.  In  the  former  of  these  instances  it  is,  however,  evident  that  the 
larval  stage  has  been  suppressed  owing  to  the  exigencies  of  abnormal  condi- 
tions in  the  life-history  of  the  particular  species.  In  the  latter  case,  either 
the  creature  has  now  ceased  to  develop  into  the  air-breathing  adult  form,  or 
it  has  never  advanced  beyond  the  larval  stage  at  any  period  of  its  history. 

Amphibians,  then,  may  be  defined  as  cold-blooded  vertebrates  usually 
furnished  with  external  gills  at  the  commencement  of  life,  but  before  becom- 
ing adult  passing  through  a  metamorphosis— during  which  the  gills  are  ex- 
changed for  lungs  ; — and  such  of  them  as  possess  limbs  having  these  struc- 
turally similar  to  those  of  reptiles.  This  change  from  a  fish-like  to  a  reptile-like 
animal  is  one  of  the  most  marvellous  phenomena  to  be  met  with  among 
vertebrates,  and  it  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that  while  everybody  has  the 
opportunity  of  witnessing  this  transformation  each  year  of  their  lives,  so  many 
still  refuse  to  believe  in  the  evolution  of  animal  life  in  general. 

The  metamorphosis  is,  however,  by  no  means  the  sole  feature  by  which 
amphibians  are  distinguished  from  reptiles.  There  are  many  structural 
peculiarities  by  which  the  adults  of  the  former  differ  from  the  latter,  although 
these  are,  unfortunately,  deep-seated,  and  not  externally  apparent.  Com- 

431 


432  AMPHIBIA. 


paring  the  skull  of  a  reptile  with  that  of  an  amphibian,  it  will  be  found  that 
whereas  the  former  has  a  single  knob -like  prominence,  or  condyle,  by  means 
of  which  it  is  movably  articulated  to  the  first  joint  of  the  backbone,  in  the 
latter  there  are  two  such  condyles.  The  embryo,  too,  of  amphibians  has  a 
less  complex  type  of  enveloping  structures,  lacking  the  membranes  respec- 
tively termed  the  allantois  and  the  anmiou. 

Bearing  in  mind  these  important  points  of  distinction,  the  student  will 
readily  see  the  propriety  of  separating  the  Amphibia  as  a  class  apart  from  the 
Reptilia.  In  the  adult  condition,  the  members  of  the  present  class  show 
great  differences  of  external  form.  The  frogs  and  toads,  for  instance,  are 
tailless,  four-limbed  creatures,  in  which  the  hind-legs  exceed  the  front  pair 
more  or  less  markedly  in  length.  On  the  other  hand,  the  salamanders  and 
newts,  although  likewise  furnished  with  two  pairs  of  limbs,  have  a  long  tail, 
and  thus  present  a  lizard-like  form.  In  the  newts,  the  tail,  and  sometimes 
also  the  back,  is  furnished  with  a  longitudinal  vertical  fin,  somewhat  like  that 
of  a  fish,  although  differing  from  the  latter  in  the  absence  of  any  bony  sup- 
ports. Other  forms  have  the  body  eel-like,  and  the  limbs — of  which  the 
hinder  pair  may  be  wanting — small  and  rudimental  ;  while  in  some  of  these, 
like  the  olm,  the  external  tuft-like  gills  are  permanently  retained.  In  yet 
another  group,  the  whole  form  is  worm-like,  without  any  external  vestiges  of 
limbs. 

In  spite,  however,  of  this  great  variation  in  external  form,  all  the  ex- 
isting members  ef  the  class  present  the  common  feature  of  having  the- head, 
body,  limbs,  and  tail  covered  with  a  soft  skin,  although  in  a  few  scales  are 
buried  beneath  its  surface.  The  outer  skin,  or  epidermis,  which  is  from 
time  to  time  cast  in  a  single  piece,  is  always  transparent,  and  the  colour  is 
consequently  situated  in  the  deeper  layer.  Various  shades  of  black,  brown, 
red,  and  yellow,  are  the  predominant  colours  of  amphibians,  and  these  are 
very  generally  arranged  in  large  irregular  blotches,  or  in  streaks  ;  but  more 
rarely  blues  and  greens  are  present.  Peculiar  glands,  which  may  be  either 
distributed  over  the  whole  surface,  or  confined  to  the  region  of  the  neck, 
secrete  a  milky  fluid  of  a  poisonous  nature,  which  is  poured  out  under  the  in- 
fluence of  rage  or  excitement.  And  that  this  "secretion  serves  as  a  means  of 
defence,  will  be  evident  to  all  who  have  watched  a  dog  seize  a  toad.  When 
this  secretion  reaches  its  highest  development,  the  apertures  of  the  glands 
open  in  the  form  of  warty  protuberances  on  the  skin,  as  is  the  case  in  all 
toads  and  many  salamanders.  There  are  many  peculiarities  connected  with 
the  anatomy  of  the  skeleton  and  soft  internal  parts  of  the  Amphibia,  but  it 
will  suffice  to  mention  two.  Unlike  that  of  all  the  higher  vertebrates,  the 
tongue,  when  present,  is  attached  to  the  front  extremity  of  the  lower  jaw,  so 
that  it  is  protruded  by  being  turned  right  over  as  if  on  a  hinge  ;  and  when  in 
repose  its  tip  is  directed  down  the  throat.  It  is  always  of  a  thick  and  fleshy 
nature,  and  thus  quite  unlike  the  same  organ  in  snakes  and  lizards.  The 
second  peculiarity  is  connected  with  the  skeleton,  in  which  the  ribs  are  either 
completely  wanting,  or  represented  merely  by  small  rudiments  aflixed  to  the 
extremities  of  the  long  horizontal  transverse  processes  of  the  joints  of  the 
backbone.  This  lack  of  functional  ribs  prevents  amphibians  from  breathing 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  higher  vertebrates,  in  which  the  cavity  of  the 
chest  is  alternately  expanded  and  contracted  by  the  movements  of  the  ribs  ; 
arid  they  are,  in  consequence,  compelled  to  take  in  air  in  large  gulps  by  a 
swallowing  action.  In  the  presence  of  a  large,  thin,  flattened  bone,  lying  on 
the  under  surface  of  the  hinder  part  of  the  skull,  and  known  as  the  para- 


AMPHIBIA.  433 


sphenoid,  amphibians  differ  from  the  existing  forms  of  the  higher  vertebrates, 
and  thereby  approximate  to  lishes.  In  certain  extinct  reptiles,  this  bone 
appears,  however,  to  be  well  developed,  so  that  its  importance  in  classification 
is  less  than  has  been  supposed. 

To  describe  in  detail  the  developmental  history  of  amphibians  would  re- 
quire nearly  as  much  space  as  is  allotted  in  this  volume  to  the  entire  class  ; 
and  it  is  possible  to  give  only  the  merest  outline.  Premising  that  all  the 
members  of  the  class  lay  eggs,  and  that  in  certain  special  cases  some  of  the 
stages  of  development  are  abbreviated,  the  ordinary  life-history  of  an  amphi- 
bian is  as  follows.  The  eggs  are  generally  deposited  by  the  female  in  fresh 
water  and  are  usually  of  small  size  and  enveloped  in  a  large  jelly-like  mass, 
among  which  the  yolks  are  conspicuous  as  dark  balls.  When  these  eggs  are 
ripe  for  hatching,  the  larvae  burst  their  investing  membranes  to  make  their 
appearance  in  the  world  as  free-swimming  fish-like  creatures,  provided  with 
a  long  laterally  compressed  tail,  but  devoid  of  limbs  or  external  gills.  They 
still  retain  a  portion  of  the  yolk,  which  serves  for  a  short  time  as  nourish- 
ment. Soon  a  couple  of  pairs  of  feather-like  gills  make  their  appearance  on 
the  sides  of  the  neck,  and  give  the  creature  somewhat  the  look  of  bearing 
two  pairs  of  fins.  Although  in  those  forms  which  permanently  retain  the 
tail  these  external  gills  persist  for  a  considerable  period,  or  even  throughout 
life,  in  those  of  which  the  adults  are  tailless  they  soon  disappear,  and  are 
replaced  by  internal  gills  comparable  to  those  of  fishes.  These  external  gills 
are  enclosed  in  a  special  gill-chamber,  from  which  the  water  that  has  been 
taken  in  through  the  mouth  is  discharged  through  a  single  tube  or  a  pair  of 
tubes  ;  the  aperture  of  the  latter  being  generally  single,  and  situated  either 
on  the  left  side  of  the  body  or  on  its  lower  surface.  With  the  sprouting  of 
the  external  gills,  the  tail  rapidly  increases  in  relative  size,  and  soon  forms 
the  greater  portion  of  the  creature.  About  this  time  small  bud-like  processes 
indicate  the  appearance  of  the  limbs,  the  hinder  pair  first  showing  in  the 
frogs  and  toads,  but  the  front  pair  being  the  earlier  in  the  tailed  forms.  In 
the  earlier  stages  the  jaws  are  furnished  with  horny  teeth,  but  later  with  a 
kind  of  beak  composed  of  the  same  substance.  At  this  time  the  tadpole 
subsists  on  vegetable  substances,  and,  consequently,  has  a  long  and  much 
convoluted  intestine.  It,  of  course,  breathes  the  air  dissolved  in  the  water 
in  which  it  lives  in  the  same  manner  as  a  fish,  and  has  a  two-chambered 
fish-like  heart.  In  the  tadpole  stage  the  large  tail  has  no  backbone  ;  and  in 
the  frogs  and  toads  this  appendage,  after  the  limbs  are  well  developed,  is 
gradually  absorbed,  and  finally  disappears  entirely.  In  the  permanently 
tailed  forms,  on  the  other  hand,  this  appendage  develops  vertebrae  in  its 
internal  axis,  when  it  becomes  similar  to  the  tail  of  a  land  reptile.  About 
this  time  the  jaws'  lose  their  horny  beak,  and  develop  teeth,  and  the  intes- 
tine becomes  shortened.  Equally  remarkable  changes  are  at  the  same  time 
taking  place  in  the  respiratory  and  circulatory  organs.  From  the  oesophagus 
a  bag-like  projection  grows  out,  which,  subsequently,  divides  into  two,  and 
eventually  forms  lungs,  which  little  by  little  come  into  use,  until  the  crea- 
ture is  able  to  breathe  both  in  air  and  in  water.  Finally,  the  gills  wither, 
and  the  adult  frog  or  salamander  appears  as  an  air-breathing,  insectivorous 
or  carnivorous  reptile-like  creature,  which  has  been  developed  from  the  fish- 
like  tadpole.  During  the  development  of  the  lungs  the  heart  has  changed 
from  a  two-chambered  to  a  three-chambered  organ  ;  so  that  even  in  this 
respect  the  adult  amphibian  is  indistinguishable  from  a  reptile.  In  most 
cases,  when  all  these  changes  have  been  completed,  the  animal  emerges  from 
29 


434  AMPHIBIA. 


the  water  to  pass  a  considerable  portion  of  its  time  on  land,  although  nearly 
always  returning  to  its  original  element  for  the  purpose  of  breeding.  It  has 
been  said  that  the  external  gills  usually  form  two  pairs,  but  it  should  be 
added  that,  in  some  instances,  these  are  increased  to  three,  while  in  one  case 
they  are  reduced  to  a  solitary  pair. 

As  regards  their  mode  of  life,  amphibians  are  especially  characterised  by 
their  partiality  for  moisture,  some  passing  the  whole  of  their  time  in  the 
water,  while  none  are  found  in  absolutely  desert  districts.  To  their  soft 
sensitive  skins  moisture  is,  indeed,  an  absolute  necessity  ;  and  it  seems  that 
they  imbibe  such  moisture  as  they  require  through  the  skin.  Jn  countries 
where  one  season  of  the  year  is  especially  dry,  terrestrial  amphibians  are 
consequently  compelled  to  undergo  a  period  of  more  or  less  complete  torpor. 
To  a  certain  extent  this  is  the  case  even  in  Britain,  where  a  sudden  shower 
after  a  dry  spell  brings  out  numerous  frogs  and  toads  at  the  commencement 
of  evening  in  gardens  where  not  one  had  been  visible  previously.  In  some 
parts  of  Argentina  the  effect  of  a  shower  after  a  drought  is  much  more 
startling.  There  a  garden  may  appear  for  weeks  or  months  absolutely  devoid 
of  amphibian  life,  but  after  a  single  shower  it  will  appear  literally  alive  with 
huge  frogs  and  toads  of  various  kinds.  Probably  all  the  terrestrial  amphibians 
are  essentially  nocturnal  creatures,  and,  indeed,  their  skins  soon  become 
parched  and  withered  by  exposure  to  sunlight.  Few  objects  are  more  pitiable 
than  a  belated  frog  or  toad  attempting  to  cross  a  dusty  high-road  in  the  full 
glare  of  the  summer  sun.  Cloudy  or  wet  days  will,  however,  generally  tempt 
these  creatures  from  their  hiding-places.  Although  the  tailed  forms  are 
entirely  or  mainly  silent  creatures,  frogs  and  toads  during  the  breeding  season 
utter  their  well-known  croaking  cries,  and  in  moist  tropical  and  subtropical 
countries  life  is  rendered  at  times  almost  unbearable  by  their  nocturnal 
choruses.  In  the  breeding  season  frogs  and  toads  become  exceedingly  bold, 
and  they  may  be  seen  sitting  within  a  few  feet  of  the  spectator,  alternately 
dilating  and  contracting  their  capacious  throats,  as  they  give  vent  to  their 
discordant  cries.  In  order  to  make  their  sounds  more  intense,  the  males  of 
many  kinds  are  furnished  with  large  sacs  projecting  on  either  side  of  the 
throat,  which  can  be  dilated  till  they  resemble  miniature  balloons.  Most 
members  of  the  class  subsist  chiefly  or  entirely,  on  insects  and  other  small 
invertebrates,  but  some  of  the  aquatic  kinds  consume  fish,  and  some  of  the 
larger  toads  and  frogs  will  readily  attack  not  only  other  reptiles,  but  even  the 
smaller  birds  and  mammals.  Thus  a  newspaper  correspondent,  writing  from 
Nagpur,  in  India,  observes  that  in  the  garden  adjoining  his  house  was  a  small 
pond,  which  was  the  home  of  a  huge  kind  of  frog.  One  afternoon  he  heard 
a  myna  making  a  great  noise,  and  screaming  as  though  it  had  been  caught  by 
some  creature,  so  he  went  down  the  garden  to  ascertain  what  was  the  matter, 
and  was  just  in  time  to  see  the  bird  disappearing  down  a  big  frog's  throat. 
There  were  only  a  few  feathers  left,  and  the  bird  had  been  swallowed  feathers 
and  all.  Now  the  common  myna  is  quite  as  large  as  our  English  starling,  and 
the  frog  certainly  looked  as  though  he  had  dined,  so  he  was  left  in  peace  to 
enjoy  his  meal.  On  another  occasion  a  big  rat  appeared  in  the  house,  and 
was  being  chased  by  himself  and  servants  from  room  to  room,  when  it  dashed 
through  a  disused  b  ithroom.  A  large  frog  which  happened  to  be  there  made 
a  most  determined  rush,  but  missed  the  rat,  which  disappeared  down  the 
waste  water-pipe. 

In  conformity  with  their  fondness  for  warmth  and  moisture,  amphibians 
are   most  abundant  in  the  tropical  and  sub-tropical  portions  of  the  globe, 


FROGS  AND  TOADS.  435 


gradually  diminishing,  both  in  size  and  numbers,  in  the  temperate  zones,  and 
being  unknown  in  the  polar  regions,  as  indeed  they  are  in  deserts.  Although 
members  of  the  class  are  found  in  all  regions  except  those  named,  the  orders 
are  by  no  means  evenly  distributed.  In  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  for  in- 
stance, salamanders  and  newts  are  abundant,  and  the  burrowing  forms,  known 
as  csecilians,  are  wanting  ;  whereas  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere  csecilians 
occur,  but  salamanders  and  newts  are  totally  unknown.  Among  the  frogs 
and  toads  certain  families  are  confined  to  particular  areas,  but  it  is  remark- 
able that  there  are  indications  of  distinct  relationship  between  certain  groups 
respectively  restricted  to  South  America  and  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara. 


ORDER  I.— ECAUDATA. 

FROGS  AND  TOADS. 

THE  frogs  and  toads  constitute  one  Order,  all  the  members  of  which  are 
easily  recognised  when  adult  by  the  short  and  often  plump  form  of  the  body, 
the  total  absence  of  a  tail,  and  the  presence  of  four  fully-developed  limbs,  the 
hind  pair  being  generally  much  longer  than  the  front  ones.  Even  more  strik- 
ing features  are  displayed  by  the  skeleton.  Instead  of  continuing  to  the  end 
of  the  body,  the  backbone  proper  stops  short  about  the  middle  of  the  back, 
and  never  comprises  more  than  eight  vertebra).  Beyond  this  it  is  continued 
as  a  long,  tapering,  un jointed  rod.  To  the  extremities  of  the  horizontal 
transverse  processes  of  the  last,  or  sacral  vertebra,  are  articulated  the  anterior 
ends  of  the  greatly  elongated  ilia  of  the  pelvis,  these  bones  running  as  far 
backwards  as  the  hinder  end  of  the  aforesaid  rod,  where  they  bear  the  sockets 
for  the  articulation  of  the  uppermost  bone  of  the  hind-legs.  By  this  very 
peculiar,  and  indeed  unique  arrangement,  the  setting-on  of  the  hind-limbs  is 
carried  far  behind  the  sacrum.  The  radius  and  ulna  in  the  fore-limb,  and  the 
tibia  and  fibula  in  the  hind-limb,  are  respectively  united  to  form  a  single 
bone,  and  the  elongation  of  the  hind-legs  is  produced  by  the  lengthening  "of 
those  bones  in  the  ankle-joint  known  as  the  astragalus  and  calcaneum,  so  as 
to  form  a  pair  of  parallel  long  bones.  Like  all  other  living  members  of  the 
class  in  which  both  limbs  are  fully  developed,  frogs  and  toads  have  four  front 
and  live  hind-toes.  In  the  tadpole  stage — which  is  occasionally  suppressed — 
the  hind-limbs  bud  before  any  trace  of  the  front  pair  is  visible.  Usually 
this  stage  of  existence  is  passed  entirely  in  the  water,  but  there  are  some  very 
peculiar  forms  in  which  the  young  are  produced  in  the  moist  foliage  of  leaves. 
On  land  the  adults  of  the  tailless  batrachians  progress  either  by  taking  long 
leaps  from  the  hind-legs  or  by  dragging  forwards  first  one  and  then  the  other 
of  these,  and  thus  pushing  the  body  along.  In  swimming,  the  hind-legs  are 
alone  employed  for  propulsion,  the  front  pair  being  pressed  close  to  the  chest. 
The  total  number  of  species  of  the  tailless  amphibians  probably  does  not  fall 
far  short  of  a  thousand,  and  representatives  of  the  group  are  found  in  all 
countries  suitable  to  the  existence  of  amphibian  life-  Curiously  enough,  the 
largest  forms  are  found  in  some  of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific.  Whereas  the 
majority  are  terrestrial,  a  considerable  number  have  adopted  an  arboreal  life. 
The  group  is  divided  into  twelve  families,  of  which  the  two  last  differ  from  all  the 
rest  in  the  absence  of  the  tongue.  Unfortunately,  the  characters  by  which  the 


436  AMPHIBIA— ORDER  L-ECAUDATA. 


first  ten  of  these  families  are  divided  into  two  larger  groups  are  taken  from  the 
skeleton,  and  are  consequently  some  what  difficult  to  explain  to  readers  not  speci- 
ally versed  in  anatomy. 

Sub-Order  J. — Firmisternia. 

The  five  families  constituting  this  subordinal  group  are  characterised  as 
follows  : — The  tongue  is  present,  and  the  large  plate-like  bones  on  the  chest 
termed  the  metacoracoids  are  united  together  by  a  large  median  cartilage, 
attached  to  their  free  inner  margins. 

in  the  family  typified  by  the  common  British  frog  teeth  are  developed  in 

the  upper  jaw,  and  the  horizontal  transverse  processes  of  the  sacral  vertebra 

have,  at  most,  only  a  slight  terminal  expansion,  and  are  fre- 

Typical  Frogs. quently  cylindrical  throughout.      The  frogs  of  this  family 

Family  Ranidce.  display  remarkable  diversity  in  the  form  of  the  tips  of  the 
terminal  bones  of  the  toes,  which  may  be  either  rounded, 
pointed,  forked,  T-shaped,  or,  more  rarely,  claw-like.  The  family — which 
includes  a  large  number  of  genera  and  a  host  of  species— has  a  wide  geo- 
graphical distribution.  With  the 
exception  of  a  species  of  the  typical 
genus  from  the  extreme  north  of 
Australia,  and  another  belonging  to 
the  genus  Cornifer  from  New 
Guinea,  there  are  no  members  of 
the  family  in  Australasia.  South 
America,  too,  is  poorly  off,  having, 
in  addition  to  certain  species  be- 
longing to  the  typical  genus  .Roma, 
only  live  genera,  and  about  a  dozen 
species.  Moreover,  since  none  of 
these  latter  range  farther  south  than 
Ecuador  and  Colombia,  while  Rana 

.-COMMON  FROG  (Rana  temporaria).         does  nofc   apparentiy   extend    south- 
ward of  Amazonia,  the  more  southern 

parts  of  that  continent  aro  characterised  by  the  total  absence  of  the  present 
family.     In  a  group  so  extensive,  it  is  difficult  to  select  genera  for  special 
notice,    although  the  typical  Ratia  must  of  course  be  mentioned.      In  the 
numerous  irogs  of  this  genus  the  tongue  is  free    and  more  or  less  deeply 
notched  at  the  tip,  the  pupil  of  the  eye  forms  a  horizontal  slit,  and  the  toes 
of  the  fore-feet  are  free,  whereas  those  of  the  hind-feet  are  more  or  less  fully 
webbed.     By  putting  the  finger  into  the  mouth  of  any  frog  of  this  genus,  it 
will  be  readily  felt  that  teeth  are  present  on  the  vomers,  occupying  the 
middle  region  of  the  palate.     Whereas  in  some  forms  the  tips  of  the  toes  are 
simple,  in  others  they  are  dilated.      The  genus  has  a  distribution  nearly 
coextensive  with  that  of  the  family,  one  species  being  found  in  the  extreme 
north  of  Australia,  although  there  is  none  from  Papua.     There  are  several 
species  of  the  genus  inhabiting  Europe,  such  at>  the  common  frog  (R.  tetn- 
poraria),  the  edible  frog  (R.  esculenta\    the  agile  frog  (R.  agilis),  the  Spanish 
frog  (R.  iberica),  and  Lataste's  frog    (R.  Icttastei).      Of  these,  the  only  one 
indigenous  to  Britain  is  the  common    frog,  in  which   the  hind  feet  are  incom- 
pletely webbed,  and  the  males    are  unprovided  with  the  dilatable  throat -sacs 
characterising    those  of  the  edible  species.     Although  the  latter— of   which 


FROGS  AND  TOADS. 


there  are  two  varieties,  differing  from  one  another  in  colour — is  properly  a 
native  of  the  Continent,  it  has  been  introduced  into  the  fens  of  Cambridge 
and  Norfolk,  where  it  seems  to  flourish.  It  has  a  very  extensive  geographical 
range,  being  found  as  far  south  as  North- Western  Africa,  and  as  far  east  as 
Japan.  Although  the  species  is  the  only  one  eaten  in  Europe,  other 
members  of  the  sub-order  are  sent  to  table  in  distant  lands,  and  the  writer 
has  partakon  of-  a  dish  of  frogs  in  Argentina  which  belonged  to  a 
totally  different  family.  The  great  relative  length  of  the  hind-legs  and 
generally  slender  form  of  the  body  serves  to  distinguish  the  agile  frog ; 
while  the  fourth  and  fifth  of  the  species  mentioned  above  differ  from  the  rest 
by  their  spotted  bellies.  All  these  frogs  are  comparatively  small  creatures, 
which  are  greatly  exceeded  in  size  by  species  from  more  distant  lands. 

Among  these,  the  bull-frog  (J?.  catesbyana)  of  Eastern  North  America 
occupies  an  intermediate  position  in  this  respect ;  the  largest  member  of  the 
whole  genus  being  the  Solomon  Island  frog  (H.  (fiippyi),  which  grows  to  nine 
inches  in  length,  exclusive  of  the  limbs.  The  habits  of  the  common  frog  are 
too  familiar  to  need  description  ;  and  it  is  probable  that  like  this  species,  all 
the  members  of  the  genus  take  to  the  water  at  the  time  of  breeding.  Some 
are,  however,  more  aquatic  than  others ;  and  there  are  also  certain  frogs  of 
this  genus  which  are  partially  arboreal  in  their  habits,  while  others  have 
taken  to  burrowing  in  the  ground.  The  climbing  species  have  the  tips  of  the 
toes  expanded  into  discs,  but  smaller 
expansions  may  be  present  in  the 
aquatic  kinds.  An  Indian  species 
(A  breviceps)  makes  burrows  in  the 
ground  to  a  depth  of  about  eighteen 
inches.  Omitting  mention  of  most  of 
the  other  numerous  genera  of  this 
extensive  family,  attention  must  be 
concentrated  on  the  curious  flying- 
frogs  constituting  the  genus  Rhaco- 
phorus.  These  frogs — of  which  there 
are  more  than  forty  species  from  the 
Oriental  countries  and  the  island  of 
Madagascar — have  the  tips  of  both 
pairs  of  feet  expanded  into  large  discs, 
and  very  generally  the  front  pair  are 
as  fully  webbed  as  the  hinder,  although 

in  some  kinds  the  webs  of  the  former  F^.-FLYING  FRocT(Rhacophorus). 

are   less   fully    developed.     The    eyes 

are  remarkable  for  their  fulness  and  brilliancy  ;  and  the  general  hue  of  the 
skin  is  bright  green.  Some  species,  are,  however,  stated  to  have  the  power 
of  changing  their  hue  to  harmonise  with  their  surroundings.  In  the  skeleton 
of  many  of  the  species  the  tips  of  the  terminal  joints  of  the  toes  are  in  the 
form  of  the  letter  Y.  Except  during  the  breeding  season,  when  they  doubt- 
less take  to  the  water,  these  frogs  are  arboreal  in  their  habits.  They  derive 
their  name  of  flying  frogs  from  a  statement  to  the  effect  that  one  species  at 
least  has  been  observed  to  take  a  long  flying  leap  from  a  tree,  apparently 
supported  by  the  large  webs  between  the  toes.  Although  it  does  not  appear 
that  such  a  feat  has  ever  been  witnessed  by  a  European  observer,  it  is  almost 
incredible  that  the  sole  use  of  these  huge  webs  is  for  swimming,  more  especi- 
ally since  these  frogs  pass  but  a.  comparatively  small  portion  of  their  existence 


438  AMPHIBIA—ORDER  L—ECAUDATA. 


in  water.  One  member  of  a  Tropical  American  genus  of  this  family— namely 
Phyllobates  trinitatis,  of  Trinidad  and  Venezuela — is  remarkable  011  account  of 
its  curious  nursing  habits.  The  tadpoles  are  provided  with  sucking-discs  on 
the  mouth,  by  means  of  which  they  attach  themselves  to  the  back  of  their 
female  parent,  and  are  thus  carried  about  in  safety.  As  many  as  from  twelve 
to  eighteen  tadpoles  may  sometimes  be  found  thus  clinging  to  one  frog.  A 
similar  mode  of  attachment  occurs  in  one  species  of  the  under-mentioned 
genus  Deiidrobatesy  but  in  this  case  this  mode  of  locomotion  seems  to  be 
resorted  to  only  when  the  ponds  in  which  the  individuals  have  bred  dry  up. 

In  addition  to  the  members  of  the  genus  Rhacophorus,  there  are  many 
other  frogs  which  have  taken  to  an  arboreal  life,  and  so  much  do  these 

resemble  one  another  in  external  appearance  that  it  is  pro- 

Family          bable  any  non-scientific  observer  would  regard  all  of  them 

Dendrobatidce.    as  being  very  closely  allied.     Not  so  that  dreadful  personage 

the  anatomist,  who  tells  us  that  while  the  members  of  one 
family  conform  in  the  structure  of  the  bones  of  the  chest  to  the  sub-order 
now  under  consideration,  all  those  .of  another  family  to  be  mentioned 
later  have  a  totally  different  conformation  of  this  region.  Accepting  this 
distinction,  we  must  regard  the  Tropical  American  tree-frogs  of  the  genus 
Dendrobates,  and  those  belonging  to  the  nearly  allied  Malagasy  genus  Mantella, 
as  forming  a  family  by  themselves.  From  the  frogs  of  the  family  Ranidce 
the  Dendrobatidce  are  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  teeth  both  in  the  upper 
jaw  and  on  the  bones  of  the  palate.  In  both  genera  the  toes  are  unwebbed, 
and  terminate  in  small  adhesive  discs,  but  whereas  in  Mantella  the  tongue  is 
notched  at  the  tip,  in  Dendrobates  it  is  entire.  One  species  of  the  latter 
genus  (D.  tinctorius)  is  remarkable  for  the  brilliancy  and  variability  of  its 
coloration;  while  it  is  further  noticeable  as  being  less  arboreal  than  its  con- 
geners, generally  frequenting  low  herbage  or  ground  strewn  with  dead  leaves. 
As  already  mentioned,  another  species  carries  its  tadpoles  clinging  to  its  back 
from  pool  to  pool  in  seasons  of  drought. 

Another  nearly  allied  family  of  frogs  is  distinguished  from  the  last  by  the 
expansion  of  the  extremities  of  the  horizontal  transverse  processes  of  the 

sacral  vertebra ;  both 

Family          groups  agreeing  in  the 

Engystomatidce.  absence    of   teeth    in 

the  upper  jaw.  These 
frogs  present  great  variation  in  the 
structure  of  the  bones  and  cartilages 
forming  the  chest ;  the  typical  genus 
Engystoma,  together  with  Cacopus  and 
several  others,  showing  the  absence 
of  the  bones  known  as  precoracoicls — 
a  feature  rare  in  the  sub-order.  This 
family  may  be  regarded  as  essentially 
a  southern  one,  its  geographical  range 
embracing  Africa,  Madagascar,  the  Fig.  3.— Cacopus  systema. 

Malayan  Peninsula  and  Islands,  India, 

the  south  of  China,  New  Guinea,  and  South  and  Central  America.  Two 
species  of  the  typical  genus  extend,  however,  into  North  America  as  far  as 
Mexico  and  Carolina.  Nearly  a  score  of  genera  are  included  in  the  family. 
Among  these,  a  considerable  number  are  characterised  by  the  extremely 
small  relative  width  of  the  opening  of  the  mouth ;  and  it  is  probable 


FKOGS  AND  TOADS.  439 


that  all  these  subsist  more  or  less  exclusively  on  ants  and  termites.  A 
large  proportion  of  these  frogs  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  and  these  may 
be  recognised  by  the  vertical  pupil  of  the  eye.  Although  many  have  discs  at 
the  tips  of  the  toes,  none  of  these  are  tree-haunting  species.  A  consider- 
able number  of  members  of  the  family  are,  however,  burrowers  ;  and  in  these 
the  hind-limbs  are  unusually  powerful,  and  are  also  specially  protected  by 
horny  sheathings.  Others,  again,  pass  a  large  portion  of  their  time  in  the 
water.  It  would  be  profitless  to  give  in  this  place  the  distinctive  character- 
istics of  all  th?  genera  included  in  this  extensive  family  ;  and  attention  may 
accordingly  be  confined  to  a  few  which  are  noteworthy  on  account  of  some 
peculiarity  in  the  habits  of  their  representatives.  Foremost  among  these  is 
the  Chilian  Darwin's  frog  (Mhinoderma  darwini),  in  which  the  female  has 
transferred  the  task  of  carrying  and  tending  the  eggs  and  young  to  her 
partner.  Whereas  there  is  nothing 
remarkable  about  the  structure  of 
the  female  of  this  frog,  the  male 
has  a  capacious  pouch  underlying 
the  whole  of  the  lower  surface  of 
the  body,  which  communicates  with 
the  exterior  by  means  of  a  pair  of 
apertures  opening  into  the  mouth 
on  each  side  of  the  tongue.  As 
soon  as  his  partner  has  deposited  Fig.  4.— DARWIN'S  FROG  (Rhinodenma  darwini) 
her  eggs,  the  male  frog  takes 

them  in  his  front  paws  and  transfers  them  to  his  mouth,  whence  they  pass 
into  the  great  nursing  pouch,  where  they  remain  in  perfect  security  till 
hatched  into  young  frogs,  which  make  their  way  into  the  world  by  the  same 
passages.  The  tadpoles  never  develop  gills,  and  this  frog  is  the  sole  member  of 
its  genus.  Equally  noteworthy  are  the  African  frogs  constituting  the  genus 
Breviceps.  These  species,  which  take  their  name  from  the  small  size  and  short- 
ness of  the  head,  would  almost  seem  to  have  given  rise  to  the  fable  of  the  ox  and 
the  frog,  since  they  hav  e  the  singular  habit  of  puffing  out  the  body  till  the  head 
and  limbs  are  nearly  bu  ried,  and  the  creature  looks  almost  like  a  ball.  What 
may  be  the  object  of  this  curious  habit  does  not  appear  to  have  been  ascertained. 

This  family  of  frogs  includes  eight  genera,  all  of  which  are  confined  to  the 
island  of  Madagascar,  with  the  single  exception  of  the  one  species  constitut- 
ing the  genus  Calluella,  which  inhabits  Burma  and  Tenas- 
serim.     The  essential  distinctive  features  of  the  frogs  of  this  Family- 

family  are  the  presence  of  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  coupled      Dyscophidce. 
with  the  expansion  of  the  extremities  of  the  transverse  pro- 
cesses of  the  sacral  vertebra,    the  latter  feature  serving  to  distinguish  them 
from  the  members  of  the  family  Ranidce,  in  which  there  is  no  such  expansion. 
These  frogs  are  very  closely  allied  indeed  to  those  of  the  preceding  family, 
and  as  their  chief  interest  lies  in  their  peculiar  geographical  distribution, 
they  need  no  further  notice  on  this  occasion. 

A  large  frog  from  the  Solomon  Islands  technically  known  as  Ceratobatra- 
chus  guentheri,  and  easily  recognised  by  the  extremely  sharp  point  formed 
by  the  tip  of   the   nose,  is  regarded  as   forming  a  family 
by  itself.     From  all  the  members  of  the  sub-order  under  Family 

consideration,  this  frog  differs   by  having   both  the  upper  Ceratobrachidce. 
and  the   lower    jaw   armed   with   a   full    series   of    teeth  ; 
and  it  is  further  characterised  by  the  absence  of  expansion  of  the  extremi- 


440  AMPHIBIA— ORDER  L—ECAUDATA. 

ties  of  the  transverse  processes  of  the  sacral  vertebra.  It  is  an  ugly- 
looking  creature  at  best,  the  large  triangular  head  bearing  ridges,  and 
the  pointed  nose  being  surmounted  with  a  loose  flap  of  skin,  and  similar 
flaps  covering  the  eyes.  The  mouth,  too,  is  of  enormous  capacity,  and  thus 
adds  to  the  generally  repulsive  appearance  of  this  frog.  The  sharp-nosed 
frog  is  evidently  a  highly  specialised  species,  since  it  lays  very  large  eggs, 
from  which  young  frogs  emerge  in  a  highly  developed  condition,  the  tadpole 
stage  being  compressed  and  passed  in  the  eggs.  Mr.  Guppy  writes  that 
"  during  the  descent  from  one  of  the  peaks  of  Faroe  island,  i  stopped  at  a 
stream  some  400  feet  above  the  sea,  where  my  native  boys  collected  from  the 
moist  crevices  of  the  rocks  close  to  the  water  a  number  of  transparent, 
gelatinous  balls,  rather  smaller  than  a  marble.  Each  of  these  balls  contained 
a  young  frog  about  a  third  of  an  inch  in  length.  On  my  rupturing  the  ball, 
the  tiny  frog  took  a  marvellous  leap  into  existence,  and  disappeared  before  I 
could  catch  it." 

Sub-Order  II. — Arcifera. 

The  remaining  families  of  the  order  in  which  the  tongue  is  present  con- 
stitute a  second  subordinal  group,  differing  from  the  tirst  by  the  conforma- 
tion of  the  bones  and  cartilages  of  the  chest.  Instead  of  the  two  metacora- 
coid  bones  being  connected  together  in  the  middle  line  by  a  single  cartilage 
attached  to  their  free  inner  edges,  each  of  the  metacoracoids  is  expanded  on 
the  same  side  into  a  plate  of  cartilage,  one  of  which  overlaps  the  other. 

Having  the  above-mentioned  type  of  chest-structure,  the  large  and  important 
family  of  the  Leptodactylidce — the  CystignatTiidcn  of  many  authors — are  spread 
over  Central  and  South  America  and  Australia.  In  all  of 
Family  them  only  the  upper  jaw  is  furnished  with  teeth,  and  the 
Leptodactylidce.  extremities  of  the  horizontal  transverse  processes  of  the 
sacral  vertebra  are  either  cylindrical,  or  only  slightly  ex- 
panded. In  both  these  respects  these  frogs  resemble  the  Ranidce,  so  that  they 
may  be  regarded  as  holding  the  same  relative  position  in  the  present  sub-order 
as  is  occupied  by  the  latter  in  the  Firmisternia.  More  than  a  score  of  genera 
and  a  very  large  number  of  species  are  included  in  the  family,  and  it  may  be 
noted  that  whereas  in  the  majority  of  the  Australian  genera  the  pupil  of  the 
eye  is  vertical,  this  is  but  seldom  the  case  in  the  American  forms.  The  family 
may  be  divided  into  three  groups,  in  the  first  of  which  the  breast-bone  ter- 
minates below  in  a  rod-like  process.  To  this  group  belongs  the  typical  genus 
Leptodcictylus,  of  which  all  the  numerous  species  are  American.  These  frogs, 
in  which  the  pupil  is  horizontal,  are  much  like  the  Ranidce  in  external 
appearance,  but  the  hind-toes  are  not  webbed.  They  are  peculiar  in  that 
during  the  breeding  season  the  fore-limb  becomes  much  swollen,  and  in 
the  skeleton  the  humerus  bears  a  conspicuous  bony  ridge.  All  these  frogs 
possess  a  very  powerful  voice,  and  in  parts  of  the  Argentine  their  croaking  is 
a  dreadful  nuisance.  Many  of  them  burrow  holes  in  the  ground  for  their 
eggs.  As  an  example  of  the  second  group,  in  which  there  is  no  bony  rod  to 
the  breast-bone,  and  the  hind-toes  are  nearly  or  completely  free,  we  may  take 
a  West  Indian  species  (Hylodes  martinicensis)  belonging  to  a  large  American 
genus,  all  the  species  of  which  are  arboreal.  This  particular  kind  has  the 
peculiar  habit  of  laying  its  large  eggs  singly  in  the  axils  of  leaves,  where  a  few 
drops  of  water  may  from  time  to  time  collect  after  a  shower.  From  these 
eggs  the  young  frogs  emerge  with  only  a  small  remnant  of  the  tail,  which  ia 


FROGS  AND  TOADS. 


44i 


soon  absorbed  ;  and  it  appears  that  during  development  no  gills  are  produced, 
but  that  the  tail,  which  is  richly  supplied  with  blood-vessels,  acts  as  a  breathing 
organ.  A  third  American  genus  is  Oeratophrys,  which  includes  the  well-known 
horned-frogs  of  Brazil  and  Argentina,  and  belongs  to  a  group  in  which  there 
is  no  bony  rod  to  the  breast-bone,  and  the  hind-toes  are  more  or  less  fully 
webbed.  The  Brazilian  G.  boiei  is  a  huge  creature,  growing  to  as  much  as  eight 
inches  in  length,  and  furnished  with  a  pair 
of  large  horn-like  outgrowths  on  the  upper 
eyelids.  In  the  Argentine  esquerzo  (C.  or- 
nata)  these  processes  are  less  developed, 
and  the  whole  size  is  less.  Like  its  kindred, 
furnished  with  an  enormous  mouth,  this 
species  is  beautifully  mottled  with  green, 
olive,  and  gold,  and  in  this  respect  is  really 
a  handsome  creature,  although  its  shape  is 
hideous.  All  the  larger  kinds  are  very  fierce 
in  disposition,  and  carnivorous  in  their 
habits,  killing  and  eating  small  mammals, 
birds,  reptiles,  and  other  members  of  their 
own  order.  They  are  much  dreaded  by 
the  natives  of  the  districts  they  inhabit, 
who  tell  wonderful  stories  as  to  their  fly- 
ing at  men,  and  even  at  the  noses  of  horses 
and  cattle.  Their  bite  is  stated  to  produce 
very  extensive  swellings.  When  attacking 
a  large  animal,  they  utter  a  cry  more  like 
a  bark  than  anything  else ;  but  their  ordin- 
ary note  is  bell-like.  I  once  brought  several 
of  these  frogs  in  a  box  to  Buenos  Aires  by  rail,  and  during  the  journey  the  guard 
and  some  of  the  passengers  were  considerably  alarmed  by  the  noises  proceed- 
ing from  the  cage,  many  of  them  wondering  what  kind  of  noisome  beasts  were 
therein  enclosed. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  preceding  are  the  two  South  American  genera  Dendro- 
phryniscus  and  Batrachophrynus,  forming  a  small  family  differing  from  the 
Leptodactylidce  merely  by  the  absence  of  teeth  in  the  upper 
jaw,  and  thus  serving  to  connect  them  with  the  next  group.    Family  Dendro- 

Of  far  more  importance  is  the  almost  cosmopolitan  and  large     phryniscidce. 
toad  family,  in  which  teeth  are  absent  in  both  jaws,  while  the 
extremities  of  the  transverse  processes  of  the  sacral  vertebra  are  expanded. 
That  the  family  is  closely  allied  to  the  Leptodactylidce  is  indi- 
cated by  the  approximation  of  two  of  its  genera  to  two  of  the      T3ie  Toads. — 
latter.     Thus  the  Australian  Pseudophryne  resembles  Crinia  Family 

of  the  same  country,  while  Enyystomops  is  like  Paludicola,        Bufonidce. 
both  these  latter  being  South  American.     Again  two  other 
genera  exhibit  resemblances  to  the  Engystomatidce.     Most  of  the  members  of 
the  family  are  crawling  creatures,  but  the  Javan  Nectes  is  completely  aquatic 
in  its  habits,  and  the  members  of  the  Oriental  and  African  genus  Necto- 
phryne  appear  to  be  arboreal.      The  members  of  Ehinophrynus — which  is 
one*  of  the  two  genera  approximating  to  the  Engystomatidce — feed  on  ants. 
Whereas  in  some  forms  the  extremities  of  the  terminal  bones  of  the  toes  are 
simple,  in  others,  such  as  Nectophryne,  they  are  shaped  like  the  letter  T. 
Our  remarks  must  be  restricted  to  the  typical  genus  Bufo,  of  which  there  are 


Fig.  5.— HORNED  FROO 
(Ceratophrys  ornata). 


442 


AMPHIBIA— ORDER  I.—ECAUDATA. 


a  very  large  number  of  species  distributed  over  the  greater  part  of  the  world 
with  the  exception  of  Oceania,  Australasia,  and  Madagascar.  In  this  genus 
tile-pupil  of  the  eye  forms  a  horizontal  slit,  the  tip  of  the  tongue  is  not 
notched,  the  toes  of  the  fore-feet  are  free,  but  the  hinder  ones  are  partially 
webbed.  Occasionally  the  ends  of  the  toes  are  expanded  into  small  discs  • 
the  head  may  bear  bony  ridges,  and  in  many  cases  the  skin  is  covered  with 
warts,  which  under  excitement  secrete  a  miiky  acrid  fluid.  Two  species  are 

met  with  in  Britain,  namely  the 
common  toad  (B.  mdgaris),  and  the 
natterjack  (B.  calamila) ;  the  latter 
being  very  local  in  our  islands, 
and  easily  recognised  by  the 
whitish  or  yellow  streak  on  the 
middle  of  the  back.  Although 
not  found  in  Britain,  a  third 
European  species  is  the  handsome 
green  toad  (B.  viridis),  which  also 
ranges  into  the  north  of  Africa 
and  Asia.  The  males  differ  from 
those  of  the  common  species  in 


Fig.  6. — NATTERJACK  TOAD  (Bufo  catomita) 


possessing  a  vocal  sac  beneath  the 
throat. 
Although  many  of  the  tree-frogs  belonging  to  this  family  are  very  similar 

externally  to  the  Dendrobatidce,  they  agree  with  the  toads  in  the  conforma- 
tion of  the  skeleton  of  the  chest.     From  the  Bufonidce  they 

Family  ffylidce.    may  be   readily  distinguished  by  the  possession   of   upper 
teeth  ;   while  a  still  more  distinctive  peculiarity  is  to  be 

found  in  the   claw-shaped  terminal  joints  of  the  toes.      The  frogs  of  this 

family,  which  are  mostly  arboreal  in  their  habits,  and  are  ranged  under  a 

considerable  number  of  generic  divisions,  attain  their  maximum  development 

in  America  (especially  its  tropical  regions)  and  Australasia,  but  also  occur  in 

Europe  and  Northern  Asia,  while  a  single  representative  of  the  typical  genus 

Hyla  is  found  in  India.     The  genus 

just  named  includes  more  than  a 

hundred  and  fifty  species,  and  has 

a     distribution     coextensive    with 

that  of  the  family.     Whereas  the 

European  If.  arborea  is  a  tiny  little 

creature,    some    of    the    Brazilian 

species  measure  as  much  as  three 

inches  in  length.     These  frogs  have 

the  tips  of  the  toes  expanded  into 

discs,  and   the   hind-feet   more  or 

less  fully  webbed.     In  the  eye  the 

pupil  is  horizontal  ;  and  the  hinder 

end  of  the  tongue  may  be  either 

adherent    or    partially    free.      The 

males  of  the  European  species,  and 

likewise  those  of  some  other  kinds, 

have  a  huge  vocal  sac  on  the  throat. 

In  order  to  assimilate  them  to  their  surroundings,  tree-frogs  are  of  a  brilliant 

green  colour.     Except  during  the  breeding  season — when  they  descend  tem- 


Fig.  7.— EUROPEAN  TBEE-FROG  (Hyla  arborea). 


FROGS  AND  TOADS. 


443 


Fig.  8.— POUCHED  FROG  (Nototreina.) 


porarily  bo  the  wateT — they  pass  their  whole  time  in  trees  or  shrubs, 
and  are  enabled  to  absorb  the  moisture  from  leaves  by  means  of  special 
glands  on  the  skin  of  the  under  surface  of 
the  body.  Some  of  the  species  inhabiting 
the  hottest  parts  of  Brazil  construct  basin- 
shaped  nests  of  mud  in  ponds  for  the 
protection  of  the  eggs,  this  task  falling  en- 
tirely to  the  share  of  the  female.  As  an 
example  of  a  non-arboreal  species,  the 
North  American  grasshopper-frog  (Acris 
gryllus)  may  be  mentioned.  This  species, 
which  is  the  sole  member  of  its  genus,  and 
is  very  closely  allied  to  Hyla,  spends  its 
time  among  *  herbage  in  moist  situations. 
More  remarkable  are  the  pouched  frogs 
(Notokrema),  with  several  species  from 
Central  and  Western  Tropical  America,  and 
one  from  Pernambuco.  These  frogs  are 
also  closely  allied  to  Hyla,  but  the  females 
have  a  large  pouch  in  the  skin  of  the  back, 
with  its  aperture  near  the  hinder  end  of  the 
body.  In  this  pouch  the  eggs — to  the 
number  of  about  fifteen — are  deposited  by 
the  male,  and  there  they  develop  into  tad- 
poles. The  gills  of  the  tadpoles  are  protected  by  a  special  bell-like  organ  : 
and  the  young  do  not  leave  the  chamber  until  they  have  assumed  the 
adult  form. 

A  small  number  of   genera  constitute  a   family  distinguished   from  the 
Hylidce  by  the  much  greater  expansion  of  the  extremities  of  the  horizontal 

transverse  processes 
of  the  sacral  verte- 
bra, and  also  by  the 
simple  terminations 
of  the  end  joint  of  the  toes.  The 
genera  have  a  small  geographical 
range,  but  the  family  occurs  in  North 
America,  Europe,  the  Oriental  coun- 
tries and  Papua.  In  the  country  first 
named  it  is  represented  by  several 
species  of  Scaphiopus,  nearly  allied  to 
which  are  the  two  Central  and  South 
European  species  of  Pelobates.  The 
members  of  both  these  groups  are 
burrowing  frogs,  with  the  hind-toes 
largely  webbed,  and  in  their  move- 

Fig.  9.— MIDWIFE  FROG  (Alytes).  ments     they    are     somewhat    inter- 

mediate between  the  true  frogs  and 

the  toads.  The  eggs  of  the  European  forms  are  laid  in  long  strings,  which 
are  twined  by  the  males  round  the  stems  of  aquatic  plants.  Another 
European  species  (Pelodytes  putictatiis),  together  with  the  other  genera  of 
the  family,  differs  from  the  foregoing  in  the  mode  by  which  the  rod  forming 
the  hinder  termination  of  the  back-bone  is  articulated  with  the  last  vertebra. 


Family 

Pdobatidce. 


444 


AMPHIBIA—  ORDER  I.  -  EGA  UDA  TA. 


The  sixth  family  of  the  present  sub-order  includes  four  genera,  with  a  very 

small   number   of  species,    and   is   confined   to   the    northern    half   of    the 

Eastern  Hemisphere  and  New  Zealand.     These  frogs,  which 

Family  have  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  the  extremities  of  the  trans- 

Discoglossidce.     verse  processes  of  the  sacral  vertebra  expanded,  are  specially 

distinguished  by  the  retention  of  rudimental  ribs.     To  this 

family  belong  the  painted  frog  (Discoglossus  pictus)  from  the  south  of  Europe 

and  Algeria,  and  the  fire -bellied  frog   (Bombinator  igneus)  of  Europe  and 

Asia,  the  latter  having  a  triangular  pupil  to  the  eye,  an  adherent  tongue, 

and  no  drum  to  the  ear.     The  under-parts  are  mottled  with  orange  or  yellow, 

and  the  croak  is  very  loud.     The  two  European  species  of  mid  wife -frogs 

(Alytes)  are  so  named  from  the  circumstance  that  the  male  takes  the  chains 

of  eggs  laid  by  the  female  and  winds  them  round   his   hind-legs.      After 

remaining  concealed  in  a  hole  till  the  eggs  are  mature,  he  enters  the  water, 

when  the  tadpoles  burst  their  shells. 

These  two  small  Tropical  American  families  differ  from  all  the  other  mem- 
Families  Hemi-    hers  °f  ^ne  sub-order  in  possessing  teeth  in  both  jaws,  the 
phractidce  and     nrsfc  of  the  two  having  the  extremities  of   the  horizontal 
Amphignatho-     transverse    processes    of    the    sacral    vertebra    cylindrical, 
dontidce.         whereas  in  the  second  they  are  expanded. 


Sub-Order  III. — Aglossa. 

The  two  genera  and  families  by  which  alone  this  sub-order  is  represented 
differ  from  both  the  other  subordinal  groups  in  the  complete  absence  of  the 
tongue. 

The  three  African  species  of  spur-toed  frogs  (Xenopus)  are  sufficiently  dis- 
tinguished by  possessing  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw  and  the  presence  of  spur- 
like  nails  on  three 
Family          of  the  toes  of  the 
Xenopodidce.      hind  -  feet,     which 
are  fully  webbed. 
Their  tadpoles,  which  are  born  of 
large    size,    and    without    external 
gills,  are  furnished  with  a  pair  of 
barbels  to  the  upper  jaw. 

The  well-known  Surinam  water- 
toad,  or  pipa  (Pipa  americana),  of 
the    Guianas    and 
Family          Brazil,  is  the  only 
Pipidce.          member     of     this 
family,     which    is 
characterised  by  both  jaws  being 
toothless.   Externally,  the  pipa  may 
be  recognised  by  its  short  and  tri- 
angular  head,  which   is   furnished 
with  a  large  flap  of  skin  at  each  corner  of  the  mouth,  and  has  very  minute  eyes. 
The  four  front  toes  are  quite  free,  and  terminate  in  expanded  star-like  tips, 
but  a  large  web  unites  all  the  five  toes  of  the  hind-foot.     In  any  state  the 
creature  is  ugly,  but  when  the  female  is  carrying  her  nursery  about  with  her 
she  is  repulsive.     Soon  after  they  are  laid,  the  eggs  are  taken  up  by  the  male 


Fig.  10.— SURINAM  WATER-TOAD 
(Pipa  americana). 


NEWTS  AND  SALAMANDERS.  445 


and  pressed,  one  by  one,  into  the  cells  in  the  thickened  skin  of  his  partner's 
back,  where  they  grow  till  they  fit  closely  to  the  hexagonal  form  of  their  cells, 
each  of  which  is  closed  above  by  a  kind  of  trap-door.  After  some  eighty- 
two  days  the  eggs  reach  their  full  development  and  produce,  not  tadpoles, 
but  perfect  little  toads.  The  reason  of  this  is  that  tadpoles,  which  require  to 
breathe  the  air  dissolved  in  water  by  means  of  their  external  gills,  could  not 
exist  in  the  cells,  and,  consequently,  this  stage  of  the  development  is  passed 
through  very  rapidly  within  the  egg.  When  ready  to  come  forth,  the  young 
toads,  which  are  usually  from  sixty  to  seventy  in  number,  although  there  may 
sometimes  be  more  than  a  hundred,  burst  open  the  lids  of  their  cells,  and, 
after  stretching  forth  their  head  or  a  limb,  make  their  appearance.  When 
free  from  her  charge,  the  mother  rubs  off  what  remains  of  the  cells  against 
any  convenient  stone  or  plant-stem,  and  comes  out  in  a  new  skin.  After 
breeding,  these  toads  become  much  flattened,  and  pass  the  whole  of  their 
time  in  water. 


ORDER  IT.— GAUD  ATA. 
NEWTS   AND   SALAMANDERS. 

THE  ordinary  British  newts  and  the  black-and -yellow  salamander  of  the 
Continent  are  familiar  representatives  of  an  order  of  amphibians  broadly 
distinguished  from  the  frogs  and  toads  by  the  permanent  retention  of  the  tail. 
In  the  skeleton  they  differ  by  the  more  normal  structure  of  the  bones  of  the 
limbs,  in  which  there  is  no  elongation  of  any  of  those  in  the  ankle  joint, 
while  the  ulna  and  fibula  are  respectively  distinct  from  the  radius  and  tibia. 
The  more  typical  representatives  of  the  order  are  lizard-like  in  external  form, 
having  a  comparatively  short  body  and  two  pairs  of  well-developed  limbs. 
There  are,  however,  certain  aberrant  types  in  which  the  body  becomes  more 
or  less  elongated  in  form,  with  a  diminution  in  the  size  of  the  limbs,  and  in 
some  instances  the  disappearance  of  the  hinder  pair.  From  the  permanent 
retention  of  the  tail,  it  is  obvious  that  even  in  the  more  typical  forms  the 
metamorphosis  is  a  much  less  marked  feature  among  these  amphibians  than 
it  is  in  the  frogs  and  toads.  And  in  certain  instances  there  is  no  metamor- 
phosis at  all — the  external  gills  persisting  throughout  life.  In  another  case 
we  have  the  peculiar  condition  that  whereas  certain  individuals  may  retain 
their  gills  permanently,  and  breed  while  in  this  condition,  other  individuals 
of  the  same  species  lose  their  gills,  and  develop  into  the  proper  adult  ter- 
restrial form  before  breeding.  It  is  thus  evident  that  these  amphibians  are 
in  a  state  of  unstable  equilibrium  as  regards  their  transformation  ;  and  it 
may  be  a  question  whether  those  kinds  with  permanent  gills  are  not  really 
larvae,  which  for  some  reason  have  ceased  to  develop  into  the  proper  adult 
form. 

Numerically,  the  tailed  amphibians  form  a  small  group,  containing  pro- 
bably less  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  species,  arranged  under  four  families. 
They  are  chiefly  confined  to  the  Northern  Hemisphere — where  they  attain 
their  maximum  development  in  North  America — and  are  unrepresented  in 
Australasia,  the  intra-tropical  districts  of  South  America  and  Africa  south  of 
the  Sahara.  The  true  newts  are,  however,  chiefly  an  Old  World  group.  The 
Oriental  region  is  very  poorly  furnished  with  these  amphibians,  having  only 


446 


AMPHIBIA— ORDER  IL—CAUDATA. 


three  species  altogether.  Of  these,  one  is  an  axolotl  from  Siam,  belonging 
to  the  American  genus  Amblystoma,  while  the  other  two  constitute  the  genus 
Tylotriton,  one  inhabiting  the  Liu  Kiu  Islands,  and  the  other  the  eastern 
part  of  the  Himalaya  and  Yunnan.  All  the  tailed  amphibians  are  nocturnal 
creatures,  the  great  majority  of  which  pass  some  portion  of  their  time  in 
water,  while  others  are  permanently  aquatic.  Such  as  develop  lungs  and 
lose  their  gills  have  to  rise  periodically  to  the  surface  of  the  water  in  order 
to  breathe.  Their  tenacity  of  life  forms  a  striking  feature  in  the  physiology 
of  these  creatures  ;  species  inhabiting  tropical  regions,  subject  to  periodical 
droughts,  becoming  torpid  at  such  seasons,  while  those  from  colder  regions 
hibernate.  Even  envelopment  in  ice  is  not  always  sufficient  to  destroy  life. 
The  same  low  organisation  is  indicated  by  their  power  of  reproducing  the 
tail  and  limbs.  \Vhereas  the  majority  of  species  have  large  and  well-developed 
eyes,  a  few  which  inhabit  underground  waters  have  lost  the  power  of 
sight,,  and  have  the  rudimental  eyes  deeply  buried  .beneath  the  skin.  The 
aquatic  species  swim  chiefly  or  entirely  by  means  of  a  tail,  and  thus  differ 
markedly  from  the  frogs,  in  which  the  hind-limbs  alone  are  employed.  Most 
of  the  terrestrial  forms  are  slow-moving  creatures,  although  a  few  dart  about 
with  the  rapidity  of  lizards.  Certain  members  of  the  order  are  peculiar  in 
producing  living  young,  the  tadpoles  being  in  some  cases  retained  within  the 
body  of  the  female  until  considerably  developed. 

The  greater  number  of   the  members    of   the    order  are  included  in  the 

family  typified  by  the  common  yellow   and  black   salamander,  although  the 

genera  may  be  arranged    in  four  rub-families.     As  a  family, 

Family  the  Salamandridce  are    distinguished  by  undergoing   a   full 

Salamaiidridce.     metamorphosis,   with    the    consequent    loss    of   the   gills   in 

the  adult  condition,  as  well  as  by  the  presence  of  teeth  in 

both  jaws,  of  eyelids,   and   of  maxillary    tones.     In  the  typical  sub-family 

SalamandrincR,  the  teeth  on  the  palate  are   arranged  in  the  form  cf  a  pair  of 

posteriorly  diverging  rows,  such  rows  Tbeing  situated  on  the  inner  margins  of 

two  long  processes  running  backwards  from   the  palatine  bones.     Ko  teeth 

are  developed  on  the  bone  forming  the  hinder  pnrt  of  the  inner  surface  of  the 

skifll,  and  known  as  the  parasphenoid  ; 
and  in  the  backbone  the  bodies  of  the 
vertebras  have  a  cup  at  the  hinder  end, 
and  a  ball  in  front.  The  common  black 
and  yellow  salamander  (Salamandria, 
macul'osa)  is  the  best-known  representa- 
tive of  the  typical  genus  of  the  sub- 
family, which  includes  two  other  species, 
and  is  confined  to  Central  and  Southern 
Europe,  Algeria,  and  Syria.  From  the 
newts,  the  typical  salanfanders  may  be 
distinguished  by  the  following  features. 
In  form  the  tail  is  cylindrical  and  taper- 
ing ;  there  are  five  toes  to  each  of  the 
hind-feet ;  the  two  rows  of  the  teeth  on 
the  palate  are  curved  ;  and  the  tongue,  which  is  of  rather  large  size,  and 
nearly  oval  in  form,  is  free  at  the  sides,  and  to  a  certain  extent  behind.  The 
black  ground-colour,  marked  with  a  double  row  of  longitudinal  yellow 
blotches  on  the  head  and  back,  and  similar  markings  on  the  upper  surface  of 
the  tail  and  limbs,  sufficiently  distinguish  the  salamander  from  the  other 


Fig.  11.— COMMON  SALAMAKDER  (Sala- 
mandra,  maculosa). 


NEWTS  AND  SALAMANDERS.  447 


members  of  the  same  genus.  This  species  is  a  somewhat  solitary  and  slug- 
gish creature,  spending  most  of  the  year  on  land,  but  resorting  to  the  water 
during  the  spring,  when  breeding  takes  place.  Usually  the  young  are  born 
alive,  but  occasionally  eggs  are  laid,  when  they  almost  immediately  hatch. 

A  large  number  of  tadpoles  come  into  the  world  at  once,  and  these,  in 
the  ordinary  mode  of  development,  have  already  lost  their  gills.  Formerly, 
highly  poisonous  properties  were  attributed  to  this  salamander  —  as  they, 
doubtless,  still  are  among  the  uneducated  peasantry  of  various  parts  of 
Europe,  —  and  the  creature  was  believed  to  be  capable  of  being  cast  into  a 
furnace  without  suffering  harm.  Beyond  secreting  an  acrid  fluid,  it  is,  how- 
ever, perfectly  harmless.  The  range  of  this  species  includes  a  considerable 
part  of  Europe,  as  well  as  Syria  and  Algeria.  Nearly  allied  is  the  somewhat 
smaller  black  salamander  (S,  atra)  of  the  Alps.  Although  many  eggs  may  be 
found  in  the  body  of  the  female,  it  appears  that  only  a  pair  of  tadpoles  are 
produced,  these  being  nourished  by  the  eggs  which  never  develop.  While 
within  the  body  of  the  parent,  these  tadpoles  have  very  long  external  gills, 
which  are  shed  previous  to  birth.  Many  years  ago  some  tadpoles  in  the 
gilled  condition  were  taken  from  the  parent  and  placed  in  water.  Almost 
immediately  the  large  gills  were  cast  off,  and  their  place  taken  by  much 
smaller  ones,  which  remained  for  a  long  period.  As  remarked  by  Professor 
Mivart,  "the  curious  and  noteworthy  point  in  this  experiment  is  the  fact 
that,  after  the  original  gills  (which  were  unadapted  for  free  external  life  (have 
perished,  new  and  suitable  gills  become  developed,  and  this  not  in  a  struggle 
for  existence  against  rivals,  but  directly  and  spontaneously  from  the  innate 
nature  of  the  animal."  The  third  and  last  species  is  S.  caucasica,  from  the 
Caucasus,  which  differs  from  the  other  two  in  that  the  tail  is  shorter  than  the 
head  and  body.  Its  colour  is  black,  with  rows  of  roundish  yellow  spots  on 
the  back.  It  may  be  remarked  here  that  in  both  the  spotted  species  the 
young  are  uniformly  dark-coloured,  the  yellow  markings  being  only  gradually 
acquired.  Hence  the  ornamentation  may  be  regarded  as  a  lately  acquired 
feature.  On  the  other  hand,  where  —  as  in  the  lion  and  deer  —  skin-markings 
occur  only  on  the  young,  such  ornamentation  is  very  ancient,  and  tending  to 
disappear.  The  Spanish  salamander  (Ckioglossa  lusitanica)  differs  by  the 
tongue  being  fixed  on  a  protrusile  pedicle. 

From  the  true  salamanders,  the  newts  (Molge)  are  distinguished  by  the 
laterally  compressed  form  of  the  powerful  tail,  as  well  as  by  their  perman- 
ently aquatic  mode   of  life.      Many  of 
the  species,  too,  are  furnished  with  an 
upright  longitudinal    fin    on  the   back, 
such    fin    generally   attaining    a    special 
development  during  the  breeding  season 
in   the   males.     Newts    range    over  the 
three  great  continents  of  the  Northern 
Hemisphere,  although  they  are  unknown 
to  the  south  of  the  Himalaya,  and  are 
much  more  abundant  in  the  Old  World 
than  in  the    New.     They  are    the    only     Fig.  12<  _.CRESTED  NEWT  (Moloe^Hstata). 
members  of  the  order  inhabiting  Britain, 

where  the  common  species  in  many  districts  is  to  be  met  with  in  every  pond. 
The  handsomest  and  largest  of  the  British  species  is  the  crested  newt  (M. 
cristata),  which  belongs  to  a  group  characterised  by  the  presence  of  a  fin-like 
crest  on  the  back  of  the  males,  and  in  some  cases  of  the  females  also,  where, 


443  AMPHIBIA— ORDER  IL—CAUDATA. 


however,  it  is  always  considerably  lower.  In  the  males  of  the  crested  newt 
the  crest  is  scalloped;  and  in  both  sexes  the  under  surface  of  the  body  is 
orange  with  black  marblings.  When  in  full  breeding-dress,  a  male  of  this 
species  is  indeed  a  beautifully-coloured  creature.  In  size  it  grows  to  five 
inches  or  rather  more.  From  Sweden  southwards,  this  newt  is  spread  over 
the  greater  part  of  Europe,  with  the  exception  of  Italy.  It  is  distinguished 
from  all  other  members  of  the  genus  by  a  peculiarity  in  the  structure  of  the 
skull.  Far  more  abundant  in  this  country  is  the  much  smaller  common 
newt  (M.  vulgaris\  in  which  the  crest  of  the  male  is  likewise  festooned,  while 
the  hind-toes  of  the  same  sex  are  lobed  during  the  breeding-season,  the  under 
surface  of  the  body  being  yellowish,  with  large  black  spots  in  the  male,  and 
small  dots  in  the  female.  In  the  latter,  the  back  carries  either  a  simple  crest 
or  a  mere  ridge.  It  is  only  in  the  breeding  season  that  the  crest  of  the  male 
assumes  its  full  development ;  and  at  this  time  the  tail-fin  is  also  festooned. 

With  the  exception  of  Western  Europe,  this  species  is  widely  distributed  on 
the  Continent,  and  also  ranges  into  Asia.  The  last  and  smallest  of  the 
British  representatives  of  the  genus  is  the  webbed  newt  (M.  palmatci),  which, 
in  addition  to  a  peculiarity  in  the  structure  of  the  skull,  is  distinguished  by 
the  hind-toes  of  the  male  being  fully  webbed  during  the  breeding  season. 
The  crest  of  the  male  is  straight ;  and  that  of  the  female  either  very  smaD,  or 
represented  by  a  ridge.  The  lower  surface  of  the  body  is  more  or  less  nearly  uni- 
formly coloured,  although  there  is  a  narrow  streak  of  orange  in  the  middle  line. 

Several  species  found  in  the  south  of  Europe  have  no  crest  in  either 
sex.  The  habits  of  newts  are  so  familiar  to  all  who  have  lived  in  the  country, 
that  but  little  need  be  said  on  the  subject.  During  the  breeding-season,  all 
are  inhabitants  of  the  water ;  but  later  on  many  of  them  forsake  that  element 
for  a  longer  or  shorter  period,  and  become  terrestrial.  While  some  hiber- 
nate in  holes  or  beneath  stones,  others  retire  to  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of 
ponds.  The  eggs  are  generally  deposited  on  the  stems  of  aquatic  plants ;  and 
when  the  tadpoles  first  make  their  appearance,  they  have  small,  simple  gills, 
behind  which  are  a  pair  of  small  projections,  representing  the  future  fore- 
limbs.  In  the  course  of  time  the  gills  become  branched,  the  fore-limbs  show 
their  four  toes,  and  the  hind-legs  make  their  appearance.  Soon  after,  the 
gills  begin  to  shrink,  and  finally  disappear,  while  lungs  are  developed,  and 
the  limbs  acquire  their  full  adult  proportions,  when  the  creature  ceases  to  be 
a  tndpole,  and  becomes  a  newt.  It  has  been  already  mentioned  that  the  tad- 
poles of  the  frogs  and  toads  differ  from  those  of  the  newts  and  salamanders 
in  that  the  hind-limbs  make  their  appearance  before  the  front  pair.  The 
reason  for  this  remarkable  difference  is  doubtless  to  be  found  in  the  circum- 
stance that  in  the  former  group  the  hind-limbs  are  proportionately  much 
larger  than  in  the  latter,  and  consequently  require  a  longer  period  for  growth. 
From  both  the  foregoing  genera  the  Italian  spectacled  salamander  (S<daman- 
drina  perspicillata)  is  at  once  distinguished  by  having  only  four  toes  to  each 
of  the  hind-feet,  the  number  of  toes  being  consequently  the  same  in  both 
pairs  of  limbs.  It  is  a  small  species,  varying  between  three  and  four  inches 
in  length,  with  a  slightly  compressed  and  keeled  tail,  and  a  rough  warty  skin. 
The  under  surface  of  the  tail  and  of  the  hinder  end  of  the  body  is  of  a 
brilliant  carmine  red.  This  salamander  inhabits  moist,  rocky  districts,  where 
its  rapid  movements  render  it  liable  to  be  mistaken  for  a  lizard.  True  to  its 
amphibian  nature,  it  resorts,  however,  to  the  water  in  spring  for  breeding 

Sirposes.      The   warty    salamander,    Tyloiriton   verruco&us,   of   the    Eastern 
imalaya  and  Siam,  together  with  the  allied  T.  andersoni  of  the  Liu-Kin 


NEWTS  AND  SALAMANDERS. 


449 


Islands,  constitute  a  genus  confined  to  the  Oriental  region,  and  differing  from 
all  those  mentioned  above  in  the  conformation  of  the  skull,  in  which  the 
pterygoid  bones  extend  forwards  to  touch  the  maxillae,  instead  of  being 
separated  from  them  by  an  interval.  These  salamanders  have  five  hind-toes, 
and  the  tail  strongly  compressed.  They  are  inhabitants  of  mountain  dis- 
tricts. Nearly  allied  is  the  single  species  of  Pachijtriton,  from  South  Kiansi, 
China,  in  which  the  tail  is  cylindrical  at  the  root,  although  compressed  near 
the  tip. 

In  the  second  sub-family  —  Ambhjstomatince  —  of  the  Salamandridce  the 
teeth  on  the  palate  form  either  a  transverse  or  posteriorly  converging  series, 
and  are  attached  to  the  hinder  margin  of  the  posterior  portion  of  the 
vomers,  instead, of  to  processes  of  the  palatine  bones.  The  vertebrae,  too, 
differ  from  those  of  the  first  group  in  that  both  terminal  faces  of  their  bodies 
are  slightly  cupped  ;  this  being  a  lower  type  of  structure  than  the  ball-and- 
socket  articulation.  The  type  of  this  group  is  the  creature  known  in  Mexico 
as  the  axolotl,  which  is  the  permanent  larval  form  of  a  salamander  from  the 
United  States  described  as  Amblystvma  tigrinum.  It  was  long  thought  that 
these  two  forms  were  totally  distinct 
animals  ;  but  the  identity  of  the  two 
was  conclusively  proved  by  some 
Mexican  axolotls  kept  many  years 
ago  in  Paris.  One  of  these  layed 
eggs,  which  in  due  course  developed 
into  axolotls,  but  these  latter  ulti- 
mately assumed  the  form  of  the 
adult  salamander.  The  most  curious 
fact  about  the  matter  was  that  where- 
as the  axolotls  bred  freely,  none  of 
the  adult  salamanders  could  be  in- 
duced to  propagate  their  kind.  There 
are  several  species  of  the  genus  in- 
habiting North  America,  and  a  single 
outlying  form  in  the  mountains  of 
Siam.  With  the  single  exception  of 
the  Mexican  race  of  Ambiystoma 
tigrinum,  all  these  appear  to  pass  from  the  tadpole  to  the  salamander  stage 
in  the  usual  manner.  The  reason  of  the  Mexican  race  retaining  the  larval 
stage  appears  to  be  that  the  country  is  very  arid,  and  unfit  for  amphibian 
life.  Consequently  the  axolotls  remain  permanently  in  the  large  lake  by 
which  the  city  of  Mexico  is  surrounded.  In  this  larval  condition  they  have 
a  long  compressed  tail,  with  a  crest  above  and  below,  which  is  continued  as 
a  ridge  on  the  back  ;  and  on  the  sides  of  the  neck  are  abundant  bushy 
external  gills.  The  limbs  are  rather  small,  and  the  general  hue  of  the  skin 
is  mottled  olive.  On  the  other  hand,  the  adult — which  is  normally  developed 
in  the  United  States — is  an  ordinary-looking  salamander,  with  a  relatively 
large  head,  good-sized  limbs,  and  a  sub-cylindrical  tail ;  the  colour  of  the 
skin  being  blackish  or  brown,  with  numerous  yellow  spots.  As  special 
characteristics  of  the  genus  Ambiystoma,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  teeth 
on  the  palatines  are  arranged  either  in  nearly  a  straight  line  or  in  an  angle 
without  any  wide  gap  in  the  middle,  and  that  the  tongue  bears  a  series  of 
radiating  pleats.  Very  closely  allied  is  the  genus  ~Lingucelapsus.  A  specimen 
of  L.  annulatus  has  been  taken  in  Arkansas  from  a  hot  spring.'  Of  the  other 
30 


Fig.  13.— ADULT  AXOLOTL 
(Ambiystoma  tigrinum). 


450  AMPHIBIA— ORDER  IL—CAUDATA. 


genera  included  in  the  sub-family  now  under  consideration,  Ranidens  from 
the  north-eastern  provinces  of  China  and  the  east  of  Siberia,  JSatrachyperus 
from  Tibet,  and  Dicamptodon  from  California,  constitute  a  group  character- 
ised by  the  teeth  on  the  palate  forming  a  pair  of  arches,  separated  from  one 
another  in  the  middle  line,  and  with  the  convexity  forwards.  The  second  of 
these  genera  differs  from  the  other  two  in  that  the  hind-feet  are  four-toed. 
A  third  group  is  formed  by  the  Japanese  Onychodactylus,  in  which  the  palatal 
teeth  form  a  double  arch,  without  any  medium  gap,  while  the  claws  are  black. 
In  the  last  group,  represented  by  the  Japanese  and  Chinese  Hynobius,  and 
Salamandrella  of  Eastern  Siberia  and  Kamschatka,  the  palatal  teeth  converge 
backwards  in  a  somewhat  V-shaped  figure  ;  the  first  genus  having  five  hind- 
toes,  and  the  second  only  four. 

The  other  two  sub-families  are  small.  In  the  first,  or  Plethodontince,  the 
parasphenoid  bone  differs  from  that  of  the  two  preceding  sub-families  in 
bearing  teeth ;  the  vertebrae  being  of  the  same  type  as  in  the  Amblystotnatince. 
Of  the  genera  included,  Autodax  (Anaides),  Plethodon,  and  Batrachoseps  form 
a  North  American  group  characterised  by  the  tongue  being  attached  along 
the  medium  line  as  far  as  its  front  margin  ;  the  first  genus  having  very  few 
teeth  in  the  jaws,  while  in  the  second  the  hind- toes  are  five  in  number,  and 
in  the  third  only  four.  The  second  group,  which  is  likewise  North  American, 
although  its  first  genus  ranges  into  Central  America  and  the  West  Indies, 
includes  Spelerpes  and  Manculus,  and  differs  from  the  last  in  that  the  tongue 
is  attached  only  by  a  pedicle  from  the  middle  of  the  lower  surface,  so  that 
all  its  edges  are  free. 

The  fourth  and  last  sub-family,  Desmognathince,  is  also  North  American, 
and  while  agreeing  with  the  third  in  having  teeth  on  the  parasphenoid,  differs 
in  that  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  are  cupped  behind  and  convex  in  front. 
In  the  typical  genus  Desmognathus  the  tongue  is  attached  all  along  the  middle 
line,  whereas  in  Ttiorius  it  has  a  central  pedicle,  and  is  thus  mushroom-like. 
Haptoglossa,  from  Costa  Rica,  is  nearly  allied  to  the  latter,  but  differs  in  that 
the  tongue  is  adherent  in  front.  Of  more  interest  is  the  single  species  of 
Typhlotriton,  which  inhabits  a  cave  in  Missouri,  and  is  totally  blind,  the 
rudimental  eyes  being  buried  beneath  the  continuous  skin  of  the  head. 

Although  very  small,  the  second  family  of  the  tailed  amphibians  is  note- 
worthy on  account  of  containing  the  largest  members  of  the  entire  order. 
Most  of  the  few  species  are  North  American,  but  the  giant 
Family  salamander  is  an  inhabitant  of  Japan  and  China.     In  their 

Amphiumidue.  general  structural  characters  the  members  of  this  family 
agree  with  the  Salamandridce,  from  which  they  are  sharply 
differentiated  by  the  absence  of  eyelids.  All  of  them  have  the  bodies  of  the 
vertebrae  cupped  at  both  ends,  and  in  all  the  body  is  much  elongated,  and  the 
relatively  small  front  and  hind-limbs  widely  sundered  from  one  another. 
These  features  are  clearly  indicative  of  a  closer  relationship  with  fishes  than 
obtains  in  the  case  of  the  true  salamanders  and  newts.  The  same  affinities 
are  indicated  by  the  aquatic  habits  of  these  creatures,  and  likewise  by  the 
permanent  retention  of  internal  gills ;  and,  owing  to  the  presence  of  the  latter, 
respiration  can  be  effected  without  the  necessity  of  coming  to  the  surface,  at  any 
rate  for  a  considerable  time.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  remains  of  a  fossil 
species  belonging  to  the  same  genus  as  the  giant  salamander  occur  in  the  Ter- 
tiary rocks  of  the  Continent,  from  which  it  may  be  inferred  that  the  family 
has  migrated  westward.  The  giant  salamander  (Megalobatrachus  maximus) 
is  a  huge  sluggish  creature,  frequently  growing  to  as  much  as  a  yard  in  length. 


NEWTS  AND  SALAMANDERS.  451 


and  occasionally  considerably  more.  With  its  flat,  oval  head,  depressed  body, 
warty  skin,  short,  splay-toed  limbs,  and  highly  compressed  tail,  its  appearance 
is  by  no  means  prepossessing,  and  when  lying  almost  motionless  in  a  tank  of 
slimy  green  water  in  the  reptile-house  in  the  London  Zoological  Gardens,  the 
attention  it  attracts  from  the  general  public  is  probably  but  slight.  Never- 
theless it  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  living  animals,  and  our  notions  of 
zoological  affinities  would  be  much  less  clear  than  they  are  had  this  salamander 
arid  its  allies  become  extinct.  Externally  this  salamander  is  distinguished 
by  having  four  toes  in  front  and  three  behind,  and  likewise  by  the  absence  of 
gill-openings  on  the  sides  of  the  neck.  Internally  it  will  be  found  that  there 
are  two  arches  for  the  support  of  the  gills  on  each  side.  If  the  mouth  be 
opened,  it  will  be  seen  that  its  floor  is  completely  covered  by  the  closely 
adherent  tongue,  and  also  that  the  teeth  on  the  palate  form  a  series  running 
parallel  to  those  on  the  edge  of  the  upper  jaw,  these  teeth  being  situated  on 
the  vomers.  These  salamanders,  which,  as  already  said,  are  common  to  Japan 
and  China,  inhabit  clear  mountain  streams,  where  they  feed  on  such  aquatic 
creatures  as  they  are  able  to 
capture  ;  in  captivity,  at  least, 
they  are  known  to  be  cannibals, 
but  this  depraved  taste  was  pro- 
bably developed  owing  to  lack 
of  a  sufficiency  of  other  food. 
In  autumn  the  female  lays  a 
number  of  small  eggs  ;  but  the 
early  stages  of  development  are 
unknown,  although  it  is  pro- 
bable that  at  first  the  young  Fig  14._GlANT  SALAMANDER 
tadpoles  are  provided  with  ex-  (Megalabatrachus  maximus). 
ternal  gills.  The  much  smaller 

Mississippi  salamander,  or  hell-bender  (Cryptolranchus  lateralis),  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  retention  of  a  gill-opening  on  one  or  both  sides  of  the 
neck,  and  the  free  front  edge  of  the  tongue,  as  well  as  by  the  presence  of 
four  pairs  of  arches  for  the  support  of  the  internal  gills.  Less  than  twenty 
inches  seems  to  be  the  maximum  size  of  this  salamander.  Geographically 
the  range  of  the  species  extends  from  the  Mississippi  basin  and  the  streams 
of  the  Louisianian  district  to  North  Carolina. 

Very  different  in  appearance  and  structure  from  "both  the  preceding  is  the 
species  representing  the  genus  Ampkiuma,  which  has  a  somewhat  more  ex- 
tended range  than  the  hell-bender,  since  it  is  found  in  South  Carolina.  It  is 
an  exceedingly  elongated  eel -like  creature,  with  very  minute  limbs,  of  which 
the  front  pair  are  situated  close  to  the  head,  while  the  hinder  ones  are  placed 
very  far  back  at  the  commencement  of  the  tail,  which  is  much  shorter  than 
the  body.  It  is  a  rather  curious  circumstance  that  whereas  in  some  examples 
each  foot  is  furnished  with  three  toes,  in  others  the  number  is  reduced  to 
two ;  but  in  organs  which  are  either  about  to  disappear,  or  are  in  the  course 
of  development,  similar  variations  are  by  no  means  of  unfrequent  occurrence. 
In  the  nature  of  its  food  this  creature  is  very  similar  to  the  Mississippi 
salamander ;  but  whereas  the  latter  occasionally  leaves  the  water  for  a  stroll 
on  the  bank,  it  does  not  appear  that  the  former  ever  quits  its  native 
element.  The  female  Amphmma  deposits  a  string  of  eggs  resembling  a 
rosary,  round  which  she" subsequently  coils  herself,  after  arranging  the  string 
in  a  mass. 


452  AMPHIBIA— ORDER  II.— C A  UDA  TA. 


According  to  the  system  of  classification  now  favoured  by  zoologists,  the 

tailed  amphibians  constitute  a  series  regularly  descending  in  their  grade  of 

organisation ;  and  with  the  present  family  we  reach  a  group 

Family          in  which  the  external  gills  of  the  young  are  permanently 

Proteidce.        retained,  while  there  are  two  pairs  of  rudimental  limbs.     An 

additional  peculiarity  is  to  be  found  in  the  absence  of  the 

maxilla  in  the  scull.     As  in  the  preceding  family,  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae 

.have  cupped  terminal  faces,  and  eyelids  are  wanting.     The  typical  member 

of  the  family  is  the  famous  olm  (Proteus)  from  the  subterranean  waters 

of  Carniola,  Carinthia,  and  Dalmatia.     No  better  description  of  this  creature 

is  extant  than  one  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy,  which  runs  as  follows: — "At 

first  sight  you  might  suppose  this 
creature  to  be  a  lizard,  but  it  has  the 
motions  of  a  fish.  Its  head  and  the 
lower  part  of  its  body  and  its  tail 
bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  those 
of  an  eel ;  but  it  has  no  fins  ;  and  its 
curious  bronchial  organs  are  not  like 
the  gills  of  fishes ;  they  form  a 
singular  vascular  structure,  almost 
like  a  crest  round  the  throat,  which 
may  be  removed  without  occasioning 
Fig.  15.— OLM  (Proteus  anguineus).  the  death  of  the  animal,  which  is  like- 

wise   furnished    with    lungs.      With 

this  double  apparatus  for  supplying  air  to  the  blood,  it  can  live  either  below 
or  above  the  surface  of  the  water.  Its  fore-feet  resemble  hands,  but  they 
have  only  three  claws  or  fingers,  and  are  too  feeble  to  be  of  use  in  grasping 
or  supporting  the  weight  of  the  animal.  The  hinder  feet  have  only  two 
claws  or  toes,  and  in  the  larger  specimens  are  found  so  imperfect  as  to  be 
almost  obliterated.  It  has  small  points  in  place  of  eyes,  as  if  to  preserve  the 
analogy  of  nature.  It  is  of  a  fleshy  whiteness  and  transparency  in  its  natural 
state,  but  when  exposed  to  light,  its  skin  gradually  becomes  darker,  and  at 
last  gains  an  olive  tint.  Its  nasal  organs  appear  large  ;  and  it  is  abundantly 
furnished  with  teeth,  from  which  it  may  be  concluded  that  it  is  an  animal  of 
prey  ;  yet  in  its  confined  state  it  has  never  been  known  to  eat,  and  it  has 
been  kept  alive  for  many  years  by  occasionally  changing  the  water  in  which 
it  was  kept."  From  the  olm  the  North  American  genus  Necturus  is  at 
once  distinguished  by  the  possession  of  well-developed  eyes,  and  likewise  by 
the  presence  of  four  toes  to  each  foot.  In  form,  too,  it  is  more  lizard-like, 
the  body  lacking  the  eel-like  elongation  characteristic  of  the  olm,  while  the 
limbs  are  less  rudimental.  There  are  two  species  of  the  genus,  one  of  which 
is  not  uncommon  in  the  rice-fields  of  the  Southern  United  States.  Although 
both  breathe  almost  entirely  by  means  of  their  plume-like  external  gills,  it 
is  stated  that  they  will  occasionally  venture  on  land,  when  the  lungs  of 
course  become  the  respiratory  organs.  In  sinking  a  well  recently  in  Texas,  a 
third  generic  representative  of  the  family  was  discovered  at  a  depth  of  180 
feet  in  a  subterranean  stream.  This  form  is  related  both  to  Proteus  and 
Necturus,  and  has  been  named  Typhlomolge  rathbuni.  It  is  characterised  by 
the  great  length  and  slenderness  of  its  limbs,  and  the  broad,  flattened,  and 
squared  muzzle. 

The  last  family  of  the  tailed  amphibians  is  confined  to  North  America, 
where    it   is    represented   by  Siren  lacertina  of  the  South-Eastern  United 


C&CILIANS. 


453 


States  and  Pseudobranchus  striatus  of  Georgia.     Both  these  lowly  creatures 
have  long  eel-like  bodies,  external  gills,  and  a  small  pair  of  front  legs.     The 

hind  -  legs  are, 
however,  total- 
ly wanting,  and 


Fig.  16.— TWO-LEGGED  SALAMANDER  (Siren  lacertina). 


Family 
Sirenidce. 
there  are  no 
teeth  in  the  margins  of  the  jaws. 
In  the  species  first  named—- 
which may  measure  nearly 
twenty  inches  in  length — there 
are  three  pairs  of  gill-openings 
on  the  sides  of  the  neck,  and 
each  of  the  fore-feet  is  fur- 
nished with  four  toes.  From 
this  genus  Pseudobranchus  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  presence  of 
only  a  single  pair  of  gill-aper- 
tures, and  the  reduction  of  the 
front  toes  to  three.  These  sala- 
manders frequent  damp  situa- 


tions and  pools,  and  occasionally  ascend  the  aerial  roots  or  stems  of  trees. 
They  are  carnivorous  in  their  habits,  and  are  able  to  breathe  either  by  their 
gills  or  their  lungs.  During  the  colder  months  of  the  year  they  hibernate. 


ORDER  III.— APODA. 

dECILIANS. 

THE  third  and  last  order  of  Amphibia  is  represented  by  the  blind,  burrow- 
ing creatures  commonly  known  as  caecilians.  In  appearance  they  are  so 
worm-like  that  by  the  non-scientific  observer  they  might  readily  be  mistaken 
for  Invertebrates.  In  the  adult  state  they  show  no  trace  of  limbs ;  but  bud- 
like  remnants  of  hind-legs  have  been  detected  in  the  embryos  of  Ichthyophis 
ylutinosus.  This  clearly  shows  that  they  are  a  degraded  form,  but  whether 
they  are  descended— as  has  been  considered  the  case — from  the  tailed 
amphibians  may,  perhaps,  be  doubtful,  seeing  that  they  differ  from  that 
group  in  an  important  feature  connected  with  their  reproduction.  They 
have  either  a  rudimental  tail  or  none  at  all,  and  they  are  further  character- 
ised by  certain  structural  peculiarities  in  the  osteology  of  the  skull.  The 
eyes  are  generally  deeply  buried  beneath  the  skin,  or  placed  beneath  the 
bones  of  the  skull,  and  in  certain  members  of  the  group  overlapping  scales 
are  concealed  deep  down  in  the  skin.  The  head  is  provided  with  a  tentacle, 
which  may  be  capable  of  protrusion  and  retraction.  Csecilians  present  a  very 
remarkable  geographical  distribution,  being  restricted  to  South  and  Central 
America  (with  the  West  Indies),  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara,  the  Seychelles, 
and  the  Oriental  countries.  Their  absence  from  Madagascar,  coupled  with 
their  existence  in  the  Seychelles,  is  a  very  noteworthy  circumstance,  and 
seems  to  indicate  a  connection  between  those  islands  and  either  Africa  or 
India  after  Madagascar  was  insulated.  The  adults  burrow  in  moist  earth, 


454 


AMPHIBIA— ORDER  III.— APOD  A. 


like  worms,  where  they  lay  large  eggs,  from  which,  in  due  course,  are  de- 
veloped tadpoles  furnished,  at  least  before  birth,  with  gills.  Soon  after 
hatching,  the  tadpoles  take  to  the  water,  where  they  appear  to  remain  until 
they  assume  the  adult  condition. 

All  the  members  of  the  order  are  so  similar  in  structure  that  they  are 

included  in  a  single  family  group.     The  first  genus,  IchthyopkiSj  includes  two 

species,   ranging  from  India  to  the  Malayan  Islands  ;    but 

Family  whereas   one  (I.    ghitinosus)  is  also  found  in  Ceylon,    the 

CcecihidcK.        second  (I.  mottochrous)  is  unknown  there.     In  these  species 

overlapping  fish-like  scales  are  embedded  in  the   skin,  the 

eyes  are  distinguishable,  the  lower  jaw  is  furnished  with  a  double  series  of 

teeth,  and  the  tentacle,  which  is  capable  of  protrusion,  is  situated  near  the 

upper  lip  between  the  eye  and  the  nostril.     The  first-named  species  grows  to  a 

length  of  about  fifteen  inches,  but  has  a  diameter  of  only  half  an  inch.     Writing 

of  this  species  in  Ceylon,  the  late 
Sir  J.  Emerson  Tennent  wrote  as 
follows: — "The  rocky  jungle, 
bordering  the  higher  cotfee  estates, 
provides  a  safe  retreat  for  a  very 
singular  animal,  first  introduced 
to  the  notice  of  European  natural- 
ists by  Linnaeus,  who  gave  it  the 
name  Ccecilia  glutinosa,  to  indi- 
cate two  peculiarities  manifest  to 
the  ordinary  observer,  an  appar- 
ent defect  of  vision,  from  the  eyes 
being  so  small,  and  embedded  as 
to  be  scarcely  distinguishable,  and 
the  power  of  secreting  from 
minute  pores  in  the  skin  a  viscous 
fluid,  resembling  that  of  snails, 
eels,  and  some  salamanders.  Specimens  are  rare  in  Europe,  owing  to  the 
readiness  with  which  it  decomposes,  breaking  down  into  a  flaky  mass  in  the 
spirits  in  which  it  is  attempted  to  preserve  it.  The  creature  is  about  the 
length  and  thickness  of  an  ordinary  round  desk-ruler,  a  little  flattened  before 
and  rounded  behind.  It  is  brownish,  with  a  pale  stripe  along  either  side. 
The  skin  is  furrowed  into  350  circular  folds,  in  which  are  embedded  minute 
scales.  The  head  is  tolerably  distinct,  with  a  double  row  of  fine  curved  teeth 
for  seizing  the  insects  and  worms  on  which  it  is  supposed  to  feed.''  More 
recent  observations — especially  those  of  Dr.  Sarasin — have  largely  increased 
our  knowledge  of  the  mode  of  life  of  these  strange  and  interesting  creatures, 
which  are  generally  found  in  soft  mud.  As  already  mentioned,  rudiments  of 
hind-limbs  have  been  detected  in  the  embryos.  The  large  globular  eggs  are 
laid  in  a  burrow  near  water,  and  are  brooded  by  the  female,  who  coils  her 
body  round  the  mass.  The  tadpoles  are  not  hatched  until  after  the  loss  of  their 
external  gills,  and  when  they  take  to  the  water  they  breathe  through  a  pair 
of  gill-openings  on  the  sides  of  the  neck.  These  tadpoles  have  a  very  fish- 
like  head,  in  which  the  eyes  are  much  more  distinct  than  in  the  adult,  while 
they  have  also  a  well-defined  and  highly- com  pressed  tail,  furnished  below  and 
above  with  a  fin,  after  the  manner  of  a  frog's  tadpole.  A  nearly-allied  Ori- 
ental genus  is  Epicrimops,  with  a  single  species.  From  Ichthyophis  the 
genus  Urceotyphlus  is  readily  distinguished  by  the  tentacle  being  situated 


Fig.  17. — A  C^CILIAN  BROODING  ITS  EGGS 
(Ichthyophis  glutinosus). 


C^CILIANS.  455 


below  the  nostril.  The  genus  is  represented  by  two  species  from  Southern 
India,  a  West  African  form  which  has  been  referred  to  it  having  been  shown  to 
belong  to  Geotrypetes.  In  the  foregoing  genera  the  tentacle  has  a  conical 
form,  but  in  the  typical  genus  Ccecilia,  which  is  confined  to  Tropical  South 
America,  it  becomes  flap-like,  with  a  horse-shoe  shaped  groove  at  the  base,  its 
situation  being  below  the  nostril.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  nearly-allied 
Hypogeophis,  the  same  organ  is  placed  below  the  nostril.  This  genus  is 
specially  interesting  on  account  of  its  geographical  distribution,  having  two 
species  from  Africa,  and  two  from  the  Seychelles.  A  West  African  species 
formerly  included  in  the  same  genus  is  now  distinguished  as  Geotrypetes 
petersi.  Still  more  remarkable  is  the  distribution  of  the  genus  Dermophis, 
which  has  several  species  from  Tropical  America,  one  from  West  Africa,  and 
another  from  the  eastern  side  of  the  latter  continent.  From  the  preceding 
kinds  this  genus  is  distinguished  by  the  globular  form  of  the  tentacle,  which 
is  surrounded  by  :*  circular  groove,  and  situated  below  and  in  front  of  the 
eye. 

In  addition  to  the  presence  of  scales  in  the  skin,  all  the  preceding  genera 
are  characterised  by  the  eyes  being  either  distinct  or  buried  only  in  the  skin. 
From  these,  Gymnopis  and  Herpele  differ  in  that  the  same  organs  have  sunk 
so  deep  as  to  be  actually  beneath  the  bones  of  the  skull.  In  the  former 
genus,  which  is  confined  to  Tropical  America,  the  globular  tentacle  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  circular  groove,  and  placed  close  to  the  muzzle,  whereas  in  the 
latter — which  is  West  African — it  is  nearer  the  nostril. 

In  the  remaining  genera  of  the  family,  the  skin  is  devoid  of  scales.  Of 
these,  GegenopJiis,  as  represented  by  a  single  Indian  species,  is  remarkable 
on  account  of  its  extremely  restricted  range,  being  apparently  recorded  only 
from  the  Peria  peak,  in  the  Wynad  district,  at  an  elevation  of  about  five 
thousand  feet.  Even  there  it  is  stated  to  be  of  rare  occurrence.  Unlike  most 
of  its  kind,  it  lives  under  stones.  As  a  genus,  this  csecilian  is  characterised 
by  the  eyes  being  beneath  the  bones  of  the  skull,  and  by  the  tentacle  being 
globular,  and  surrounded  by  a  circular  groove.  From  this  genus,  Siphonops, 
with  three  species  inhabiting  Tropical  South  America,  differs  by  the  distinct 
eyes,  and  the  flap-like  tentacle,  which  has  a  horse-shoe  shaped  groove  at  the 
base,  and  is  placed  much  nearer  to  the  eye  than  to  the  nostril.  The  allied 
genus  Typhlonectes,  from  the  same  regions,  may  be  distinguished  by  the  ten- 
tacle, which  is  of  similar  shape,  being  nearer  to  the  nostril  than  to  the  eye,  as 
also  by  the  compression  of  the  hinder  end  of  the  body.  Lastly,  we  have  the 
South  American  Chthonerpetum,  which  differs  from  all  the  other  scaleless 
forms  in  the  arrangement  of  some  of  the  bones  of  the  skull.  It  has  a  flap- 
like  tentacle,  situated  mid- way  between  the  eye  and  the  nostril.  One  species 
of  this  genus  is  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Buenos  Ayres,  and  is  thus 
more  southern  than  any  other  American  member  of  the  family. 


SUB-KINGDOM  I.— VERTEBRATA. 
CLASS  V.— PISCES. 

BY  R.  LYDEKKER,  B.A.,  F.R.S.,  Y.P.G.S.,  &c. 

IN  the  preceding  section  it  has  been  shown  that  the  tadpoles  of  the  Amphibia 
make  a  very  close  approximation  in  structure— and  to  a  certain  extent  also  in 
form — to  fishes.  The  resemblance,  however,  stops  suddenly  short  in  regard 
to  the  structure  of  the  limbs.  In  all  amphibians  the  limbs  resemble  those 
of  the  higher  vertebrates  in  being  composed  of  a  definite  number  of  segments, 
and  terminating  in  distinct  digits,  which  are  normally  five  in  number.  On 
the  other  hand,  although  in  fishes  there  are  distinct  segments  in  the  upper 
portion  of  the  limbs,  these  do  not  correspond  exactly  with  those  of  the  higher 
animals,  and  there  are  110  structures  corresponding  with  fingers  and  toes. 
The  limbs  are,  in  fact,  fins,  and  terminate  either  in  a  fringe  of  rays,  or,  more 
rarely,  in  a  jointed  cartilaginous  rod,  bordered  on  one  or  both  sides  with  a 
smaller  number  of  somewhat  similar  rays.  In  some  fishes,  it  is  true,  limbs 
are  wanting  ;  but  then  this  is  also  the  case  among  the  higher  vertebrates, 
and  does  not  impair  the  classificatory  value  of  these  appendages.  Another 
important  distinction  from  amphibians  is  to  be  found  in  the  circumstance  that 
the  median  fins' of  fishes — which  are  always  present  in  some  form  or  other — have 
rays  similar  to  those  of  the  paired  fins.  Accordingly,  in  a  popular  way,  fishes 
may  be  defined  as  aquatic,  cold-blooded,  back-boned  animals,  breathing  the 
air  in  water  by  gills  (sometimes  supplemented  by  lungs),  and  furnished  with 
paired  nostrils,  paired  and  median  fins,  the  former  of  which  (when  present) 
differ  essentially  from  the  limbs  of  higher  animals.  This  definition  will 
suffice  to  distinguish  the  class  Pisces  from  all  the  preceding  classes,  but  as  it 
fails  to  differentiate  the  group  from  the  lampreys  (now  regarded  as  a  class 
apart),  it  must  be  added  that  all  Pisces  have  a  functional  lower  jaw. 

Whether  the  earliest  ancestors  of  fishes  were  as  purely  aquatic  in  their 
habits  as  their  descendants  is  a  question  somewhat  difficult  to  answer,  although 
the  reply  should  probably  be  in  the  affirmative.  Anyway,  it  is  certain  that 
we  have  at  present  no  indications  of  a  direct  transition  between  fishes  and 
the  classes  immediately  above  and  immediately  below  them,  so  that  they 
stand  out  as  one  of  the  best  defined  of  all  groups  ;  and  there  is  very  consider- 
able uncertainty  whether  the  paired  fins  of  fishes  can  be  regarded  as  the 
ancestral  type  from  which  the  limbs  of  higher  animals  were  evolved.  In 
spite  of  certain  minor  variations — as  exemplified  by  the  difference  in  shape 
between  an  eel  and  a  flat  fish — all  the  members  of  the  class  are  characterised 
by  the  adaptation  of  their  bodily  form  to  an  aquatic  life,  a  feature  in  which 
they  resemble  whales  and  porpoises  among  mammals.  As  is  well  observed 
by  Dr.  Bashford  Dean,  this  adaptation  to  aquatic  existence  "  has  stamped 
them  in  a  common  mould,  and  has  prescribed  the  laws  which  direct  and  limit 

456 


PISCES.  457 


their  evolution  ;  it  has  compressed  their  head,  trunk,  and  tail  into  a  spindle- 
like  form  ;  it  has  given  them  an  easy  and  rapid  motion,  enabling  them  to 
cleave  the  water  like  a  rounded  wedge.  It  has  made  their  mode  of  movement 
one  of  undulation,  causing  the  sides  of  the  fish  to  contract  rhythmically, 
thrusting  the  animal  forward."  Very  beautiful  indeed  are  the  lines  of  a 
typical  swift-swimming  fish,  such  as  the  common  mackerel  ;  and  in  a  front 
view  the  sectional  outline  will  be  found  to  form  a  perfect  ellipse,  from  which 
project  the  fins  as  thin  vertical  or  oblique  ridges. 

Interesting  and  important  as  is  the  structure  of  fishes  in  general,  our 
remarks  on°this  subject  must  be  the  briefest.  Here  it  is  important  to 
mention  that  the  ordinary  bony  fish  of  the  present  day,  such  as  a  mackerel 
or  a  roach,  are  very  specialised  forms,  and  afford  but  little  idea  of  the  general 
or  primitive  structural  type  of  the  class,  a  shark  or  a  lung-fish  being  far  pre- 
ferable in  this  respect.  Among  the  special  organs  of  many,  although  by  no 
means  all  fishes,  is  the  air-bladder,  which  has  the  power  of  altering  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  body  to  accord  with  that  of  the  surrounding  water. 
Frequently  this  bladder  is  connected  by  means  of  a  duct  with  the  ossophagus, 
and  in  the  lung-fishes  it  assumes  the  characters  of  a  lung.  Of  the  external 
coverings  of  fishes,  the  most  characteristic  are  the  scales,  although  these  are 
wanting  in  some  groups  and  in  certain  members  of  others.  The  ordinary 
over-lapping  scales  are  classified  as  cycloid  or  ctenoid,  according  as  to  whether 
the  free  margin  is  entire  or  pectinate.  When  they  are  coated  with  a  highly 
polished  enamel-like  structure,  and  at  the  same  time  are  more  or  less 
icctangular  in  form,  they  are  termed  ganoid.  The  lateral  line  found  on  the 
sides  of  many  fishes  is  formed  of  scales,  modified  partly  for  the  purpose  of 
supplying  mucus.  The  terminal  portions  of  the  fins — namely,  the  fin-rays — 
are  likewise  structures  formed  in  the  skin  ;  and  these  rays  are  articulated 
below  with  the  interspinal  bones  in  the  bony  fishes,  and  with  the  radial 
cartilages  in  the  sharks  and  rays.  The  paired  fins  comprise  the  pectoral  and 
pelvic  ;  and  the  median  or  unpaired,  the  dorsal,  caudal,  and  anal.  When 
the  pelvic  pair  are  situated  in  advance  of  the  pectorals,  they  are  said  to  be 
jugular  in  position  ;  when  in  the  same  line,  thoracic  ;  and  when  far  back, 
abdominal.  Of  the  internal  structure  of  the  paired  fins,  such  observations  as 
are  necessary  may  be  deferred  till  the  different  groups  are  treated  of  ;  but  it 
may  be  mentioned  that  when  the  rays  of  the  caudal  fin  surround  the  hinder 
extremity  of  the  back-bone  symmetrically,  the  tail-fin  is  said  to  be  diphycercal. 
When,  on  the  other  hand,  the  upper  lobe  is  greatly  developed  at  the  expense 
of  the  lower,  while  the  rays  are  unsymmetrically,  as  in  the  sharks,  it  is  termed 
heterocercal.  More  specialised  than  either  of  the  foregoing  is  the  so-called 
homocercal  or  completely  forked  tail,  in  which,  although  the  back-bone 
terminates  in  an  abbreviated  unsymmetrical  manner,  the  arrangement  of  the 
rays  is  symmetrical.  Whereas  in  some  fishes  the  notochord  persists  in  its 
original  form,  in  others  it  is  partially  surrounded  by  rudimental  vertebral 
arches,  and  in  the  higher  forms  is  completely  replaced  by  bony  vertebrae. 
Much  the  same  may  be  said  with  regard  to  the  primitive  cartilaginous  skull, 
which  is  retained  in  its  original  form  in  the  sharks,  but  is  completely  bony  in 
the  higher  fishes,  in  which,  in  addition  to  bones  developed  from  cartilage,  a 
number  of  investing  so-called  dermal  bones  likewise  arise.  Dermal  bones, 
too,  are  developed  in  the  pectoral  girdle  of  the  latter  group.  Very  important 
in  the  skull  of  the  bony  fishes  is  the  gill-cover  or  operculum,  which  when 
fully  developed  comprises  the  bones  respectively  known  as  the  pre-,  sub-, 
and  interopercular,  and  the  opercular  proper.  The  gill-membrane  aids  the 


458  PISCES. 


operculum  in  closing  the  gill-cavity  in  the  higher  fishes,  and  in  this  may  be 
developed  the  so-called  branchiostegal  rays.  In  the  membrane  joining  the 
two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw  may  be  certain  large  jugular  plates.  The 
teeth  of  fishes  need  not  engage  our  attention  further  than  to  notice  that  they 
may  be  developed  not  only  in  the  jaws  and  on  the  bones  of  the  palate,  but 
likewise  also  on  the  tongue  and  the  pharyngeal  bones  of  the  throat.  The  soft 
internal  parts  must  likewise  be  passed  over  almost  without  notice,  although 
it  may  be  mentioned  that  whereas  the  heart  generally  comprises  only  two 
chambers,  in  the  lung- fishes  it  is  furnished  with  three.  The  false  gills,  or 
remnants  of  a  former  gill  situated  in  front  of  the  permanent  pair,  and  re- 
presented in  the  adult  by  a  plexus  of  blood-vessels,  are  likewise  too  important 
not  to  be  named.  Then,  again,  there  are  the  spiracles  of  the  sharks,  which 
are  situated  on  the  head,  and  are  the  openings  of  canals  leading  into  the 
pharynx,  and  representing  the  first  visceral  clefts  of  the  embryo.  It  is  like- 
wise important  to  notice  that  certain  fishes,  such  as  the  bichir  of  the  Nile 
and  some  of  the  lung-fishes,  develop  during  the  earlier  stages  of  their  existence 
pectinate  external  gills,  and  thus  serve  to  connect  the  class  with  the  larval 
forms  of  the  Amphibia.  As  regards  reproduction,  it  must  suffice  to  say  that 
whereas  most  fishes  lay  eggs — it  may  be  of  very  small  size,  when  they  are 
collectively  known  as  roe,  or  comparatively  large — in  certain  kinds  these 
are  retained  within  the  body  of  the  parent  till  hatched.  The  interesting 
subject  of  distribution — both  in  depth  and  in  horizontal  extent — must  be 
passed  over  without  mention. 

Excluding  lampreys  and  lancelets,  which  are  here  assigned  to  distinct 
classes,  very  different  views  have  been  entertained  even  by  modern  systematists 
as  to  the  proper  classification  of  fishes.  By  Dr.  Giinther  the  following  scheme 
for  the  existing  forms  was  followed:  even  as  late  as  1880,  viz. : — 

Sub-class  I.  PAL^ICHTHYES. 

Order  i.  CHONDROPTERYGII. 

Section  1.  Plagiostomata. — Sharks  and  Rays. 

,,      2.  Holocephala. — Chimseroids. 
Order  ii.  GANOIDEI. 

Section  1.  Dipnoi. — Lung-fishes. 
,,      2.  Chondrostei.— -Sturgeons. 
,,      3.  Polypteroidei. — Bichir. 
,,      4.  Lepidosteoidei.— Bony  Pike, 
„       5.  Amioidei.— Bow-fin, 
Sub-class  II.  TELEOSTEI. — Bony  Fishes. 
Order  i.  ACANTHOPTERYGII. 

„    ii.  ACANTHOPTERYGII  PHARYNGOGNATHI. 
,,  iii.  ANACANTHINI. 
,,  iv.  PHYSOSTOMI. 

,,      V.    LOPHOBRANCHII. 

,,  vi.  PLECTOGNATHI. 

The  defects  in  this  classification,  are  the  wide  separation  of  the  Ganoidei 
from  the  Teleostei,  which,  through  the  intervention  of  extinct  forms,  pass 
completely  into  one  another,  and  the  association  of  the  Chimseroids  with  the 
Sharks  and  Rays  to  form  a  single  subordinal  group. 

A  far  better  scheme  is  the  one  just  published  by  Dr.  Bashford  Dean,  which 
is  as  follows  : — 


LUNG-FISHES.  459 


Sub-class  I,  ELASMOBRANCHII. — Sharks  and  Rays. 
,,       II.  HOLOCEPHALI. — Chimseroids. 
,,     III.  DIPNOI. — Lung-fishes. 
„     IV.  TELEOSTOMI. — Ganoids  and  Bony  Fishes. 
Order  i.  CROSSOPTERYGII. — Fringe-filmed  Group. 
,,    ii.  ACTINOPTERYGII. — Fan-fiimed  Group. 
Section  1.  Chondrostei. — Ganoids. 
„      2.  Teleocephali. — Bony  Fishes. 

Even  this  system  has,  however,  certain  disadvantages,  and  the  following 
arrangement  appears  preferable.  This  is  as  follows,  viz.  : — 

Sub-class  I.  DIPNOI. — Lung-fishes. 

,,       II.  HOLOCEPHALI.  —  Chimseroids. 
,,     III.  TELEOSTOMI. — Bony  Fishes  and  Ganoids. 
Order  i.  ACTINOPTERYGII. — Fan-finned  Group. 

ii.  CROSSOPTERYGII. — Fringe-finned  Group. 
Sub- class  IV.  EXASMOBRANCHII. — Sharks  and  Rays. 

With  these  preliminary  remarks,  we  may  proceed  to  a  brief  systematic 
review  of  the  various  groups  of  the  class.  It  must,  however,  be  remembered 
that  the  number  of  existing  fishes  is  so  vast  that  it  is  quite  impossible  to 
notice  even  all  the  family  types,  while  of  the  genera  only  a  small  percentage 
are  selected  for  mention.  It  must  also  be  born  in  mind  that  the  true  relation- 
ships of  the  sub-classes  cannot  be  properly  grasped  unless  the  fossil  forms 
are  also  studied. 


SUB-CLASS  I.— DIPNOI. 
LUNG-FISHES. 

LIKE  the  next,  the  present  group  is  now  represented  by  a  very  small 
number  of  species,  and  as  it  was  abundant  in  earlier  epochs,  it  is  evidently 
one  that  is  on  the  wane.  Whereas  in  many  respects  the  lung-fishes  approxi- 
mate to  the  amphibians,  in  others  they  show  affinity  to  the  earlier  sharks  ; 
and  it  has  been  suggested  that  they  ought  to  form  a  class  intermediate 
between  Amphibia  and  Pisces.  Regarding  them,  however,  merely  as  a  sub- 
class of  the  latter,  they  agree  with  the  Chimseroids  in  the  essential  feature 
that  there  is  no  movable  separate  suspending  arrangement  for  the  lower  jaw  ; 
and  from  this  peculiarity  the  name  of  Autostylica  has  been  suggested  for  the 
two  sub-classes  in  question.  In  the  existing  members  of  the  group,  which 
form  the  order  Sirenoidei,  the  body  is  thick  and  spindle-shaped,  its  covering 
consisting  of  large  overlapping  horn-like  scales,  and  the  tail  forming  a  diphy- 
cercal  fin.  In  form,  the  head  approximates  to  that  of  amphibians,  as  it  does  in 
its  slimy  integument.  The  paired  fins  are  of  the  fringed  type,  their  skeleton 
consisting  typically  of  a  jointed  cartilaginous  rod,  fringed  on  both  sides  with 
divergent  rays.  In  the  skull  the  original  cartilaginous  cranium  is  roofed  ove'r 
with  dermal  membrane-bones,  and  the  nostrils  have  posterior  apertures 
opening  into  the  back  of  the  mouth  to  form  true  posterior  nostrils,  the  latter 


46o 


PISCES— SUB-CLASS  I.— DIPNOI. 


Fig.  1. — AUSTRALIAN  LUNG-FISH. 


feature  distinguishing  these  fishes  from  all  other  members  of  the  class.  v  The 
small  and  compressed  gills  open  externally  by  a  single  aperture  which  is  pro- 
tected by  an  operculum,  from  beneath  which  may  protrude  stunted  and 

rudimental  external  gills.  The 
nerves  supplying  the  eyes,  where 
they  cross  one  another,  have  an 
interlacing  of  their  fibres,  and  the 
short  digestive  tract  exhibits  the 
shark-like  feature  of  a  spiral  valve 
in  the  membrane  of  the  intestine. 
Not  only  is  the  elongated  and 
sacculated  air-bladder  provided  with 
a  duct,  but  it  acts  in  all  respects  as 
a  lung,  with  which  indeed  it  is  in 
every  sense  comparable.  The 
backbone  is  mainly  notochordal, 
true  vertebrae  being  developed  only 
in  the  caudal  region.  The  denti- 
tion is  of  a  very  peculiar  type,  and  consists  of  a  few  very  large  and 
strongly-ridged  plates,  most  of  which  are  paired,  ajid  divided  by  a  distinct 
median  line. 

Lung-fishes  are  now  represented  only  by  three  species,  belonging  to  as 
many  distinct  gsnera,  but  all  included  in  the  single  family  Lfpidosiretddce. 
Of  these,  the  least  specialised  is  the  Australian  lung-fish  (Oerafowtttl  which  in 
the  form  of  its  paired  fins  retains  more  of  the  primitive  type  than  does  either 
of  the  other  two.  The  scales  are  very  large,  and  the  paired  fins  are  broad 
and  lobate,  consisting  of  a  central  scaled  portion  bordered  by  a  fringe.  Mar- 
ginal teeth  are  wanting  in  the  jaws  ;  but  the  palate  contains  a  pair  of  large 
dental  plates  behind,  and  a  couple  of  smaller  chisel-like  teeth  in  front,  the 
lower  jaw  having  a  single  pair  of  large  plates.  Long  before  it  was  known  to 
science,  the  Australian  lung-fish  was  familiar  to  the  settlers  on  the  banks  of 
the  two  great  rivers  of  Queensland,  on  account  of  the  excellent  quality  of  its 
salmon-coloured  flesh  ; — whence  the  name  of  Burnett  salmon  commonly 
applied  to  it.  The  fish,  which  grows  to  a  couple  of  yards  in  length,  lives 
among  mud  and  leaves,  and  rises  at 

times    to   the   surface    to   breathe.         _  

Its  food  consists  of  both  vegetable 
and  animal  substances  ;  and  the 
large  eggs  are  deposited  singly.  In 
the  two  remaining  forms — one  of 
which  (Lepidosiren)  inhabits  the 
rivers  of  Tropical  South  America, 
and  the  other  (Protopterus)  those 
of  Africa — the  body  is  more  eel- 
like,  the  limbs  are  reduced  to  whip- 
like  filaments,  and  the  anterior  teeth 
are  situated  in  bhe  margins  of  the 
jaws.  In  many  parts  of  the  country 
the  African  lung-fish  during  the 
dry  season  envelops  itself  in  a  kind 

of  shell  or  cocoon  of  mud,  and  in  this  state  it  can  be  dug  up  and  exported, 
reviving  when  placed  in  warm  water.     Dr.  Dean  observes  that  "  lung-fishes 


Fig.  2. — AFIUCAN  LUNG-FISH. 


CHIM^ROIDS.  461 


have  unquestionably  many  structures  which  may  have  been  derived  from  the 
more  generalised  conditions  of  the  sharks  ;  and  as  a  group  they  may  not  un- 
reasonably be  looked  upon  as  descended  from  the  primitive  elasmobranchian 
stem." 


SUB-CLASS  II.— HOLOCEPHALI. 

CHIIVLEROIDS. 

THE  group  typically  represented  by  the  spook-fish  or  chimsera  is,  as  already 
mentioned,  now  a  small  and  waning  one,  which  agrees  with  the  last  in  the 
structure  of  the  skull.  In  spite  of  their  many  marked  resemblances  to  the 
sharks,  the  writer  last,  quoted  is  of  opinion  that  they  cannot  be  closely  associ- 
ated with  that  group.  This  external  resemblance  to  the  Elasmobranchii, 
coupled  with  the  total  absence  of  membrane-bones  from  the  cartilaginous 
skull,  at  once  serves  to  differentiate  the  chimaeras  from  the  lung-fishes ;  from 
which  they  also  differ  by  the  absence  of  true  posterior  nostrils,  although  there 
are  nasal  passages.  Further  differences  are  to  be  found  in  the  form  and 
'structure  of  the  paired  fins,  and  the  absence  of  an  air-bladder.  The  optic 
nerves  and  intestine  are  similar  to  those  of  the  lung-fishes  and  sharks  ;  and 
the  accessory  reproductive  organs  of  the  males,  known  as  claspers,  are  found 
elsewhere  only  in  the  latter  group.  Unlike  the  lung-fishes,  the  skin  is  gener- 
ally naked,  and  when  (as  in  the  young)  hard  structures  are  developed  therein, 
these  agree  with  teeth,  whereas  such  plates  as  are  found  in  the  lung-fishes 
are  bony.  Although  the  paired  fins  are  not  very  unlike  those  of  modern 
sharks,  consisting  of  an  abbreviated  base  and  numerous  rays  arranged  in  a 
fan -like  manner,  their  dermal  margins  are  very  large,  and  terminate  in  a 
sharp  point.  A  large  spine 
protects  the  front  of  the  first 
dorsal  fin,  which  is  capable 
of  being  folded  so  as  to  lie 
in  a  groove  in  the  back. 
The  gill-arches  aro  closely 
packed,  and  open  by  one 
aperture  on  each  side,  which 
is  slit-like,  and  protected 
with  a  dermal  fold  contain- 
ing an  operculum  of  carti- 
lage. The  teeth  are  in  the 
form  of  large  plates  closely  Fig.  3.— COMMON  CHIMERA. 

affixed  to  the  jaws,  and  are 

thickly  studded  with  roughened  grinding  facets  termed  tritors.  In  the  car- 
tilaginous skeleton  the  axis  of  the  back-bone  remains  notochordal,  its  sheath 
lacking  distinct  vertebrae,  but  being  strengthened  in  the  fore-part  of  the 
column  by  rings  of  cartilage.  A  lateral  line  is  present  on  the  sides  of  the 
body,  and  the  tail  gradually  tapers  away,  to  terminate  in  a  diphycercal  fin. 
Like  sharks,  chimseroids  deposit  large  eggs,  which  are  completely  separate 
from  one  another. 

Existing  chimseroids  are  classed  under  three  genera,  all  included  in  the 
family  Chimaridce.     The  first  of  these  is  Harriott^  which  comprises  two  deep 


462  PISCES— SUB, CLASS  IIL—TELEOSTOMI. 


sea  forms,  one  from  the  Atlantic  and  the  other  from  Japanese  waters.  It 
appears  to  be  the  most  shark-like  type,  and  is  characterised  by  the  long 
slender  beak,  and  the  absence  of  an. appendage  on  the  forehead  of  the  males. 
From  the  small  size  of  the  claspers  in  the  same  sex,  it  has  been  inferred  that 
the  eggs  are  fertilised  after  extrusion.  ;  The  second  genus,  Callorhynchus, 
is  represented  by  the  bottle-nosed  chimsera  of  the  Southern  Seas,  and,  to- 
gether with  the  next,  has  an  erectile  spine  on  the  forehead  of  the  males.  In 
form  it  is  very  shark-like,  with  the  tail  inclined  upwards  and_vwithout  a  fin  on 
its  upper  surface  ;  the  muzzle  being  of  moderate  length,  with  a  cartilaginous 
prominence  terminating  in  a  flap  of  skin.  Chimcera,  of  which  there  are  three 
species,  is  less  shark-like  than  the  other  two,  with  the  extremely  abbreviate 
muzzle  devoid  of  any  appendage,  arid  the  whip-like  tail  "forming  a  continua- 
tion of  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  body,  and  finned,  for  some  distance  both 
above  and  below.  These  fishes  appear  to  be  rare  and  local,  and  are  gener- 
ally taken  in  fairly  deep  water.  Little  is  known  of  their  life-history,  but 
immature  examples  have  been  captured  at  great  depths.  Although  some 
writers  have  considered  the  chimseroids  as  degenerate  types  allied  to  the 
Dipnoi,  Dr.  Bashford  Dean  is  of  opinion  that  they  .are  more  nearly  related  to 
the  primitive  sharks.  If  this  should  prove  to  be  well  founded,  the  autostylic 
type  of  skull  must  have  been  independently  acquired  in  the  Dipnoi  and 
Holocephali,  and  cannot,  consequently,  be  of  much  classificatory  value. 


SUB-CLASS  IIL—TELEOSTOMI. 
BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS. 

THE  passage  between  the  modern  bony  fishes  and  the  ancient  ganoids  having 
been  discovered  to  be  complete,  there  is  no  possibility  of  assigning  these 
two  nominal  groups  to  distinct  sub-classes,  or  even  orders,  and,  accordingly, 
all  the  fishes  which  come  under  the  designation  either  of  Dipnoi,  Holo- 
cephali, or  Elasmobranchii,  are  now  classed  as  Teleostomi.  Indeed,  the 
terms  bony  fishes  and  ganoids,  as  Dr.  Bashford  Dean  well  remarks,  can  only 
be  used,  jn  a  popular  and  convenient  sense — the  latter  to  denote  the  old- 
fashioned,  type,  with  its  rectangular  ganoid  scales  and  cartilaginous  internal 
skeleton,-  and  the  former  to  designate  the  modern  type,  with  its  rounded 
horny  scales  and  fully  calcified  skeleton.  The  group  is  a  very  vast  one, 
including  by  far  the  great  majority  of  existing  forms,  and  a  host  of  extinct 
ones  ;  and  the  range  of  variation  is  so  great  that  a  concise  definition  is  by  no 
means  easy.  All  the  members  of  the  sub-class  are,  however^  broadly  distin- 
guished both  from  Dipnoi  and  Holocephali  by  the  existence  in  the  skull  of  a 
movable  apparatus  for  the  suspension  of  the  lower  jaw,  this  type  of  skull 
structure  being  known  as  the  hyostylic.  In  the  internal  skeleton,  calcification 
exists  to  a  greater  or  lesser  degree,  and  membrane-bones  are  always  present  on 
the  jaws.  Moreover,  the  membrane-bones  of  the  pectoral  girdle,  like  the 
scapula  and  the  various  clavicular  bones,  form  a  chain  connected  with  the 
posterior  region  of  the  skull.  Very  important  is  the  close  crowding  of  the 
gill-arches,  and  their  complete  protection  by  a  fully-developed  operculum. 
The  external  skeleton,  when  present,  consists  either  of  rounded  horn-like 
scales,  or  of  quadrangular  bony  plates.  All  the  living  forms  deposit  a  vast 


BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS.  463 


number  of  minute  eggs,  crowded  together  into  a  mass.  Whereas  in  the 
higher  types  the  optic  nerves  simply  cross  one  another,  and  there  is  no  spiral 
valve  to  the  intestine,  in  the  ganoids  the  latter  is  present,  and  the  fibres  of 
the  optic  nerves  interlace  where  they  meet,  to  form  what  is  known  as  a 
chiasma  by  the  complete  fusion  of  the  two  nerves.  Very  generally  an  air- 
bladder  is  present,  and  the  less  specialised  bony  fishes  and  all  the  ganoids 
are  provided  with  a  duct  to  the  gullet.  In  the  higher  types  the  rays  of  the 
fins  are  entirely  of  dermal  origin,  their  cartilaginous  supports  being  abbre- 
viated and  enclosed  within  the  body.  In  addition  to  the  features  already 
noticed,  the  ganoids  have  a  larger  number  of  gill-arches,  a  spiracle,  an 
arterial  cone  furnished  with  many  valves  to  the  heart,  a  cellular  air-bladder, 
and  several  shark-like  features  in  other  organs. 


ORDER  I. — ACTINOPTERYGII. 

SUB-ORDER   I. — ACANTHOPTERYGII. 

The  first  great  order  of  the  sub-class  includes  what  may  be  termed  the 
Fan-finned  Teleostomes,  in  which  the  fins  are  entirely  supported  by  dermal 
rays,  the  primitive  cartilaginous  supports  being  greatly  reduced  and  enclosed 
in  the  body-wall.  A  single  paired  series  of  transversely  elongated  rays — to 
which  an  unpaired  anterior  element  .may  be  added — are  developed  in  the 
branchiostegal  membrane  between  the  two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw.  The 
caudal  fin  is  variable.  The  spiny-finned  fishes,  forming  the  sub-order  Acan- 
thopterygii,  together  with  the  six  following  sub-orders,1  are  collectively  dis- 
tinguished by  the  supporting  bony  elements  of  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  being 
equal  in  number  to  the  dermal  rays,  and  by  the  tail  being  generally  of  the 
homocercal  or  abbreviate-heterocercal  type  although  occasionally  diphy- 
cercal.  In  the  Acanthopterygii  and  four  following  sub-orders  the  skeleton  is 
fully  ossified,  the  optic  nerves  simply  cross,  and  there  is  no  spiral  valve  to 
the  intestine.  In  common  with  the  three  following  sub-orders,  they  have 
generally  no  duct  to  the  air-bladder,  the  two  parietal  bones  of  the  skull 
separated  by  the  supra-occipital,  and  the  pelvic  fins  usually  jugular  or 
thoracic.  The  chief  distinction  of  the  Actinopterygii  themselves  is  that  usu- 
ally some  of  the  rays  of  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  are  not  articulated,  and  form 
spines. 

In  this  section  the  lower  pharyngeal  bones  are  generally  distinct,  and  the 
scales  ctenoid ;  while  the  preopercular  bone  is  not  connected  by  a  bony  stay 
with  the  orbit,  the  spinous  dorsal  is  large,  and  the  pelvic  fins 
are  thoracic,  and  usually  furnished  with  five  branched  rays,  Section  1.  Perci- 
although  sometimes  with  only  four.     Certain  other  features  formes. —Family 
connected  with  the  skeleton  are  too  complex  to  be  noticed     Centrarchidf. 
here.     The  Centrarchidce  form  a  comparatively  small  family, 
containing  ten  genera,  and  typified  by  the  single  species  of  Centrarchus,  from 
the  fresh  waters  of  the  United  States  ;  one  of  their  distinctive  characters 
being  the  presence  of  three  or  more  spines  in  the  anal  fin.     In  habits  these 
fishes  are  carnivorous  ;   and  many  of  them  resemble  the  stickle-backs  in 
building  nests. 

lrThe  following  are  the  sub-orders  of  the  Actinopterygii -viz.,  (1)  Acanthopterygii,  (2)  Lopho- 
branchii,  (3)  Plectognathi,  (4)  Anacanthini,  (5)  Physostomi,  (6)  Jitheospoudyli.  (7)  Protospcndyli, 
(8)  Chondrostei. 


464  PISCES— SUB-CLASS  III.—TELEOSTOMI. 


Of  far  more  general  interest  are  the  twelve  genera  constituting  the  family 

Percidce,  in  all  of  which  there  are  never  more  than  two  spines  in  the  anal 

tin,  while  there  are  two  pairs  of  external  nostrils.     Like  their 

Family          nearest  allies,  the  perches  generally  have  a  complete  lateral 

Percidce.         line,  no  scales  on  the  median  fins  or  barbels  to  the  mouth, 

and  the  teeth  conical.     Six  to  eight  pairs  of  branchiostegal 

rays  are  present,  as  well  as  four  pairs  of  gills,  the  last  of  which  is  followed  by 

a  slit ;  and  the  rayed  portion  of  the  dorsal  fin  does  not  much  exceed  the  anal 

in  length.  Although  Lucioperca  (Stizo- 
stedion)  and  Percarina  enter  salt  water, 
the  family  is  essentially  a  fresh-water 
type,  its  members  being  spread  over 
North  America,  Western  Asia,  and 
Europe.  Among  the  generic  types  of 
the  family  are  the  true  perches  (Perca), 
with  a  distribution  equivalent  to  that 
of  the  family  ;  the  aforesaid  Lucio- 
perca, or  pike-perches,  with  a  similar 

Fig.  4.— COMMON  PERCH.  range  ;  the  three  small  species  of  the 

Danubian  genus  Aspro ;  Percarina,  with 

two  species  from  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Sea  of  Azov  and  the  Black  Sea  ; 
and  the  ruffes  (Acerina),  of  which  the  three  representatives  are  restricted  to 
Europe  and  Asia. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  last  is  the  family  of  Serranida,  or  sea-perches,  dis- 
tinguished by  the  development  of  an  internal  lamina  from  the  second  sub- 
orbital  bone  supporting  the  globe  of  the  eye,  the  number  of 
Family  spines   in  the  anal  fin  being  variable.      In  this  extensive 

Serranidce.  family  the  genus  Centrogenys  is  noteworthy,  on  account  of 
the  union  of  the  lower  pharyngeal  bones.  It  would  be 
tedious  to  mention  the  distinctive  characters  of  even  the  commoner  and  best 
known  genera,  and  only  a  few  will  be  referred  to  at  all.  As  an  example  of 
the  group  of  the  sub-family  Serraninw,  with  two  dorsal  fins,  we  may  take  the 
South  American  Percichthys,  which  is  one  of  the  few  fresh-water  types.  In 
this  and  four  other  allied  genera  the  tongue  is  smooth,  but  in  the  bass, 
Morone,  which  have  likewise  two  dorsals,  that  organ  is  covered  with  patches 
of  teeth.  Whereas  some  bass  are  marine,  others  are  fresh- water  in  habitat. 
They  all  have  nine  dorsal  and  (like  the  other  members  of  the  sub-family) 
three  anal  spines.  Among  the  group  with  a  single  dorsal  fin,  especial  interest 
attaches  to  the  widely-spread  sea-perches  of  the  genus  Serramts,  on  account 
of  the  vast  number  of  species  and  the  large  bodily  size  to  which  some  of  them 
attain.  Although  the  tongue  is  edentulous,  teeth  are  developed  on  the 
palate,  and  large  tusks  occur  at  intervals  among  the  small  teeth  in  the 
margins  of  the  jaws.  Centropristes  is  an  allied  genus.  In  another  group  of 
the  same  sub-family  Mr.  Boulenger  includes  the  genera  Plesiops  and 
Trachinops,  which  were  formerly  referred  to  the  Nandidce.  In  these  the 
lateral  line  is  double,  consisting  of  an  upper  portion,  which  disappears  pos- 
teriorly, and  a  lower  running  along  the  middle  of  the  side  of  the  tail. 
Whereas  the  first  genus  is  from  the  coral-reefs  of  the  Indo-Pacific,  the  second 
is  Australian,  both  being  marine.  To  another  sub-family — Centropominai — 
distinguished  by  the  extension  of  the  lateral  line  on  to  the  caudal  fin, 
belong  the  two  species  of  Lutes,  one  of  which  is  Nilotic,  while  the  other 
is  Oriental  and  Australian.  The  Oriental  species  grows  to  a  length  of 


BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS.  465 


five  feet,  and  is  probably  as  dangerous  to  bathers  as  are  the  larger  kinds 
of  Serranus. 

Among  the  most  gorgeously  coloured  of  all  the  class,  are  the  tropical 
chsetodonts  or  scaly-finned  fishes,  readily  distinguished  from  the  foregoing 
families  by  the  extension  of  the  scaling  on  to  the  median 
fins.     All  are  deep-bodied  fishes,   with   cycloid  or  ctenoid  Family 

scales,  on  which  a  continuous  lateral  line  runs  nearly  to  the  Chcetodontidce.1 
caudal  fin.  Their  mouth,  which  may  be  tubular,  is  armed 
with  bands  of  minute  teeth.  Of  the  fins,  the  pelvic  are  thoracic,  with  a 
single  spine  and  five  rays  ;  three  or  five  spines  are  found  in  the  anal  ;  and 
the  spinous  portion  of  the  dorsal  is  shorter  than  the  rayed  part.  Stripes  or 
spots  are  distinguishing  features  in  the  coloration  of  these  fishes,  which  are 
mostly  inhabitants  of  coral-reefs,  where  they  feed  on  such  animals  as  they 
can  capture,  although  some  ascend  large  tidal  rivers.  In  the  typical  Chcetodon 
the  palate  is  devoid  of  teeth,  the 
dorsal  fin  is  not  deeply  notched,  and 
has  spines  of  nearly  uniform  length, 
while  the  muzzle  is  short  or  moder- 
ately produced.  Some  kinds  have 
the  body  ornamented  by  fine  lines, 
while  others  have  on  each  side  a  large 
eye-like  spot.  Chelmon  merits  notice, 
on  account  of  the  elongation  of  the 
muzzle  into  a  tube,  from  which  the 
fish  ejects  a  drop  of  water  with  such 
force  and  accuracy  of  aim  as  to  dis- 
able any  insect  that  may  be  resting 
on  the  foliage  near  the  shore,  and 
thus  secure  it  for  food.  Both  the  species  of  shooting  fish  are  Oriental,  and 
are  found  both  in  rivers  and  near  the  coast.  Other  well-known  genera  are 
Heniochus  and  Holacanthus,  the  latter  best  known  by  the  gorgeously  coloured 
emperor-fish  of  the  African  and  Oriental  seas.  In  this  fish  the  body  is 
coloured  a  brilliant  blue,  ornamented  with  about  thirty  narrow  gold  stripes. 
Even  more  resplendent  is  the  Oriental  zebra-fish,  in  which  the  ground-colour 
of  the  body  is  yellow,  marked  with  numerous  vertical  bands  of  blue  margined 
with  brown. 

That  epicurean  delicacy,  the  red  mullet  (Mullus  barbatus),  typifies  a  small 
family  distinguished  from  other  Perciformes  by  the  possession  of  a  pair  of 
barbels  on  the  lower  jaw.     In  this  family  the  number  of 
pairs  of  branchiostegal  rays  is  only  four  ;  and  the  somewhat  Family 

low  body  has  large,  thin,  finely  serrated  scales,  with  a  con-         Mullidce. 
tinuous  lateral  line.     The  dentition  is  weak.     As  regards  the 
fins,  there  are  two  dorsals,  in  the  first  of  which  the  spines  are  thin,  while 
the  second  is  placed  above,  and  is  similar  to  the  anal,  the  pectorals  being  short, 
and  the  pelvics  being  furnished  with  five  rays  and  a  single  spine.     Mullets 
are  comparatively  small  fish,  of  which  the  adults  are  marine.     What  appears 
to  be  the  male  of  the  common  red  mullet  is  uniformly  carmine-red  above, 
although  the  presumed  female  is  marked  by  a  few  longitudinal  yellow  stripes. 
Tropical  forms  have  been   assigned   to  distinct  genera.     To   preserve   the 
brilliant  red  coloration,  the  fish  should  be  scaled  immediately  after  death. 

1  Although  the  chaetodonts  are  included  by  Dr.  Giinther  in  the  Perciformes,  it  is  not  improbable 
that  they  may  be  separated  by  Mr.  Boulenger,  when  his  Catalogue  of  Fishes  is  completed.  For 
the  present  they  may  remain  here. 

31 


466  PISCES— SUB-CLASS  III.  —  TELEOSTOML 


The  numerous  representatives  of  the  sea- breams  are  perhaps  Lest  char- 
acterised by  the  dentition,  which  takes  the  form  either  of  cutting  teeth  in 
the  fore-part  of  the  jaws,  or  of  grinding  teeth  on  the  sides 
Family  Sparidce.  of  the  same,  the  palate  being  in  most  cases  edentulous.  The 
dorsal  fin  is  single,  with  its  spinous  and  rayed  portions  of 
nearly  equal  longitudinal  extent,  and  there  are  always  three  spines  to  the 
anal.  The  pelvics,  which  are  thoracic  in  position,  include  five  rays  and  a 
single  spine,  and  although  simple  in  one  genus,  in  the  other  the  rays  of  the 
pectorals  are  branched.  The  scales  may  be  either  very  slightly  serrated  or 
simple,  and  the  mouth  is  situated  at  the  tip  of  the  snout,  with  its  cleft 
lateral.  In  form,  these  fishes  may  be  described  as  normal,  while  in  colora- 
tion they  are  dull.  Although  none  grow  to  large  dimensions,  nearly  all  are 
eaten.  The  coasts  of  the  temperate  and  tropical  zones  are  their  favourite 
resorts,  but  some  kinds  are  found  in  brackish  waters,  while  a  few  enter 
rivers.  They  may  be  divided  into  several  sub-families,  of  which  the 
Cantharmce  are  typified  by  the  British  species  of  Cantharus,  locally  known  by 
the  name  of  old  wife,  but  more  generally  as  the  black  sea-bream.  In  this 
sub -family,  to  which  also  pertain  the  Mediterranean  Scatharus,  and  the 
Oriental  Tropterodon  and  Crenidens,  there  are  no  teeth  on  the  vomers,  but 
the  front  of  the  jaws  carries  trenchant  incisors,  which  in  some  cases  are 
lobed.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  Haplodactylince,  there  are  teeth  on  the 
vomers,  and  flat,  generally  tricuspidate  teeth  in  the  jaws,  the  single  genus 
Haplodactylus  being  the  one  with  simple  lower  pectoral  rays.  Sargus,  of 

which  there  are  about  a  score  of 
species  from  the  Atlantic,  Mediter- 
ranean, and  Oriental  seas,  repre- 
sents by  itself  a  third  sub-family 
(Sargince),  characterised  by  the 
presence  of  a  single  series  of 
incisors  in  the  front  of  the  jaws, 
and  of  several  rows  of  grinding 
teeth,  adapted  for  crushing,  on  the 
sides.  Whereas  Haplodaclylus  sub- 
sists on  a  vegetable  diet,  the  sargi 
Fig.  6.— COMMON  SA.BQUS.  lives  by  grinding  up  molluscs  and 

crustaceans.      Another  sub-family 

(Pagrince)  of  shell -crushers  is  well  known  in  the  form  of  the  gilt-heads 
(Chrysophrys),  which  take  their  name  from  the  gold  spots  on  the  forehead. 
In  this  sub-family  there  are  also  grinding  teeth  in  the  sides  of  the  jaws,  but 
the  front  teeth  are  conical.  Other  genera  of  this  group  are  Lethrinus, 
Sphcerodon,  Pagellus,  and  Pagrus. 

Still  continuing  the  almost  endless  series  of  the  Perciformes,  we  now  come 
to  a  small  and  unimportant  family  including  only  the  genus  Hoplognathus, 
species  of  which  have  been  discovered  on  the  coasts  of  Japan, 
Family          Australia,   and  Peru.      The   most  essential  feature   of   the 
HoplognathidcK.    group  is  the  sharp   cutting  edges  of  the  jaws,   to   which 
such    teeth    as    are     present    are     closely    adherent,    and 
thereby  render    the    margin   slightly   serrated.       The   first   dorsal   fin,   al- 
though  low,    has   strong   spines,    and   is   separated  only  by    a   very    short 
interval  from   the   taller  soft  dorsal,  the  latter  being  very  similar  to  the 
anal,  above  which  it  is  situated.     The  three  spines  of  the  anal  are  very  low. 
More  important  are  the  genera  constituting  the  family  Cirrhitidce,  these 


BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS.  467 


being  best  recognised  by  the  thickened   an.d  undivided  lower  rays  of  the 
pectoral  fins,  which  in  soine  cases  appear  to  be  modified  into 
organs  of  touch,  and  in  others  assist  in  locomotion.     These  Family 

fishes  have  deep,  compressed  bodies,  cycloidal  scales,  and  Cirrhitidcu. 
very  generally  six  branchoistegal  rays.  The  dorsal  is  single, 
and  divided  into  a  spinous  and  rayed  half  ;  and  the  pel  vies,  which  are 
separated  by  an  interval  from  the  pectorals,  are  thoracic,  and  provided  with  a 
single  spine  and  five  rays,  the  anal  being  three-spined.  The  typical  group 
includes  several  genera  of  small  and  frequently  spotted  fishes  from  the  Indo- 
Pacific  and  Australasian  seas,  such  as  Cirrhitichthys,  Cirrhites,  and  Chor- 
inemus,  in  all  of  which  there  are  teeth  on  the  vomerine  bones  of  the  palate. 
In  the  second  group,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  no  teeth  on  the  vomers;  and 
among  the  genera  are  Latris,  represented  by  two  New  Zealand  and  Tasmanian 
species,  one  of  which  (the  trumpeter-fish)  is  of  large  size,  and  affords  excellent 
food,  and  the  more  widely-spread  Chilodactylus.  The  latter,  which  may  be 
easily  recognised  by  the  great  elongation  of  one  of  the  rays  of  the  pectoral  fins, 
is  likewise  valuable  as  a  food-supply,  both  in  South  Africa  and  at  the  Antipodes. 

Although  the  Scorpcenidce  are  included  in  Dr.  Giinther's  classification 
among  the  Perciformes,  they  differ  from  the  foregoing  families  by  the 
presence  of  a  bony  stay  connecting  the  preoperculum  with 
the  ring  of  bones  beneath  the  orbit.  If  the  absence  of  such  Section  Scorpseni- 
stay  be  taken — as  it  is  here — as  a  distinctive  feature  of  the  formes.— Family 
Perciformes,  the  present  family  must  typify  a  section  by  Scorpcenidce. 
itself.  There  are  many  genera  included  in  the  family,  which 
ranges  over  nearly  all  oceans  and  seas.  All  the  species  are  carnivorous,  but 
whereas  some  approximate  in  external  form  and  their  mode  of  life  to  the 
Serranidce,  others  are  deep-sea  types,  with  the  skin  expanded  into  appendages 
resembling  sea- weeds.  In  some  genera,  such  as  Scorpcena  and  Sebastes,  well- 
developed  scales  are  present ;  this  being  also  the  case  with  the  species  of 
Pterois  from  the  warmer  parts  of  the  Indo-Pacific,  all  of  which  are  charac- 
terised by  the  height  of  the  pectoral  and  dorsal  fins.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  are  other  types,  such  as  Choridactylus  and  Pelor  of  the*  Indian  seas,  and 
the  so-called  Micropus  of  the  Pacific,  in  which  the  scales  are  rudimental  or 
wanting  ;  Choridactylus  being  one  of  those  with  leaf-like  expansions  to  the 
skin,  while  Micropus  is  notable  on  account  of  containing  the  smallest  of  all 
the  Acanthopterygians,  certain  kinds  being  considerably  less  than  a  couple  of 
inches  in  length. 

Passing  over  without  mention  a  few  small  and  unimportant  families,  we 
come  to  the  group  known  technically  as  Benjchidce,  and  popularly  as  slime- 
heads,  which  constitute  not  only  a  family,  but  likewise  a 
sectional  group  by  themselves.      The  essential  feature  of  Section  Berychi- 
these  fishes  is  the  presence  in  the  head  of  slime-bearing,  or  formes. — Family 
muciferous  cavities,  which  are  protected  by  a  skin  of  great       Berychidce. 
thickness.     The  body  is  compressed,  and  oblong  or  deep  in 
shape  ;  and  the  pelvic  fins  are  thoracic,  and  almost  always  supported  by  five 
rays  and  a  single  spine.     Generally  the  body  is  covered  with  ctenoid  scales, 
although  rarely  there  may  be  a  naked  skin;  but  there  are  never  scales  on  the 
head.     Nearly  all  these  fish  have  large  goggle  eyes ;  and  the  obliquely  cleft 
mouth  is  armed  with  minute  teeth,  while  the  palate  is  nearly  always  toothed, 
and  the  opercular  bones  are  likewise  armed.     Except  rarely,  the  number  of 
rays  in  the  branch iostegal  membrane  is  eight.     All  the  Berychidce,  are  marine, 
and  nearly  all  live  at  considerable  depths,  although  there  are  a  couple  of 


468  PISCES— SUB-CLASS  IIL—TELEOSTOML 


genera — namely  Myripristis  and  Holocentrum — most  or  all  of  whose  members 
are  found  near  the  surface.    Like  other  deep-sea  forms,  these  fish  have  a  wide 
distribution  in   species.      Among   the   numerous  genera,  the  single    small 
Japanese  species  of  Monocentris  is  remarkable  on  account  of  the  large  size  of 
the  vertically  elongated  scales,  which  form  a  kind  of  protective  cuirass  to  the 
body ;  the  opercular  bones  being  unarmed.  Anoplogaster  of  the  Atlantic  may  be 
cited  as  a  genus  with  a  naked  skin;  whereas  in  the  allied  Trachichthys  there  are 
minute  scales,  from  which  the  lateral  line  stands  out  in  great  prominence,  both 
having  the  eye  very  large.     In  this  genus,  too,  as  well  as  in  the  typical  Beryx, 
the  dorsal  fin  is  single,  but  in  Holocentrum  and  certain  other  genera  it  is  double. 
The  small  family  of  the  Curtidce  likewise  represents  a  section  by  itself,  dis- 
tinguished by  the  possession  of  only  a  single  dorsal  fin,  which  is  much  inferior 
in  length  to  the  many-rayed  and  elongated  anal,  and  like- 
Section  Curti-     wise  by  the  absence  of  the  structure  known  as  the  supra- 
formes. — Family  branchial  organ.     This  family  includes  the  Indian  Curtis  and 
Curtidce.         the  Oriental  and  Tropical  Pacific  Pemperis.     In  both  these 
fishes  the  body  is  oblong,  narrowing  rapidly  towards  the  tail; 
and,  if  present  at  all,  the  spines  of  the  dorsal  fin  are  very  few.     The  body  is 
covered  with  small  or  medium-sized  scales ;  and  minute  teeth  are  developed 
both  in  the  jaws  and  on  the  bones  of  the  palate. 

This  section,  also,  includes  only  a  single  family,  of  which  the  three  generic 

representatives — Polynemus  Pentanemus  and  Gale.oides — are  easily  recognised 

by  the  presence  of  a  number  of  long  filaments  arising  from 

Section          below  the  pectoral  fins.      There  are  two  somewhat  short 

Polynemiformes.  dorsal  fins,  separated  from  one  another  by  a  considerable 

— Family         interval ;  and  mucus-producing  canals  are  well  developed  in 

Polynemidce.      the  head.      These  fishes  are  well   represented  on  tropical 

coasts,  and  also  enter  estuaries  and  even  fresh  waters.    They 

generally  prefer  muddy  water,  where  their  exceedingly  elongated  pectoral 

filaments  doubtless  act  as  efficient  feelers. 

The  Mediterranean  umbrine   (Umbrina),  the  meagre  (ScicziKi),  and   the 
drum  (Pogonias)  of  North  America  are  three  fairly  well-known  fishes,  repre- 
senting as  many  genera  of  the  Scicenidce.     As  a  section,  the 
Section  Sciseni-    group  is  distinguished  by  the  great  length  of  the  soft  dorsal 
formes. — Family  fin,  which  exceeds  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  both  the  spin- 
ScicKnidce.        ous  dorsal  and  the   anal  in   this  respect.      Whereas  these 
fishes  resemble  those  of  the  last  family  in  the  development 
of  mucus  canals  in  the  head,  they  differ  by  the  absence  of  elongated  pectoral 
filaments.     In  the  skull  there  is  no  bony  connection  between  the  preoper- 

cular  bone  and  the  orbit ;  and 
the  pelvic  fins  are  situated  thor- 
acically,  and  furnished  with  one 
spine  and  five  soft  rays.  Inform, 
the  body  is  somewhat  elongate 
and  compressed,  and  the  scales 
are  of  the  ctenoid  type,  with  the 
lateral  line  continuous,  and  often 
extending  on  to  the  tail-fin.  The 
mouth  is  terminal,  and  armed 
Fig.  7.— THE  MEAGRE.  with  bands  of  small  teeth,  among 

which  enlarged  tusks  may  be  in- 
terspersed, but  there  are  no  teeth  on  the  palate.     The  medium-sized  eyes 


BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS.  469 


are  lateral  in  position.  The  members  of  the  family  are  in  the  main  fre- 
quenters of  the  coasts  of  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  warmer  parts  of  the 
Atlantic,  many  of  them  resorting  to  the  mouths  of  the  larger  rivers,  and  some 
having  taken  to  a  completely  fresh-water  existence.  The  largest  form  is  the 
common  meagre,  which  sometimes  reaches  a  couple  of  yards  in  length. 
Nearly  all  the  species  are  fit  for  food;  and  the  air-bladders  of  many  are  em- 
ployed as  a  source  of  isinglass.  The  drum  derives  its  name  from  the  loud 
sound  the  fish  is  capable  of  producing ;  this  sound  being  apparently  due 
to  the  striking  together  of  the  upper  and  lower  pharyngeal  bones,  which 
are  heavily  armed  with  flattened  teeth. 

Although  there  appears  occasionally  to  be  some  confusion  between  sword- 
fishes  and  the  very  different  saw-fishes,  there  ought  to  be  no  difficulty  in 
distinguishing  the  former  at  a  glance  from  any  other  fish 
that  swims.     This  distinctive  feature  is  the  production  of  the  Section 

upper  jaw  into  the  well-known  "  sword,"  which  is  wedge-  XipMiformes. — 
shaped  in  form,  and  may  exceed  half  the  length  of  the  rest  Family 

of  the  head  and  body.     Spear  would,  perhaps,  have  been  a        Xiphiidee. 
more  suitable  title  for  this  formidable  weapon,  with  which 
its  owner  can  transfix  an  unfortunate  cod  or  tunny,  or  drive  it  home  in  the 
side  of  a  whale  as  easily  as  we  can  thrust  a  table-fork  into  a  cheese.     Not 
only  so,  but  sword-fishes  have 

often  been  known   to   drive  -_ 

their  weapon  deep  into  the 
planking  of  a  ship's  bottom, 
probably  from  having  mis- 
taken the  vessel  for  a  whale. 
Bathers,  too,  are  by  no 
means  safe  from  the  on- 
slaughts of  these  ruthless  Fig.  8. -COMMON  SWORD-FISH. 
monsters,  which  occasionally 

grow  to  over  a  dozen  feet  in  length.  The  kinds  of  sword-fishes  are  numer- 
ous ;  and  they  are  divided  into  the  two  generic  groups  of  Histiophorus  and 
XiphiaSj  according  to  whether  long  and  narrow  pelvic  fins  are  present  or 
absent.  The  dorsal  fin,  which  may  be  either  single  or  divided,  has  no  dis- 
tinct spinous  portion  ;  it  is  always  of  considerable  height,  and  in  some  cases 
is  so  elevated  as  to  project  high  above  the  water  when  the  fish  is  swimming 
near  the  surface,  and  there  are  stories  current  that  it  is  occasionally  used  as 
a  sail.  The  skin  of  a  sword-fish  is  either  completely  naked,  or  furnished  with 
minute  rudimental  scales.  These  fishes  are  chiefly  surface-swimmers,  and 
are  fond  of  lying  in  the  sun  to  bask.  According  to  Scoresby,  the  sword  of 
one  of  these  fishes,  found  embedded  in  the  hull  of  a  ship  at  Liverpool,  had 
penetrated  a  sheet  of  copper,  an  oak  plank  two  and  a  half  inches  in  thickness, 
a  solid  oak  timber  of  seven  and  a  half  inches,  and  another  plank  of  a  couple 
of  inches.  "  The  position  of  the  bone  was  at  the  distance  of  four  feet  hori- 
zontally from  the  stern,  and  two  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  water  when 
the  vessel  was  afloat.  Hence  it  appeared  that  when  the  ship  had  been  in 
rapid  progress  through  the  water,  she  had  been  met  and  struck  by  a  sword- 
fish  advancing  in  the  opposite  direction,  by  the  shock  of  which,  or  by  the 
action  of  the  water  forced  past  the  body  of  the  animal  by  the  vessel's  progress, 
the  snout  had  been  broken  off  and  detached.  The  blow,  though  it  must  have 
been  singularly  forcible,  was  not  observed  by  any  person  in  the  ship."  As  a 
further  example  of  the  power  of  the  impact  of  these  fish,  it  may  be  mentioned 


470  PISCES— SUB-  CLASS  III. — TELEOSTOMI. 


that,  according  to  Mr.  Wood,  a  sword-fish,  in  striking  a  whaling  vessel,  drove 
its  weapon  "  through  the  copper  sheathing,  an  inch-board  sheathing,  a  three- 
inch  plank  of  hard  wood,  the  solid  white  oak  timber  of  the  ship  twelve 
inches  thick,  through  another  two-and-a-half-inch  hard  oak  ceiling  plank,  and 
lastly,  perforated  the  head  of  an  oil-cask,  where  it  remained  immovably 
fixed,  so  that  not  a  drop  of  oil  escaped." 

The  so-called   scabbard-fish  (Lepidopus)  and  the   hair-tails   (Trichiurus), 

together   with    the    barracudas   (Thyrsitis),    may   be    cited    as    well-known 

examples  of  a  family  and  section  presenting  the  following 

Section  Trichi-  leading  characteristics.  All  have  very  long  and  compressed 
uriformes. —  bodies,  which  sometimes  assume  a  band-like  form  ;  and  the 
Family  skin  is  either  naked  or  with  rudimental  scales.  Both  the 
Trichiuridce  dorsal  and  anal  fins  are  elongated,  with  their  spinous  and 
soft  portions  of  nearly  equal  extent  ;  and  when  the  pel  vies 
and  caudal  are  present,  the  former  are  thoracic  in  position,  and  the  latter  is 
distinctly  forked.  In  some  forms  a  portion  of  the  median  fins  is  split  up  into 
finlets.  The  mouth  is  wide,  and  there  are  some  large  and  powerful  teeth 
either  in  the  jaws  or  on  the  palate.  In  all  the  forms  there  is  an  air-bladder. 
These  fishes  are  carnivorous  and  predatory  in  their  habits.  They  have  a  wide 
range  in  space  ;  but  whereas  some  are  surface-dwellers,  others  are  found  at 
considerable  depths.  None  afford  a  very  high-class  food,  although  the  flesh 
of  several  is  eaten.  In  the  scabbard-fish,  which  grows  to  a  couple  of  yards 
in  length,  the  body  is  riband-like,  the  pelvic  fins  are  wanting,  as  are  scales  ; 
but  there  is  a  small  caudal  fin.  The  flesh  is  largely  consumed  in  New 
Zealand,  where  the  species  is  known  as  the  frost-fish.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  hair-tails  take  their  name  from  the  circumstance  that  the  tail  terminates 
in  a  tapering  whip-like  extremity,  without  trace  of  a  caudal  fin,  the  pelvics 
being  wanting,  or  reduced  to  a  pair  of  scales,  and  the  anal  rudimental,  with 
its  spinous  portion  represented  by  a  number  of  very  short  isolated  spines. 
From  three  to  four  feet  is  a  common  length  for  these  fishes.  Barracudas — 
also  locally  known  as  "  snoek  " — are  still  larger,  and  are  extensively  caught 
for  food  in  New  Zealand  and  at  the  Cape.  They  are  characterised  by  the 
presence  of  minute  scales  in  the  skin,  and  of  from  two  to  six  finlets  behind 
the  dorsal  and  anal,  while  the  palatine  bones  are  toothed.  Although  essenti- 
ally coast-fishes,  they  are  occasionally  found  far  out  at  sea. 

For  some  time  we  have  been  dealing  with  sectional  groups  represented 

only  by  a  single  family  each  ;  but  we  now  come  to  one  including  several 

families.     In  the  present  group  the  dorsal  fin  is  either  single, 

Section  Cotto-     or,  if  divided,  has  its  two  portions  closely  approximated. 

Scombriformes.    When  normal,  the  spinous  portion  is  short ;  but  it  may  be 

— Family         modified  either  into  separate  spines,  tentacles,  or  a  sucker. 

Acanthuridce.  The  anal  resembles  the  soft  dorsal,  the  hinder  part  of  both 
these  fins  being  sometimes  split  up  into  finlets.  When 
present,  the  pelvics  may  be  either  jugular  or  thoracic  in  position,  and  the 
region  of  the  vent  is  never  furnished  with  papillae.  Most  of  the  members  of 
the  section  are  marine  fishes.  The  popular  name  of  surgeons  is  given  to  the 
representatives  of  the  family  Acanthuridce  x  on  account  of  the  circumstance 
that  in  the  typical  genus  Acanthurus  each  side  of  the  tail  of  the  adult  is 
furnished  with  a  spine  somewhat  resembling  a  surgeon's  lancet,  and  capable 
of  inflicting  a  severe  wound.  In  other  kinds  the  spines  may  be  two  or  three 

1  The  family  is  commonly  known  as  Acronuridce,  but  Acronurus  is  now  ascertained  to  be  a 
synonym  of  the  type  genus. 


BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS.  471 


in  number,  or  replaced  by  keeled  plates,  and  in  all  the  dorsal  fin  is  single, 
with  but  few  spines.  In  form,  the  compressed  body  is  deep  or  oblong,  the 
scales  with  which  it  is  invested  being  minute,  while  the  eyes  are  lateral  and 
of  moderate  size.  The  mouth  is  small,  and  armed  with  compressed  incisor- 
like  teeth,  which  may  be  either  serrated  or  pointed,  bub  teeth  are  never 
developed  on  the  palate.  The  pelvic  fins  are  situated  thoracically.  Inter- 
nally, a  peculiarity  is  to  be  found  in  the  forked  hinder  extremity  of  the  air- 
bladder.  These  fishes,  which  also  include  the  genera  Naseus  and  Prionurus, 
are  inhabitants  of  tropical  seas,  and  specially  frequent  coral-reefs.  -  Here 
they  feed  partly  on  the  growing  coral  and  partly  on  vegetable  substances. 

The  second  family  of  the  section  under  consideration  includes — among 
other  forms — the  horse-mackerels  (Caranx),  the  pilot-fish  (Naucrates^  and 
the  so-called  sea-bats  (Platax).     In  all  of  these  the  body  is 
more  or  less  compressed  in  form,  while  the  teeth,  when  Family 

developed,  are  conical,  and  there  is  no  bony  connection  Carwigidce. 
between  the  preopercular  bone  and  the  orbit.  The  skin 
may  be  either  naked  or  covered  with  small  scales,  and  the  eyes  are  placed  on 
the  sides  of  the  head.  The  spinous  dorsal  fin  is  shorter  than  the  anal  or  soft 
dorsal,  from  the  latter  of  which  it  is  sometimes  separated,  while  in  other 
cases  the  two  are  continuous.  In  some  cases  the  spinous  portion  is  rudi- 
mental,  and  the  hinder  part  of  both  the  soft  dorsal  and  anal  may  form  finlets, 
while  the  pelvics,  if  developed  at  all,  are  thoracic.  It  is  important  to  notice 
that  the  back-bone  comprises  ten  vertebrae  in  the  region  of  the  trunk,  and 
fourteen  in  that  of  the  tail,  although  in  one  case  the  number  of  the  latter  is 
sixteen.  Frequently  shield-like  plates  distinguish  the  lateral  line.  An  air- 
bladder  is  invariably  developed.  The  horse-mackerels — as  typified  by  the 
common  scad — are  too  well  known  to  require  description,  while  the  pelagic 
pilot-fish  may  always  be  recognised  by  the  dark  vertical  stripes  with  which 
the  body  is  ornamented.  This  fish  derives  its  name  from  its  habit  of  accom- 
panying sharks  or  ships.  In  the  preceding  genera  there  are  two  anal  spines 
remote  from  the  soft  portion  of  the  fin  ;  but  in  the  sea-bats  the  anal  spines 
are  continuous  with  the  soft  part,  when  present.  These  fish  have  the  body 
very  deep,  and  rhomboidal  in  form,  and  the  great  development  of  the  median 
fins,  which  are  often  nearly  similar  above  and  below.  In  common  with  the 
great  majority  of  the  family,  the  three  genera  mentioned  have  the  soft  dorsal 
and  anal  fins  of  nearly  equal  extent,  but  in  Curtus  and  Pempheris  there  is  only 
a  single  dorsal,  which  is  much  shorter  than  the  anal. 

The  ugly  but  excellently  flavoured  John-dory  (Zeus  faber]  is  the  best  known 
representative  of  a  small  family  distinguished  from  the  other  members  of  the 
section  by  the  deep  and  highly  compressed  body,  the  double 
dorsal  fin,  and  the  presence  in  the  backbone  of  more  than          Family 
ten  trunk  and  more  than  fourteen  caudal  vertebrae.     In  tho          Cyttidce. 
fishes  of  the  genus  named  one  series  of  bony  plates  runs 
along  the  base  of  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins,  and  another  on  the  abdomen,  but 
in  the  species  of  Cyttus — which  inhabit  the  seas  of  New  Zealand,  South 
Australia,  and  Madeira — these  plates  are  wanting,  and  the  body  is  scaled. 

The  small  family  of  the  Stromateidce  resembles  the  last  in  the  absence  of  a 
bony  stay  between  the  preopercular  and  the  eye,  and  likewise  in  the  large 
number  of  thoracic  and  caudal  vertebrae.     They  have  the 
body  compressed,  more  or  less  oblong,  and   covered  with  Family 

minute  scales,  the  eyes  lateral,  the  dentition  very  slightly     Stromateidce. 
developed,  and  a  number  of  horny  barbed  processes  in  the 


472  PISCES— SUB-CLASS  IIL—TELEOSTOMI. 


gullet,  while  the  long  and  single  dorsal  fin  has  no  distinct  spinous  portion. 
The  two  genera  are  Stromateus  arid  Centrolophus ;  one  species  of  the  latter 
occasionally  reaching  the  southern  shores  of  Britain,  where  it  is  known  as  the 

black-fish.     Of  more  importance  is  the  family  CforyfhcenidcK, 

Family  which  differs  from  the  last  by  the  absence  of  spines  in  the 

Coryphcenidce.     gullet ;  the  teeth,  when  present,  being  small  and  conical. 

The  typical  members  of  the  family  are  the  pelagic  cory- 
phaenas  (Coryphcena),  commonly  but  incorrectly  known  as  dolphins.  These 
are  large  brightly-coloured  fishes,  with  the  body  rather  elongated  and  some- 
what compressed,  the  dorsal  fin  occupying  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the 
back,  the  caudal  very  deeply  forked,  and  the  moderately  long  anal  without 
any  distinct  spinous  portion.  In  the  adults  the  head  is  ornamented  with  a 
kind  of  crest.  In  the  coryphsenas  beauty  is  even  less  than  skin-deep,  the 
exquisitely  lovely  colours  being  fugitive  and  transitory  immediately  the  fishes 
are  removed  from  their  native  elements.  The  coryphsenas  are  highly  preda- 
ceous  fishes,  and  in  the  Mediterranean  and  other  warm  seas  may  often  be 
seen  in  large  companies  pursuing  the  shoals  of  flying-fish.  The  only  other 
genus  that  can  be  mentioned  here  is  Lampris,  represented  by  a  single  very 
beautiful  fish  from  the  Mediterranean  and  North  Atlantic.  Unfortunately, 
this  fish  is  commonly  known  as  the  sun-fish,  a  title  also  applied  to  the  mem- 
bers of  the  genus  Orthagoriscus,  mentioned  in  the  sequel.  Another  instance 
of  such  synonomy  occurs  in  the  use  of  the  name  barracuda,  which  is  applied 
indifferently  to  the  species  of  the  genera  Thyrsites  and  Sphyrcena.  In  the 
sun-fish,  the  whole  body  is  very  much  compressed,  short,  and  deep,  the 
scales  being  minute  and  deciduous,  the  mouth  narrow  and  toothless,  the 
fore-part  of  the  dorsal  fin  elevated  to  a  point,  and  the  pelvic  fins  including  a 
number  of  rays.  In  colour,  the  body  has  a  bluish  ground,  upon  which  are  a 
number  of  silvery  spots,  while  the  fins  are  scarlet.  In  size,  this  splendid  fish 
grows  to  about  four  feet. 

From  the  allied  families  the  small  group  of  the  Nomceidce  is  distinguished 
by  the  differentiation  of  a  distinct  spinous  portion,   separated  by  a  short 

interval  from  the  soft  portion  of  the  dorsal  ;  the  caudal  fin 

Family  being  forked,  while  finlets  are  sometimes  developed,  and  the 

NomcKid.          scales  are  cycloid  and  of  moderate  size.     Four  genera  are 

included  in  the  family,  of  which  the  typical  Nomceus  has 
representatives  in  the  Indian  and  tropical  portions  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
while  Gastrochisma  has  one  species  from  the  New  Zealand  seas. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  last  is  the  valuable  family  of  the  mackerels,  in  which 
there  are  likewise  two  dorsal  fins  and  generally  finlets ;  the  body  being  either 

scaled  or  naked.     The  best  distinctive  features  of  the  family 

Family  are  to  be  found  in  the  conformation  of  the  tins  ;  some  forms 

Scomberidce.      having  the  spinous  dorsal  modified  either  into  separate  spines 

or  into  a  large  sucker  ;  while  when  the  former  is  normal  the 
soft  dorsal  and  anal  are  split  up  into  finlets.  In  form,  the  body  is  either 
spindle-shaped  or  oblong  ;  and,  internally,  the  air-bladder  may  be  present  or 
absent.  The  mackerels  are  among  the  most  highly  organised  of  all  fish,  the 
loss  of  the  air-bladder  in  some  forms  being  probably  due  to  the  exact  corre- 
spondence between  the  specific  gravity  of  their  bodies  and  that  of  the  water, 
which  renders  any  adjustment  unnecessary.  They  are  mostly  pelagic  forms, 
and  their  coloration  is  exactly  in  harmony  with  their  environment,  the 
mottled  greens  and  blacks  of  the  back  rendering  them  invisible  from  above 
as  they  swim  in  the  rippled  waters,  while  their  glistening  silvery  under- 


BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS. 


473 


surface  is  equally  inconspicuous  when  viewed  from  beneath  against  the  clear 
sky  above.     Their  blood  has  a  temperature  several  degrees  above  that  of  the 
surrounding  water,  and  their  flesh  receives  a  larger  supply  of  this  fluid  than 
is   ordinarily  the   case,  and   thus  as- 
sumes a  more  or  less  distinctly  red 
colour.     So  thoroughly  are  these  fishes 
pelagic  in  their  mode  of  life,  that  they 
even  spawn  in  the  open  sea.     In  diet 
they  are  carnivorous  ;  and  at  the  time 
of  year  when  the  various  members  of 

the  herring-tribe  seek  the  shore  for  the  Fig.  9.— COMMON  MACKEREL. 

purpose  of  depositing  their  ova,  they 

are  pursued  by  the  different  kinds  of  mackerel,  which  prey  either  upon  the 
fry  or  upon  the  adult.  The  typical  mackerels,  or  those  constituting  the 
genus  Scomber,  have  a  continuous  first  dorsal  fin,  furnished  with  weak  spines, 
five  or  six  finlets  behind  both  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins,  and  the  scales  small 
and  evenly  distributed  all  over  the  body,  the  teeth  being  small,  and  each 
side  of  the  caudal  fin  bearing  two  short  ridges.  There  are  several  kinds  of 
mackerel — some  with  and  some  without  an  air-bladder — and  the  distribution 
of  the  genus  includes  nearly  all  seas,  although  none  are  found  on  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  the  temperate  portions  of  South  America.  Of  larger  size 
are  the  various  fishes  known  under  the  names  of  tunny,  albicore,  and 
bonito,  which  collectively  constitute  the  genus  Thynnus,  and  differ  from 
Scomber  by  the  number  of  finlets  reaching  to  from  six  to  nine,  the  presence 
of  one  ridge  on  each  side  of  the  caudal  fin,  and  the  concentration  of  the 
scales  on  the  fore-part  of  the  body,  where  they  form  a  kind  of  corselet.  By 

far  the  most  remarkable  and  interest- 
ing members  of  the  family  are,  how- 
ever, the  sucking-fishes  (Echeneis), 
characterised  by  the  presence  of  a 
large,  plate-like,  adhesive  disc,  occupy- 
ing the  whole  upper  surface  of  the 
head.  This  sucker  is  formed  by  a 
structural  modification  of  the  first 
dorsal  fin,  and  in  the  allied  Elacate  of 
the  tropical  Atlantic,  which  has  no  sucker,  the  fin  in  question  is  still  repre- 
sented by  a  few  short  isolated  spines.  Sucking-fishes  have  minute  teeth, 
both  on  the  jaws  and  on  the  palate,  and  in  some  cases  also  on  the  tongue  ; 
but  they  all  lack  an  air-bladder.  As  they  generally  pass  much  of  their  time 
attached  to  the  under-surface  of  the  body  of  a  shark  or  a  turtle,  or  the  hull 
of  a  ship,  the  back  is  less  exposed  to  the  light  than  the  under-surface,  and 
consequently  becomes  less  darkly  coloured  than  the  latter.  The  smaller 
sucking-fishes  grow  to  a  length  of  about  eight  inches,  whereas  the  larger 
kinds  may  measure  as  much  as  three  feet. 

The  eighth  family  of   the  Cotto-Scombriformes  includes   the   star-gazers 
(Uranoscopus,  Leptoscopus,  etc.),  the  weavers  (Trachinus),  the  Atlantic  tile- 
fish  (Lopholatilus),  and  a  host  of  other  types  too  numerous 
Family  to  mention.     All  these  fishes  have  a  more  or  less  elongated 

Trachinidos.      and  narrow  body,  which  has  sometimes  a  naked  skin,  but  in 
other  cases  is  clothed  with  scales.     There  are  one  or  two 
dorsal  fins,  of  which  the  spinous  portion  is  much  less  developed  than  the  soft 
part,  which  is  like  the  anal.     Finlets  are  always  wanting ;  and  the  pelvic  fins 


Fig.  10.— SUCKIKG-FISH. 


474  PISCES— SUB-  CLASS  IIL—TELEOSTOML 


comprise  five  soft  rays  and  a  single  spine.  The  mouth  is  armed  with  small 
conical  teeth.  In  regard  to  the  number  of  vertebrae  and  the  preopercular 
bone,  the  family  agrees  generally  with  those  that  immediately  precede,  but 
Pseudochromis  is  stated  to  possess  a  stay  connecting  the  bone  mentioned 
with  the  orbit.  Most  of  the  members  of  the  family  are  small  fishes  living 
near  the  bottom  of  shallow  seas;  and  all  are  carnivorous.  The  group  is 
divided  into  several  sub-families,  the  first  of  which  is  typified  by  the  afore- 
said star-gazers,  which  are  ugly-looking  fishes,  easily  recognised  by  the  small 
mobile  eyes  being  situated  on  the  front  of  the  head  arid  looking  upwards, 
the  cleft  of  the  mouth  having  likewise  an  upward  direction  ;  the  lateral  line 
being  uninterrupted,  and  the  caudal  fin  more  or  less  rounded.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  the  weavers  (Trachinus) — of  which  the  common  English  species  is 
known  to  fishermen  by  the  name  of  sting-bull — the  eyes  retain  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent  the  normal  lateral  position  ;  the  dorsal  fin  being  either  single 
or  divided.  The  members  of  this  genus  are  found  in  European  waters,  and 
on  the  Pacific  coast  of  South  America,  although  not  on  the  Atlantic  side. 
Wounds  inflicted  by  the  spines  of  the  dorsal  fin  are  dangerous  on  account  of 
being  injected  with  the  secretion  from  a  neighbouring  poison-gland.  Mention 
must  be  made  of  the  large  and  handsomely-coloured  tile-fish  (Lopholatilus)  of 
the  American  North  Atlantic,  not  only  on  account  of  its  being  an  exception 
among  the  family  from  its  size  and  deep-water  habitat,  but  likewise  from  the 
fact  of  having  been  met  with  in  great  profusion  a  few  years  ago,  and  then 
suddenly  disappearing.  It  is  remarkable  for  possessing  a  small,  pointed 
fatty  fin  in  front  of  the  long  single  dorsal. 

Since  the  first  of  the  two  families  now  to  be  considered  contains  only  the 
tropical  genus  Malacanthus,  it  may  be  dismissed  with  the  bare  mention  that 
it  is  characterised  by  the  possession  of  not  more  than  ten 
Families         thoracic  and  fourteen  caudal  vertebrae,  and  the  great  length 
Malacanthida     of  the  single  dorsal  and  anal  fins.     Almost  equally  brief  must 
and  Batrachidce.  be  our  reference  to  the  frog- fishes  (Balrachidw],  which  in- 
clude two  genera  in  addition  to  the  typical  Balrachns,  and 
are  for  the  most  part  small  fishes  of  carnivorous  habits  frequenting  tropical 
coasts.     They  have  the  head  broad  and  thick,  with  the  eyes  more  or  less  in- 
clined upwards;  the  long  body  compressed  posteriorly;  and  either  a  coating 
of  small  scales  or  a  bare  skin.     They  have  small  or  medium-sized  conical 
teeth  ;  and  there  is  no  connection  between  the  orbit  and  the  preopercular. 
There  are  only  two  or  three  spines  in  the  first  dorsal,  but  the  soft  dorsal  and 
anal  are  elongated  arid  similar;  while  the  pelvic  fins  are  jugular  in  position 
and  furnished  with  a  pair  of  soft  rays,  and  the  pectorals  are  not  produced. 
Many  of  the  species  are  poisonous,  having  a  gland  situated  at. the  base  of  the 
pectoral  fin,  from  which  a  noxious  fluid  is  poured  forth ;  the  genus  Tliallas- 
sophryne,  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  Central  America,  being  stated  to  rival  many 
of  the  poisonous  snakes  in  its  venom. 

The  familiar  but  hideous  angler-fish  (Lophius  piscatorius)  of  the  British 

coasts  typifies  a  somewhat  extensive  family  belonging  to  the  section  Cotto- 

Scombriformes,    and    possessing    the    following    distinctive 

Family          features.     In  these  fishes  the  head  and  fore-part  of  the  body 

Lophiidce.        are  enlarged  and  covered  with  a  naked  skin,  and  the  spinous 

dorsal  fin  is  placed  very  far  forwards,  and  consists  of  either  a 

fewmore  or  less  isolated  spines,  or  is  modified  into  tentacles,  while  in  some  cases 

it  is  altogether  wanting.     The  pelvic  fins — which  may  be  wanting — comprise 

four  or  five  rays,  and  are  jugular  in  position,  and  the  pectoral  fins  are  sup- 


BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS. 


475 


Fig.  11.— ANGLER  FISH  (Lophius 
piscator.ius). 


ported  by  a  prolongation  of  some  of  the  bones  of  the  internal  skeleton.  The 
teeth  are  rasp-like  or  villous,  and  there  is  no  connection  between  the  preo- 
percular  and  the  orbit.  The  apertures  of  the  gills  are  very  minute,  and 
situated  near  the  root  of  the  pelvic  fins,  the  gills  varying  from  two-and-a- 
half  to  three-and-a-half  in  number, 
and  false  gills  being  usually  absent. 
The  family  has  an  almost  cosmopolitan 
distribution,  and  all  its  members  are 
but  poor  swimmers,  those  which  are 
of  pelagic  habits  drifting  about  attached 
to  floating  bodies,  while  the  littoral 
forms  cling  to  submarine  bodies  by 
means  of  their  pectoral  fins,  which 
serve  the  function  of  arms.  The  great 
size  of  the  wide,  flat,  and  rounded  head, 
which  carries  the  small  eyes  near  the 
middle  of  the  upper  surface,  the  capa- 
cious mouth,  and  the  modification  of 
the  first  three  dorsal  spines  into  tentacles,  serve  to  distinguish  the  species  of 
the  typical  genus  Lophius,  which  are  not  numerous.  Rarely  the  common 
British  species,  which  is  often  known  as  the  fishing-frog,  grows  to  five  feet, 
although  its  ordinary  length  does  not  exceed  three.  The  first  tentacle  bears 
a  filamentous  appendage,  which  by  its  movement  serves  to  attract  prey 
within  reach  of  the  capacious  jaws.  Another  interesting  member  of  the 
family  is  the  pelagic  tentacle-fish — Antennarias — often  found  in  the  gulf- 
weed,  and  remarkable  for  building  a  silken  nest  attached  to  the  weed  for  the 
reception  of  the  eggs,  which  are  suspended  within  jtheir  receptacle  in  a 
cluster,  like  a  bunch  of  grapes.  Even  more  curious  are  the  two  Atlantic 
species  of  Melanocetus,  which  are  small  fishes,  looking  as  if  they  consisted 
mainly  of  jaws  and  stomach. 

The  Cottidce,  of  which  the  best  known  representatives  are  the  mostly  fresh- 
water bull-heads   (Coitus)  of  the   Northern   Hemisphere   and   the   marine- 
gurnards  ( Trigla),  are  well  characterised  by  the  presence  of 
a  bony  stay  connecting  the  preopercular  with  the  suborbital  Family  Cottidce. 
ring  of  bones ;  a  feature  found  among  the  preceding  families 
of    the  section  only  in    Pseudochromis  and   some  allied    genera.      These 
fishes  have  the  body  lengthened,  and  more  or  less  nearly  cylindrical ;   the 
mouth  being  transverse,  and  bearing  feeble  teeth  generally  arranged  in  bands. 

Whereas  in  some  forms  the  skin  is 
naked,  in  others  it  is  scaled,  and  the 
armature  may  consist  of  a  single  row 
of  plate-like  scales.  Generally  the 
dorsal  fin  is  divided,  when  the  soft 
portion — which  fs  elongated  like  the 
anal — exceeds  the  spinous  in  extent. 
The  number  of  rays  in  the  theoracically- 
placed  pelvics  never  exceeds  five ;  and 
in  some  cases  the  pectorals  have  fila- 


Fig.  12.— COMMON  GURNARD  (Trigla). 


mentous  prolongations.  The  bull-heads,  which  comprise  a  very  large  number 
of  species,  a  few  of  which  are  marine,  are  noted  for  their  habit  of  lying 
sluggishly  in  the  beds  of  rivers,  with  their  heads  concealed  beneath  the 
pebbles.  The  elongated  and  finger-like  three  anterior  pectoral  rays  serve  to 


476  PISCES— SUB-CLASS  IIL—TELEOSTOMI. 


distinguish  the  gurnards  ;  which  are  further  characterised  by  their  great 
ugly,  bony  heads,  and  the  brilliant  hues  of  scarlet  or  blue  with  which 
many  of  them  are  adorned.  They  inhabit  all  temperate  and  tropical  seas, 
and  are  predacious  fish,  living  chiefly  on  crustaceans.  Their  habitat  is  the 
sea-bottom,  on  which  they  crawl  by  means  of  the  elongated  pectoral  rays ; 
those  appendages  apparently  also  acting  the  part  of  feelers.  When  seen 
crawling  on  the  bed  of  a  glass  tank  in  an  aquarium  a  gurnard  presents  a 
peculiarly  ghost- like  appearance,  reminding  the  beholder  of  some  monster  in 
a  pantomime. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  last  is  the  family  typified  by  the   flying-gurnards 
(Dactylopterus),  which  rival  the  true  flying-fish  in  their  power  of  skimming 

over  the  surface  of  the  waves  by  means  of  their  greatly  ex- 
Family          panded  pectoral  fins.     All  are  easily  recognised  by  the  in- 
Dactylopteridce.  vestiture  of  the  body  in  a  complete  cuirass  of  keeled  bony 

plates  or  scales.  In  Britain  the  group  is  represented  by  the 
so-called  armed  bull-head,  which  belongs  to  the  genus  Agonus ;  and  the 
family  also  includes  the  beaked-gurnards,  distinguished  by  the  prolongation 
of  some  of  the  bones  of  the  skull  in  the  form  of  a  flattened  process  on  each 
side  of  the  snout.  The  flying-gurnards  themselves  inhabit  the  Mediterranean 
and  tropical  seas.  Here,  too,  may  be  placed  the  curious  little  dragon-fishes 
(Pegasus),  which  inhabit  the  seas  of  Australia,  China,  and  India,  and  have  a 
long  beak  and  the  body  protected  by  very  large  plates ;  the  coloration  taking 
the  form  of  small  dark  spots. 

Very  different  in  appearance  to  the  last  are  the   clumsy-looking  fishes 
known  as  lump-suckers  (Cydopterus),  which  are  the  typical  members  of  a 

family  belonging  to  another  sectional  group.     In  this  section 

Section  Gobii-     the  dorsal  fin   may   be   single   or  double,   but  its  spinous 

formes. — Family  division   or  portion   is   always   short,    and  may  consist  of 

CydopteridcK.     flexible  spines  ;  the  soft  dorsal  being  equal  in  extent  to  the 

anal.  There  is  no  bony  connection  between  the  preopercular 
and  the  suborbital  ring  ;  but  there  is  a  prominent  papilla  in  the  region  of 
the  vent.  When  pelvic  fins  are  retained,  they  usually  comprise  a  spine  and 
five  rays,  although  exceptionally  the  number  of  the  latter  may  be  reduced  to 
four.  In  addition  to  their  clumsy  build,  the  lump-suckers  are  distinguished 
as  a  family  by  the  presence  of  a  sucker  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  body  sup- 
ported by  the  rudiments  of  the  pelvic  fins.  By  means  of  their  sucker  these 
fishes  affix  themselves  firmly  to  rocks  or  stones,  and  are  thus  safe  from  the 
buffeting  of  the  waves.  There  are  two  generic  modifications  of  the  family, 
namely  Cydopterus  and  Liparis,  in  the  former  of  which  the  skin  is  tuber- 
culated  and  viscous,  whereas  in  the  latter  it  is  entirely  bare.  All  the 
members  of  the  family  are  confined  to  the  colder  northern  seas,  some  of 
them  even  entering  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

From  the  lump-suckers,  the  gobies  (Gobius)    and  their  allies  the  mud- 
skippers  (Periopthalmus)  are  sufficiently  distinguished  by  the  presence  of 

well-developed  rays  to  the  pelvic  fins,  which  may,  however, 
Family  be  united  together  in  the  middle  line  of  the  body.     The  group 

GobiidcB.         is  a  very  extensive  one,  both  in  respect  to  genera,  species, 

and  individuals  ;  and  it  is  represented  on  the  temperate  and 
tropical  coasts  of  all  parts  of  the  globe.  It  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  char- 
acterise the  various  genera  ;  and,  as  regards  the  gobies,  it  must  suffic3  to  say 
that  they  are  small  fishes  with  a  geographical  range  as  extensive  as  is  that 
of  the  family,  and  that,  in  many  cases,  the  males  build  a  cleverly  constructed 


BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS.  477 


nest  for  the  reception  of  the  eggs.  Of  greater  interest  are  the  mud-skippers, 
or  hopping-fish,  on  account  of  their  strange  habits,  and  the  long  time  they 
can  remain  out  of  water.  They  are  found  on  the  coasts  and  estuaries  of  West 
Africa,  and  the  countries  bordering  the  Indo-Pacific  Ocean.  Owing  to  their 
remarkably  prominent  eyes,  they  look  very  much  like  tadpoles  ;  the  common 
species  having  its  dorsal  fins  spotted  with  brilliant  blue.  The  pectoral  fins 
are  very  strongly  developed,  and  are  used,  when  the  fish  is  out  of  water,  for 
walking  or  climbing  on  the  roots  of  mangrove  trees.  Dr.  H.  O.  Forbes  writes 
that  ' '  if  the  observer  remain  quite  still,  the  Periophthalmus  will  sit  motion- 
less, staring  at  him  with  his  great  eyes,  except  that  every  now  and  then  it 
will  wink  apparently,  sometimes  with  one  eye,  and  sometimes  with  both  to- 
gether. What  seems  to  be  winking,  however,  is  the  inversion  of  the  eye  into 
a  depression  immediately  under  it,  for  the  purpose  of  lubricating  the  organ 
when  it  begins  to  become  dry.  The  habit  that  most  impresses  the  naturalist 
encountering  these  fishes  for  the  first  time  is  the  long  period  which  they  can 
remain  out  of  the  water.  The  writer  has  timed  individuals,  both  in  their 
native  state  and  in  the  aquarium,  to  sit  for  more  than  half  an  hour  without  a 
bath.  They  would  then  walk  slowly  into  the  water,  immerse  themselves  over 
the  head  for  a  second,  emerge  and  remain  resting  for  a  short  time,  with  the 
head  and  shoulders  above,  and  the  mouth  under  the  surface,  and  walk  slowly 
out  again  on  to  the  margin.  This  fish  rarely  if  ever,  goes  beyond  its  depth, 
find  only  for  a  few  seconds  does  it  at  any  time  completely  submerge  itself. 
Their  usual  habit  is  to  sit  propped  up  on  their  stiff  ventral  and  strong  pectoral 
fins,  with  the  fore-part  of  the  body  elevated,  and  their  quick  mobile  eyes  con- 
spicuous and  inquiring  ;  either,  as  already  remarked,  entirely  away  from  the 
water,  or  with  only  the  extremity  of  the  tail  dipping  in.  When  out  of  the 
water  and  sitting  still,  the  mouth  is  kept  closed,  and  no  motion  can  be  de- 
tected in  the  gills  or  gill-covers.  Every  now  and  then  the  eyes  are  moistened 
as  described  above,  and  the  fish  flaps  its  pectoral  fins  across  the  gill-covers 
and  the  hind-part  of  the  head.  When  the  tide  has  just  receded  and  the  small 
marine  animals  are  beginning  to  follow  it,  they  are  very  busy  darting  here 
and  there  in  pursuit,  and  gobbling  them  up  voraciously.  They  will  even 
attack  and  eat  smaller  members  of  their  own  species.  When  moving  forward, 
they  oar  themselves  on  their  strongly  muscular  pectorals,  which  they  use 
simultaneously  when  hopping,  or  alternately  in  their  more  deliberate  '  walk- 
ing,' which  leaves  a  curious  triple  track  on  the  soft  mud  which  they  have  tra- 
versed. When  in  the  water  the  Periophthalmus  sits  on  the  bottom  in  the 
same  attitude  as  on  shore,  with  its  upper-lip  submerged,  but  with  the  rest  of 
the  head  and  upper  part  of  the  back  exposed,  the  water  being  driven  over  its 
gills  very  slowly  and  deliberately  as  compared  with  the  common  trout  in  an 
adjoining  tank.  Its  eyes  are  better  adapted  for  sight  out  of  than  under  water, 
and  are  capable  of  seeing  all  round." 

The  curiously-shaped  marine  band-fishes  form  the  first  representatives  of  a 
section  which  includes  five  other  families.     In  this  section  the  body  is  low, 
elongate,  and  either  subcylindrical  or  compressed  ;  the  dor- 
sal fin  being  very  long,  with  its  spinous  portion — when  dis-  Section   Blennii- 
tinct — equal  to,  or  exceeding  the  soft  part  in  extent.     Indeed,  formes. — Family 
in  some  cases  the  whole  dorsal  is  composed  of  spines.     The         Cepolidce. 
anal  is  more  or  less  elongated  ;  the  caudal — when  present  at 
all — is  rounded  or  somewhat  truncate ;  and  when  the  pelvic  fins  are  developed, 
they  may  be  either  jugular  or  thoracic  in  position.     The  band-fishes  (Cepola) 
— all  of  which  are  of  small  size — take  their  name  from  the  long  compressed 


478  PISCES— SUB-CLASS  III.—TELEOSTOML 


body,  which  is  covered  with  small  scales  ;  the  laterally-placed  eyes  being  rela- 
tively large. 

Omitting  all  mention  of  the  unimportant  families  Trichonotidce  and  CVimefoe, 
except   the   statement  that  some   members   of  the  former,   like   the   New 

Zealand  Hemerocoetes,  have  a  continuous  rayed  and  spineless 

Family  dorsal  fin  running  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  back,  with 

Blenniidce.        a  very  similar  anal  beneath,  we  come  to  the  widely-spread 

and  numerous  family  of  the  blennies.  In  these  the  body  is 
more  or  less  cylindrical  in  form,  with  its  skin  either  naked  or  covered  with 
scales,  which  are  generally  small.  There  may  be  from  one  to  three  dorsal 
fins,  which  occupy  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  back,  but  vary  much  in  the 
relative  proportion  of  spines,  which  in  some  cases  constitute  the  entire 
structure.  The  anal  is  long,  with  few  or  no  spines,  and  the  pelvic  pair,  when 
developed,  are  jugular,  and  comprise  less  than  five  soft  rays.  Usually  the 
head  is  furnished  with  false  gills,  and  this  character  helps  to  distinguish  the 
blennies  from  the  cod  tribe,  which  they  resemble  in  the  structure  of  the 
pelvic  fins.  Although  a  few  attain  large  dimensions,  the  great  majority  of 
the  blennies  are  small  fish,  and  they  include  some  of  the  most  diminutive  of 
their  class.  While  some  are  estuarine  or  fluviatile  in  their  habits,  many 
more  are  marine  and  littoral,  ranging  over  all  the  temperate  and  tropical 
coasts  of  the  globe.  The  true  blennies  (Blennius),  which  have  a  naked  skin, 
enjoy  a  wide  geographical  range,  some  being  found  far  out  in  the  open  ocean 
among  masses  of  floating  weed,  while  others  inhabit  rivers,  or  even  lakes. 
Whereas  these  blennies  produce  spawn  in  the  ordinary  way,  the  two  species 
of  the  allied  genus  Zoarces— one  of  which  is  British — give  birth  to  living 
young.  In  these  fishes  rudimental  scales  are  developed  in  the  skin,  and  the 
dorsal  fin  is  only  separated  by  a  notch  from  the  caudal,  with  which  the  anal 
is  continuous.  A  remarkable  contrast  in  point  of  size  to  the  ordinary 
blennies  is  afforded  by  the  various  species  of  wolf  -fish  (Anarrhichas),  which 
inhabit  all  the  northern  seas,  and  some  of  which  grow  to  as  much  as  a  couple 
of  yards  in  length.  They  have  their  mouths  crammed  with  a  number  of  very 
powerful  tuberculated  teeth,  admirably  adapted  for  grinding  the  hard  shells 
of  the  shell-fish,  crabs,  and  lobsters,  on  which  these  voracious  fish  subsist. 

No  mention  at  all  can  be  made  of  the  fifth  family  (Acanthodinidce)  of  the 
blenniform  section,  and  but  a  very  brief  one  of  the  sixth,  which  includes  the 

so-called  spiny  eels  (Mastacembelus  and  Rhynchobdella)  of 

Family  West  Africa  and  the   Oriental  countries.      These  are   in- 

Rhynchobdd-      habitants  of  both  brackish  and  fresh  waters,  and  are  chiefly 

lidce.  remarkable  for  their  resemblance  in  general  appearance  to 

the  true  eels  (Murcenidw),  from  which  they  may,  however,  be 
at  once  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  low  spines  in  the  fore-part  of  the  elon- 
gated dorsal  fin.  Here,  too,  may  be  mentioned  the  curious  oil -fish  (Comephorus) 
of  Lake  Baikal,  in  regard  to  whose  systematic  position  naturalists  appear  to  be 
still  in  some  degree  of  doubt,  although  it  probably  forms  a  family  by  itself. 

The  large  fishes  forming  the  family  Sphynenidce  are  commonly  known  as 
barracudas,  but  since  that  name  is  applied  to  the  members  of  a  family  already 

noticed,  it  is  better  to  term  them  barracuda-pikes.    They  are 

Section  Mugili-    the  first  representatives  of  a  sectional  group  in  which  the 

formes.— Family  back  bears  two  fins,  the  first  of  these  being  composed  either 

SphyrcBtudtK,      of  feeble  spines,  or  short,  like  the  second,  while  the  pelvic 

fins  are  abdominal  in  position,  and  comprise  five  rays  and  a 
single  spine.  The  barracuda-pikes,  which  sometimes  grow  to  as  much  as 


BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS.  479 


eight  feet  in  length,  and  weigh  forty  pounds,  are  all  included  in  the  one 
genus  Sphyrcuna.  As  a  family,  they  are  characterised  by  the  long  and  some- 
what eel-like  form  of  the  body,  the  small  cycloid  scales,  continuous  lateral 
line,  the  wide  cleft  of  the  mouth,  which  is  armed  with  formidable  teeth,  and 
the  moderate-sized  and  laterally-situated  eyes.  They  are  fierce  and  voracious 
fishes,  inhabiting  tropical  and  sub- tropical  coasts.  Although  extensively 
used  as  food,  their  flesh  is  at  times  apt  to  develop  poisonous  properties. 

Passing  by  the  small  family  of  the  Atherinidce,  of  which  the  most  familiar 
representatives  are  the  so-called  sand-smelts  (Atherina)  of  the  Mediterranean, 
with  the  bare  mention  that  the  lateral  line  is  feebly  and  in- 
distinctly developed,  we  come  to  the  more  important  group  Family 
of  the  grey  mullets,  most  of  which  are  included  in  the  genus        Mugilidce. 
Mugil,  and  all  of  which  lack  the  structure  last  mentioned. 
They  have  the  same  number  (24)  of  joints  in  the  backbone  as  the  Sphyrcenidce, 
whereas  in  the  Atherinidce  these  are  considerably  more  numerous.     Grey 
mullets  have   a  narrow  cleft   to   the 
mouth,   none   or  feeble  teeth,  and   a 
very  sharp,  but  rather  tall  first  dorsal 
fin,    which   is  composed  of  four  stiff 
spines   only.      The    members   of    the 
genus  are  numerous,  and  common  on 
temperate  and  tropical  coasts,  where, 
according    to     Dr.    Gunther,     "they 

frequent    brackish   waters,    in   which         •  _ : — ._-         — _       —  ~~ — 

they  find  an  abundance  of  food,  which  p.    13  _GREY  MULLET. 

consists  chiefly  of  the  organic  sub- 
stances mixed  with  mud  or  sand.  In  order  to  prevent  larger  bodies  from  pass- 
ing into  the  stomach,  or  substances  from  passing  through  the  gill-openings,  these 
fishes  have  the  organs  of  the  pharynx  modified  into  a  filtering  apparatus. 
They  take  in  a  quantity  of  sand  or  mud,  and,  after  having  worked  it  for 
some  time  between  the  pharyngeal  bones,  they  reject  the  roughest  and  in- 
digestible portion."  Most  of  the  species  grow  to  about  four  pounds  weight, 
although  some  reach  as  much  as  ten. 

The  garpike  (Belone\  the  sauries  (Scombresox),  and  the  flying-fish  (Exoccdu»\ 
collectively  constitute  a  section    and  family  characterised  by  the   feeble 
development  of  the  spines  of  the  fins.     They  have  the  pelvic 
fins  abdominal  in  situation,  and  are  especially  distinguished     Section  Scorn- 
by  the  union  of  the  pharyngeal  bones,  the  absence  of  a  spiny  bresociformes. — 
dorsal  fin,  and  the  forked  tail-fin  ;  the  rayed  dorsal  being  Family  Scombre- 
placed  in  the  caudal  region  immediately  over  the  anal.     Al-          socidw. 
though  false  gills  are  present,   these  are    concealed   and 
glandular.     As  a  rule,  the  air-bladder  is  retained.     A  peculiar  feature  of  the 
family  is  the  simple  structure  of  the  stomach,  which  forms  a  mere  expansion 
of  the  intestinal  tract.     Members  of  the  family  are  to  be  met  with  in  all 
temperate  and  tropical  seas,  some  of  them,  like  the  flying-fish,  being  truly 
pelagic  in  their  habits.     Fresh-water  forms,  although  few,  are,  however,  by 
no  means  wanting  ;  and  it  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  most  of  these— un- 
like their  marine  relatives— give  birth  to  living  young,  instead  of  depositing 
spawn.     The  garpike,  of  which  one  species  is  commonly  met  with  in  the 
British  seas,  are  specially  characterised  by  the  elongation  of  the  jaws  to  form 
a  long  tubular  beak,  and  the  connection  of  all  the  rays  of  the  anal  and  dorsal 
fins  (which  are  precisely  similar)  by  membrane.     Young  garpike  are,  how- 


48o 


PISCES— SUB-CLASS  lIL—TELEOSTOMI. 


ever,  much  more  ordinary-looking  fishes  than  their  parents,  as  the  beak  is 
not  developed  till  late  in  life.  During  the  growth  of  the  beak  the  lower  jaw- 
is  considerably  longer  than  the  upper  one,  although  in  the  fully  adult  con- 
dition the  two  are  equal  in  length.  So  much  has  been  written  about  the 
habits  of  flying-fish  (Exocc&tus),  and  their  form  is  so  familiar,  especially  to  those 
who  have  made  a  voyage  in  the  warmer  seas,  that  we  may  be  well  excused 
from  saying  much  about  either  point  in  this  place.  The  only  other  inhabi- 
tants of  the  deep  which  indulge  in  similar  flights  are  the  flying-gurnards,  with 
which  the  true  flying-fish  are  not  likely  to  be  confounded.  To  support  them 
in  the  air,  the  pectoral  fins  of  the  flying-fishes  are  greatly  elongated.  In 
shape  they  are  less  elegant  than  many  fishes,  the  head  being  blunt  and 
almost  truncated  in  front.  There  are  numerous  species  of  the  genus,  some 
of  which  appear  to  range  over  all  seas  suited  to  their  existence,  while  others 
have  a  curiously  circumsuited  habit.  A  foot  is  about  the  usual  maximum 
length,  although  specimens  of  eighteen  inches  are  from  time  to  time  met 
with. 

Flying-fish  associate  in  shoals,  and  when  disturbed  by  a  vessel,  which  they 
not  improbably  mistake  for  a  whale,  rise  one  after  another  from  the  waves 

like  a  flock  of  swallows  driven  from 
their  shelter.  Although  it  is  highly 
probable  that  their  pectoral  fins  may 
vibrate  for  a  few  seconds  after  leav- 
ing the  water,  the  flight  of  these 
fishes  is  due  entirely  to  the  initial 
velocity  of  the  leap  with  which  they 
leave  the  water  ;  and  how  great  this 
velocity  is,  may  be  inferred  from  the 
circumstance  that  sometimes  the  flight 
may  cover  a  distance  of  at  least  three 
hundred  yards.  Probably  attracted  by 
the  lights,  flying-fish  not  unfrequently 
leap  on  board  the  deck  of  small  vessels,  while  they  occasionally  make  their 
entrance  on  to  those  of  larger  tonnage  by  way  of  the  open  port-holes. 
On  one  occasion  during  a  voyage  home  from  South  America,  such  an  unbidden 
visitor  entered  in  this  manner  the  cabin  of  a  passenger,  who  at  the  time 
was  shaving,  and  received  a  severe  blow  in  the  face  from  the  newcomer. 

The  next  section  of  the  Acanthopterygii  is  typified  by  the  stickle-backs  of 
our  streams  and  ditches  ;  and  common  and  familiar  as  these  little  fishes  are, 
they  are  nevertheless  highly  interesting  to  the  naturalist, 
both  on  account  of  their  structure  and  their  habits.  Unfor- 
tunately, in  our  limited  space,  little  can  be  here  said  on 
either.  As  a  sectional  group,  the  Gastrosteiformes  are 
characterised  by  the  circumstance  that  when  a  spiny  dorsal 
fin  is  present  at  all,  this  takes  the  form  of  a  variable  number 
of  isolated  spines.  Although  in  some  forms  the  pelvic  fins  are  thoracic,  in 
others  they  assume  an  abdominal  position,  owing  to  the  prolongation  of  the 
bones  of  the  pelvic  girdle,  which  are  attached  to  the  pectoral  arch.  The 
snout  is  generally  more  or  less  produced,  with  the  small  mouth  at  its  ex- 
tremity. It  will  be  unnecessary  to  characterise  the  stickle-backs  (Gastrosteus) 
in  full,  and  it  will  therefore  suffice  to  say  that  their  somewhat  compressed 
and  elongate  bodies  are  either  naked,  or  protected  by  large  plates  on  the 
sides,  and  that  the  number  of  spines  on  the  back  may  vary  from  as  few  as 


Fig.  14. — FLYING-FISH. 


Section  Gastros- 
teiformes. — 

Family 
Gastrosteida. 


BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS.  481 


three  to  as  many  as  fifteen.  All  are  comparatively  small  fishes,  and  whereas 
the  majority  are  inhabitants  of  fresh  waters,  a  few  are  marine.  What  they 
lack  in  size,  they  make  up  for  in  fierceness,  stickle-backs  being  perfect 
demons  for  fighting  among  themselves,  while  they  are  terribly  destructive  to 
the  spawn  and  fry  of  larger  and  better  fishes.  They  have,  however,  the  redeem- 
ing quality  of  taking  most  excellent  care  of  their  own  eggs  and  young,  for  the 
reception  of  which  the  male  builds  a  nest,  which  he  guards  with  vigilance, 
and,  if  necessary,  with  his  life.  Not  only  is  this  nest-building  habit  found  in 
the  fresh- water  spscies,  but  it  is  likewise  common  to  the  sea  stickle-back  of 
the  British  coasts,  which  selects  for  its  site  of  operations  shallow  brackish 
water,  where  sea-weeds  are  abundant.  Among  many  anecdotes  relating  to 
the  voracity  and  pugnacity  of  stickle-backs,  we  select  one  from  the  pen  of 
Mr.  J.  Stark.  On  one  occasion  this  gentleman  placed  in  the  water  inhabited 
by  a  stickle-back  a  number  of  leeches.  Thereupon  the  fish  "  darted  round 
the  tumbler  with  lively  motions  till  it  found  a  leech  detached  and  in  a  proper 
situation  for  being  seized.  When  the  leech  was  very  small,  say  about  half 
an  inch  in  length,  it  was  often  swallowed  at  once,  before  it  reached  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel  ;  but  when  a  larger  one,  about  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  a 
half  in  length  in  its  expanded  state,  was  put  in,  and  had  fastened  itself  by  its 
mouth  to  the  glass,  the  efforts  of  the  stickle-back  to  seize  and  tear  it  from  its 
hold  were  incessant,  and  never  failed  to  succeed.  It  darted  at  the  loose  ex- 
tremity, or,  when  both  ends  were  fastened,  at  the  curve  in  its  middle,  seized 
it  in  its  mouth,  rose  to  near  the  surface,  and  after  a  hearty  shake  (such  as  a 
dog  would  give  a  rat),  let  it  drop.  The  leech,  which  evidently  wished  to  avoid 
its  enemy  upon  its  release,  again  fastened  itself  by  its  mouth  to  the  glass ; 
but  again  and  again  the  attack  was  repeated,  till  the  poor  leech  became  ex- 
hausted, and  ceased  to  attempt  to  hold  itself  by  its  disc.  The  stickle-back 
then  seized  it  by  the  head  in  a  proper  position  for  swallowing,  and  after  a  few 
gulps  the  leech  disappeared.  The  flattened  leech  being  of  an  oval  form,  and 
having  a  hard  skin,  was  not  attacked,  unless  when  very  young  and  small  ; 
and  leeches  of  the  other  species,  when  pretty  well  grown,  or  larger  than  him- 
self when  expanded,  were  killed  in  the  manner  above  mentioned,  but  not 
swallowed.  In  one  of  his  attempts  to  seize  a  leech,  the  stickle-back  having 
got  it  by  the  tail,  the  animal  curled  back,  and  fixed  his  disc  upon,  his 
snout.  The  efforts  of  the  stickle-back  to  rid  himself  of  this  encumbrance 
were  amusing.  He  let  go  his  hold  of  the  leech,  which  then  hung  over  his 
mouth,  and  darting  at  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  glass  with  all  his  strength, 
endeavoured  to  rub  off  this  tantalising  morsel.  This  lasted  for  nearly  a 
minute,  when  at  last  he  got  rid  of  the  leech  by  rubbing  his  back  upon  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel.  The  leech,  perfectly  aware  of  the  company  he  was  in, 
no  sooner  loosed  his  hold  than  he  attempted  to  wriggle  away  from  his  de- 
vourer  ;  but  before  he  had  reached  mid-way  up  the  tumbler,  the  stickle-back 
had  turned,  and  finished  the  contest  by  swallowing  him  up." 

The  second  family   of   the    section,   which   comprises   the    flute-mouths 
(Aulostoma,  Auliscojis,  and  Fistularia\  is  readily  characterised  by  the  pro- 
duction of  the  muzzle  into  a  long  flute-like  tube,   at  the 
extremity  of  which  is  situated  the  small  mouth  ;  and,  like-  Family 

wise,  by  the  pelvic  fins,  which  may  be  either  thoracic  or    Aidostomatidce. 
abdominal,  comprising  six  (rarely  five)  soft  rays  and  no  spine. 
When  they  are  abdominal  they  have  no  connection  with  the  pelvis,  which  is 
always  attached  to  the  pectoral  girdle.     Whereas  in  some  forms  the  body— 
which  is  always  much  elongated — is  completely  naked,  in  others  minute  scales 
32 


482  PISCES— SUB-CLASS  I1I.—TELEOSTOML 


are  developed.  The  first  dorsal-fin  may  either  be  wanting  or  composed 
of  a  few  feeble  isolated  spines.  The  backbone  contains  a  very  large  number 
of  joints,  and  presents  the  peculiarity  that  many  of  those  at  the  front  end 
are  united  together  to  form  a  solid  tube.  The  flute-mouths  are  confined  to 
the  warmer  temperate  and  tropical  seas.  In  spite  of  their  large  dimensions 
—  their  length  being  frequently  as  much  as  from  four  to  six  feet — they  can 
only  be  regarded  as  highly  developed  stickle-backs. 

We  now  come  to  the  first  of  three  sectional  groups,  each  of  which  is  repre- 
sented only  by  one  family.     The  first  section  is  characterised  by  the  presence 
of  two  dorsal  fins,  of  which  the  spinous  is  very  short,  whereas 
Section  Centris-   the  soft  one — like  tlie  anal — is  of  moderate  length.     Of  more 
ciformes. —      importance  is  the  fact  that  the   pelvic  fins  are  truly  ab- 
Family          dominal,  arid  have  no  sort  of  connection  with  the  pectoral 
CentriscidcB.       girdle.     These  fish  constitute  the  two  genera  Centriscus  and 
Amphisile;  one  species  of  the  former  being  popularly  known 
as  the  bellows-fish  or  trumpeter-fish.    They  are  small,  short-bodied  fishes,  with 
a  tubular  mouth  similar  to  that  of  the  Aulostomatidce ;  and  as  their  powers  of 
swimming  are  of  the  very  feeblest,  they  are  often  carried  by  currents  far  out 
to  sea,  although  their  proper  haunts  are  the  shallows. 

Although  the  members  of  this  section  and  family  are  likewise  of  small  size, 

they  differ  from  the  last  in  the  more  normal  conformation  of  their  mouths 

and  bodies.     Having  no  spiny  dorsal-fin,  these  fishes  are 

Section  Gobioe-    easily  recognised  by  the  possession  of  a  sucker  on  the  lower 

sociformes. —     surface  of  the  body,  placed  between  the  pelvic  fins,  which 

Family  are  nearly  jugular  in  position.     Both  the  soft  dorsal  and 

Gobioesocidce.      anal  fins  are  situated  on  the  caudal  region  of  the  body,  and 

are  of  small  or  medium  extent.     There  are  numerous  genera 

of  sucker-fishes,  such  as  the  West  Indian  and  South  American  Gobioesox,  the 

European  Lepadogaster,  and  the  New  Zealand  Diplocrepis ;  the  latter  being 

distinguished  by  the  presence  of  incisor-like  teeth  in  the  front  of  the  jaws. 

The  group  attains  its  maximum  development  in  the  temperate  seas  ;  all  its 

representatives  being  marine  and  littoral. 

The  so-called  serpent-heads  (Channa  and  Ophiocephalus)  are  inhabitants  of 
the  fresh  waters  of  Africa  and  the  Oriental  countries,  although  more  abun- 
dant in  the  latter  than  in  the  former  area.     They  are  long- 
Section  Channi-   bodied,  flat-headed  fishes,  fond  of  grovelling  in  the  mud, 
formes. — Family  and  often  leaving  their  native  element  to  travel  some  distance 
Ophiocephalidce.  on  land,  where  they  progress  by  the  aid  of  their  pectoral  fins. 
In  these  fish  the  head  and  body  are  covered  with  scales  of 

moderate  size,  and  the  fins 
are  without  spines, the  single 
dorsal,  which  is  similar  to 
the  anal,  being  low  and  elon- 
gated, and  the  pelvic  pair, 
if  present,  thoracic  in  posi- 
tion, and  comprising  six  soft 

rays.  The  most  character- 
^  feature  in  the  gtructure 

of    the    serpent-heads    is, 

however,  the  presence  of  a  supplemental  cavity  on  each  side  of  the  head 
above  the  gill-chamber  ;  and  it  is  probable  that  this  aids  in  keeping  the 
gills  moist  while  the  fish  are  on  land.  One  yard  is  no  uncommon  length 


BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS.  483 


for  fishes  of  this  group.  During  seasons  of  drought  the  serpent-heads  bury 
themselves  in  mud  ;  and  when  living  in  muddy  waters  they  are  in  the 
habit  of  coming  from  time  to  time  to  the  surface  to  gulp  down  a  mouth- 
ful of  air. 

The  famous  climbing-perch  (Anabas  scandens)  of  the  Oriental  region, 
which  has  given  rise  to  so  many  stories,  true  and  false,  is  the  type  of  a  small 
section  characterised  by  the  possession  of  an  accessory 
breathing-organ  situated  in  a  cavity  on  each  si^e  of  the  Section  Labyrin- 
head  above  the  gill-chamber.  In  both  families  of  the  thici. — Family 
section  the  body  is  compressed,  and  oblong  or  deep  in  form,  Anabantidce. 
with  the  investing  scales  of  moderate  size.  In  the  first  of 
the  two  families  spines  are  present  in  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins,  although  their 
number  is  variable  ;  while  the  lateral  line  is  either  interrupted  or  altogether 
absent,  and  the  aperture  of  the  gills  is  small.  Like  those  of  the  next  family, 
these  fishes  are  inhabitants  of  fresh  or  brackish  waters,  and  are  able  to  exist 
for  a  considerable  time  out  of  water,  where  they  breathe  by  means  of  the 
special  organ.  There  are  several  genera,  such  as  Anabas  (climbing-perch), 
PolyacanthuSy  Osphromenus  (gurami),  and  Betta,  all  of  which  are  confined  to 
the  Oriental  region  and  Tropical  and  South  Africa.  The  Malayan  gurami  is 
a  deep-bodied  fish  marked  with  vertical  stripes,  and  with  one  of  the  rays  of 
the  pelvic  fins  greatly  elongated.  On  account  of  the  excellent  quality  of  its 
flesh,  it  has  been  introduced  into  several  districts  in  India,  where  it  thrives 
well.  The  climbing-perch  is  a  less  deep  and  more  uniformly  coloured  fish, 
with  no  elongation  of  the  pelvic  rays,  and  a  taller  dorsal  fin.  During  dry 
seasons  it  will  bury  itself  in  the  mud,  but  more  frequently  appears  to 
migrate  to  ponds  which  are  capable  of  withstanding  the  drought.  On  land 
it  travels  by  using  its  pectoral  fins  as  legs,  fixing  these  on  the  further  side  of 
such  objects  as  are  capable  of  affording  a  sufficient  fulcrum.  One  instance  at 
least  is  on  record  of  these  fishes  having  been  taken  high  up  on  a  palm  tree. 
The  reader  may  well  wonder  as  to  the  object  of  such  an  ascent,  but  it 
appears  the  fish  make  for  the  moisture  often  to  be  found  in  the  hollows  of 
such  trees.  The  Oriental  genus  Polyacanthus  is  best  known  by  the  domesti- 
cated and  beautifully  coloured  Chinese  paradise-fish,  which,  from  long  culti- 
vation has  altered  considerably  from  the  original  parent  form.  Another 
member  of  the  family  which  has  long  been  domesticated  is  the  Siamese 
fighting-fish  (Betta  pugnax).  In  common  with  the  Malays,  the  Siamese  are 
inveterate  gamblers,  and  in  this  instance  they  stake  their  money  on  the 
fighting  endurance  of  their  favourite  fish.  The  fish  themselves  are  by  no 
means  loth  to  afford  their  masters  as  much  sport  as  possible,  and  whereas 
when  alone  their  colours  are  dull,  directly  an  opponent  is  seen,  the  whole 
body  assumes  a  brilliant  metallic  lustre.  Even  a  mirror  is  stated  to  be  suffi- 
cient to  arouse  the  pugnacious  propensities  of  these  fish,  which  will  then  dart 
forwards  against  their  own  image. 

The  second  family  of  the  section  is  represented  by  the  small  fresh- water 
Malayan  fish  known  as  the  pike-head  (Luciocephalus  pulcher),  and  sufficiently 
distinguished  from  the  preceding  family  by  the  presence  of 
a  complete  lateral  line,  the  protruded  jaws,  and  the  general    Family   Lucio- 
pike-like  form  of  the  head  and  body.     The  tail  is  rounded,       cephalidce. 
the   dorsal  fin    is   single,    and,    like    the    anal,    devoid    of 
spines;  the  pelvic  fins  comprise  one  spine  and  five  rays,  and  the  eyes  are 
large. 

The  fishes  of  this  and  the  next  section  are  amply  characterised  by  their 


484 


PISCES— SUB- CLASS  III;—TELEOSTOML 


elongated  and  riband-like  bodily  form.  This  conformation  gives  them  much 
the  appearance  of  sea-snalces  ;  and  although  they  are  ordin- 
Section  Lophoti-  arily  inhabitants  of  deep  water,  they  are  sometimes  driven 
formes.— Family  to  the  surface.  On  such  occasions  it  is  highly  probablo  that 
Lophotidce.  they  are  responsible  for  some  of  the  alleged  appearances  of 
the  "  sea-serpent.'3  Moreover,  when  cast  on  shore,  they 
are  extremely  likely  to  be  mistaken,  by  persons  unacquainted  with  zoology, 
for  that  mysterious  monster  ;  and  not  many  years  ago  a  telegram  in  the 
papers  announced  the  discovery  in  Australia  of  a  dead  sea-serpeni,  which 
subsequently  turned  out  to  be  a  gigantic  stranded  riband  fish.  Here  it  may 
be  well  to  remark  that  the  writer  by  no  means  refuses  to  believe  in  the  possi- 
bility of  the  existence  of  "  sea-serpents,"  but  at  present  contents  himself  with 
considering  that  the  evidence  is  not  yet  sufficiently  convincing.  To  return 
to  the  Lophotiformes,  this  section,  in  addition  to  the  riband-like  body,  is 
characterised  by  the  vent  being  situated  near  the  hinder  extremity  of  the 
latter,  and  closely  followed  by  the  anal  fin  ;  the  dorsal  fin  running  along  al- 
most the  entire  length  of  the  body,  and  commencing  in  an  enormous  back- 
wardly-curved  spine,  which  arises  from  an  elevated  crest  on  the  summit  of 

the  short  head.  To  the  pre- 
sence of  this  spine,  or  horn, 
the  one  representative  of 
the  section  and  family  (Lo- 
photes  cepedianus)  owes  its 
popular  name  of  unicorn- 
fish.  Rhinoceros-fish  would, 
however,  be  a  better  title. 
The  unicorn-fish  grows  to  a 
length  of  between  five  and 
six  feet,  and  has  been  taken 
at  considerable  depths  in 
widely  distant  parts  of  the 
ocean.  That  it  is  indeed  a 
fairly  deep-sea  monster  is 
apparent  from  its  large  eyes ; 
but  this  feature  indicates 
that  it  is  not  an  inhabitant 
of  the  deepest  abysses, 
where  ordinary  visual  or- 
gans would  be  of  no  use. 
Although  we  can  never  hope  to  acquire  such  knowledge,  it  would  be  matter 
of  extreme  interest  to  discover  the  use  of  the  enormous  horn  of  this  strange 
fish. 

The  riband-fishes  differ  from  the  Lophotidm  by  two  characters  connected 
with  the  fins.     In  the  first  place,  the  anal  is  absent ;  and  in  the  second,  the 
caudal  fin  is  either  rudimental,  or  is  so  placed  as  not  to  form 
Section  Tsenii-     a  direct  continuation  of  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  body, 
formes. — Family  being  then  directed  upwards  in  a  fan-like  manner.     Very 
Trachypteridce.    generally,  however,   this  caudal  appendage  is  lost  in  full- 
grown  specimens.     Young  riband-fishes   are  so  totally  un- 
like their  parents  that  no  one  would  dream  they  belonged  to  the  same  group. 
Dr.  Giinther  observes  that  such  young  fish,  of  from  two  to  four  inches  in 
length,  "are  not  rarely  met  with  near  the  surface.     They  possess  the  most 


Fig.  16.— UNICORN  FISH. 


BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS.  485 


extraordinary  development  of  fin-rays  observed  in  the  whole  class  of  fishes, 
some  of  them  being  several  times  longer  than  the  body,  and  provided  with 
lappet-like  dilatations.  There  is  no  doubt  that  fishes  with  such  delicate  ap- 
pendages are  bred  and  live  in  depths  where  the  water  is  absolutely  quiet,  as  a 
sojourn  in  the  disturbed  water  of  the  surface  would  deprive  them  at  once  of 
organs  which  must  be  of  some  utility  for  their  own  preservation."  Riband- 
fishes  are  classed  under  three  genera,  respectively  known  by  the  names  of 
Begalecus,  Stylophorus,  and  Trachypterus.  Of  these,  the  first  includes  the 
largest  known  species ;  Banks'  riband-fish  (R.  banksi),  which  is  occasionally 
cast  011  the  shores  of  England,  where  it  is  known — most  inappropriately — as 
the  "  king  of  the  herrings,"  exceeding  a  score  of  feet  in  length.  In  place  of 
the  horn  of  the  unicorn-fish,  this  riband-fish  has  a  crest  of  curving  spines  on 
the  crown  of  the  head,  which  recalls  the  feathery  crest  of  a  cockatoo.  In 
this  genus  the  pelvic  fins,  which  are  placed  almost  immediately  behind  the 
extremely  short  pectoral  pair,  are  reduced  to  long  tapering  filaments,  withr . 
out  rays  ;  the  caudal  fin  being  rudimental  or  absent.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
the  rare  Stylophorus,  the  pelvic  fins  are  totally  absent,  and  the  caudal  forms 
a  very  long  appendage  like  a  whip-lash.  In  the  typical  Trachypterus,  how- 
ever, the  pelvic  pair  of  fins  still  retain  their  rays.  The  best  known  member 
of  this  genus  is  the  northern  one  commonly  known  as  the  deal-fish,  which  is 
not  unfrequently  cast  ashore  after  gales  on  the  mainland  and  islands  of  the 
north  of  Britain. 

An  aberrant  group  of  the  sub-order  is  formed  by  the  long-bodied  deep-sea 
fishes,  commonly  known  as  thorn-backs,  all  of  which  may  be  included  in  the 
single  genus  Notacanthus.      In   these  fishes  the  dorsal  fin 
has  no  soft  portion,  and  is  composed  of  a  great  number  of     Section  Nota- 
low  tooth-like  spines,  separated  from  one  another  by  com-   canthiformes. — 
paratively  long  intervals,  and  extending  over  nearly  the  whole     Family  Nota- 
length  of  the  back,  the  long  anal  being  of  somewhat  similar         canthidce. 
structure.     The  muzzle  is  produced  some  distance  in  advance 
of  the  snout.     The  pectoral  and  pelvic  fins  are  widely  separated  from  one 
another,  so  that  the  latter  are  truly  abdominal  in  position  ;  but  in  sp}te  of 
this  the  caudal  region  extends  a  long  distance  behind  the  pelvics,  the  tail 
terminating  in  a  sharp  point,  without  a  distinct  fin. 

The  members  of  the  last  sectional  group  of  the  great  sub-order  Acantho- 
pterygii  are  distinguished  from  nearly  all  the  forms  hitherto  mentioned  by  the 
coalescence  in  the  median  line  of  the  lower  pharyngeal  bones. 
On  this  account  the  group  has  been  regarded  as  of  subordinal  Section    Pharyn- 
value,  although  it  seems  preferable  that  it  should  rank  only       gognathi. — 
as  a  section.     That  it  is  a  specialised  group  is  indicated,  not  Family 

only  by  the  union  of  the  pharyngeals,  but  also  by  the  loss  of  Pomacentridce. 
the  air-bladder.  The  group  includes  four  families,  of  which 
the  first  is  represented  by  the  coral-fishes,  forming  the  genera  Dascyllus,  Heli- 
astes,  Pomacentrus,  etc.  Most  of  these  are  inhabitants  of  the  tropical  seas, 
where,  as  their  name  implies,  they  frequent  coral  reefs.  In  form  and  colora- 
tion, as  well  as  in  habits,  they  are  very  similar  to  the  Chcetodontidce  (p.  465), 
many  of  them  having  alternate  dark  and  light  bands  on  the  body.  The 
absence  of  scales  on  the  fins  in  the  present  family  serves,  however,  to  dis- 
tinguish them  at  a  glance  from  the  members  of  the  other  group.  In  these 
fishes  the  body  is  deep  and  compressed  ;  the  scales  are  of  the  ctenoid  or 
comb-like  type  ;  the  lateral  line  is  either  interrupted,  or  stops  short  of  the 
caudal  fin  ;  and  false  gills  are  developed  in  the  head.  The  number  of  species 


486  PISCES— SUB-CLASS  IIL—TELEOSTOML 


is  very  large.  In  habits  these  fish  are  carnivorous,  some  of  them  being  pro- 
vided with  powerful  incisor  teeth,  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  on  coral. 

More  familiar  than  the  last  is  the  extensive  and  important  family  of  the 
wrasses,  or  thick-lipped   fishes,  in   which  the  scales  have  smooth  margins 
(cycloid),  and  the  pouting  lips  are  often  greatly  thickened. 
Family  Labridce.  As  in  the  preceding  family,  the  dorsal  fin  is  single,  with  the 
spiny  portion  at  least  as  well  developed  as  the  rayed,  which 
is  similar  to  the  anal  ;  and  the  pelvic  pair  are  thoracic  in  position,  and  com- 
prise five  rays  and  a  single  spine.     Whereas  in  some  of  the  wrasses  the  body 

is  deep,  in  others  it  is  of  a  more 
elongated  shape.  Wrasses  are  coast 
fishes,  mostly  of  carnivorous  habits, 
which  attain  their  maximum  de- 
velopment in  the  tropical  and 
temperate  seas.  Although  their 
palates  are  unarmed,  their  jaws  are 
Fig.  17.— STRIPED  WRASSE.  provided  with  a  number  of  powerful 

teeth  admirably  suited  for  crushing 

the  shell-fish  on  which  these  fishes  chiefly  subsist.  Sea-anemones  or  corals 
afford,  however,  a  preferable  diet  to  some  of  the  species,  while  a  few  are 
strict  vegetarians.  Wrasses  are  divided  into  a  number  of  genera,  which  may 
be  arranged  in  larger  groups  in  correspondence  with  the  conformation  of  the 
front  teeth.  In  the  typical  Labrax,  of  which  the  headquarters  is  the  Medi- 
terranean, the  jaw-teeth  are  conical  and  arranged  in  a  single  series.  The  two 
British  forms  are  the  ballan  (L.  maculatus)  and  the  striped  wrasse  (L. 
mixtus),  of  which  the  latter  exhibits  great  sexual  differences  in  coloration. 
The  gold  sinny  represents  in  Britain  a  genus  (Crenilabrus)  differing  from  the 
true  wrasses  in  having  the  edge  of  the  preopercular  bone  serrated  at  all  ages, 
instead  of  only  in  the  young. 

Passing  by  many  other  types,  brief  reference  must  be  made  to  the  parrot- 
wrasses  (Scarus),  deriving  their  name  from  the  confluence  of  the  anterior 
teeth  to  form  a  cutting  beak.     One  species  is  common  in  the 
Family          Mediterranean,  where  it  was  well  known  to  the  ancients. 
Diatrematidce.     The  viviparous  wrasses  (Ditrema  and  Heterocarpus)  are  note- 
worthy on  account  of  their  peculiar  reproduction,  and  are 
accordingly  referred  to  as  a  family  by  themselves.     These  fishes,  which  do  not 
attain  to  a  large  size,  are  very  characteristic  of  the  temperate  portions  of  the 
North  Pacific,  where  the  majority  of  the  species  are  confined  to  the  American 
side,  although  a  few  occur  on  the  Asiatic. 

The  last  group  of  the  Acanthopterygii  is  the  somewhat  important  family 

of   the   chromids,   which    have    a   very    remarkable   geographical   distribu- 

.     tion.     From  the  other  members  of  the  group  with  the  lower 

Family          pharyngal   bones   united,   they  are  distinguished  by  being 

Chromididce.      exclusively  fresh-water  in  their  habitat.     Although  none  of 

the  genera  inhabiting  the  Eastern  Hemisphere  are  common 

to  the  Western,  these  fish  inhabit  the  rivers  of  Tropical  Africa,  Madagascar, 

Syria,  Palestine,   and  Tropical  America,  while  a  single  genus  is  found  in 

India.     From  the  other  members  of  the  present  group,  the  chromids  may  be 

distinguished  by  the  absence  of  false  gills.     In  appearance  they  are  not  very 

unlike  wrasses,  having  a  single  dorsal  fin,  of  which  the  anterior  portion  is 

spiny,  the  scales  generally  ctenoid,  and  the  lateral  line  more  or  less  markedly 

interrupted.     In  regard  to  diet,  they  display  considerable  variation,  some 


BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS.  487 


forms  being  entirely  carnivorous,  whereas  others  are  as  distinctly  vegetable 
feeders.  Most  are  relatively  small  fishes,  although  the  balti  of  the  Nile, 
which  belongs  to  Chromis,  grows  to  twenty  inches.  Of  the  genera,  Mroplus 
is  Indian,  Ghromis  and  Hemichromis  are  African  and  Syrian,  and  Paretroplus 
Malagasy. 

SUB-ORDER   II. — LOPHOBRANCHII. 

This  and  the  following  sub-order  include  a  small  number  of  peculiar  fishes 
which  may  probably  be  regarded  as  highly  specialised  offshoots  from  the 
primitive  stock  of  the  Acanthopterygii,  neither  of  them  having  a  duct  to  the 
air-bladder.  The  Lophobranchii  take  their  name  from  the  form  of  the  gills, 
which  consist  of  small  rounded  tufts  arising  from  the  gill-arches  ;  the  gill- 
apertures  being  small,  and  the  operculum  or  gill-cover  comprising  only  a 
single  plate-like  bone.  All  these  fishes  have  the  body  enclosed  in  a  many- 
jointed  shield  of  bone,  and  the  mouth  is  produced  into  a  toothless  tube. 
Another  peculiarity  is  to  be  found  in  the  exceedingly  feeble  development  of 
the  muscles. 

The  first  family  of  the  sub-order  is  formed  solely  by  the  members  of  the 
genus  Solenostoma,  which  are  few  in  number  and  small  in  size,  and  inhabit 
the  Indian  Ocean.      These  fishes  have  the  fins  well  de- 
veloped, no  soft  rays  to  the  first  dorsal,  wide  gill-apertures,   Family  Soleno- 
and  the  muzzle  greatly  elongated.     The  body  is  much  com-        stomatidce. 
pressed  and  the  tail  very  short ;  the  soft  dorsal  and  anal  fins 
arising  opposite  one  another  from  elevations  of  the  hinder  part  of  the  body, 
while  the  pelvic  pair,  which  are  seven-rayed,  are  situated  below  the  first 
dorsal,  and  in  the  female  are  united  to  the  chest  by  their  outer  edges  to  form 
a  receptacle  for  the  eggs.     None  of  these  fishes  have  an  air-bladder. 

The  second  family  of  the  group  is  represented  by  the  pipe-fishes  (Syngtia- 
thus,  Siplioiwstoma,  etc.),  and  the  still  more  bizarre  sea-horses  (Hippocampus 
and  Phyllopteryx),  the  latter  differing  from  the  former  in  hav- 
ing the  tail  prehensile,  and  employing  it  as  an  anchor.    These  Family 
fishes  are  distinguished  from  the  first  family  by  the  aperture     Syngnathidce. 
of  the  gill-chamber  being  reduced  to  a  very  minute  opening 
at  the  hinder  upper  angle  of  the  operculum,  and  by  the  loss  of  the  first 
dorsal  and  pelvic  fins.     In  certain  cases  some  of  the  other  fins  are  likewise 
aborted.     The  pipe-fishes  have  the  body  exceedingly  elongated,  whereas  in 
the  sea-horses  it  is  shorter  and  deeper,  while  spiny  leaf -like  processes  arise 
from  the  ridges  on  the  head  and  back.     Many  of  these  fish  have  special 
structural  modifications  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  eggs,  as  is  also  the 
case  with  some  of  the  Solenostomatidce.     Thus,  the  females  of  Solenostoma 
are  provided  on  the  lower  surface  of 
the  body  with  a  roomy  pouch,  formed 
by  the  adherence  of  the  pelvic  fins  to 
the  skin  of  the  abdomen.     The  inner 
walls  of  this  pouch  are  furnished  with 
long  filaments,   which  aid   in  keeping 
the  egg  in  position  ;  and  it  is  probable 
that  after  the  fry  are  hatched  they  are 
retained  for  some  time  by  attachment                      Fig.  18.— PIPE-FISH. 
to  the  walls  of  the  chamber.     In  the 

typical  pipe-fishes  (Syngnathus)  the  care  of  the  family  falls  to  the  share  of  the 
males,  which  are  provided  with  a  long  pouch  on  the  under  surface  of  the  tail, 


PISCES— S  UB-  CLASS  III. — TELE  OS  TO  MI. 


formed  by  a  fold  of  skin  arising  on  each  side,  and  the  two  meeting  in  the 
middle  line.  The  manner  in  which  the  eggs  are  conveyed  into  this  pouch 
appears  to  be  unknown,  but  when  once  there  they  are  completely  enclosed  by 
the  junction  of  the  edges  of  the  two  folds  of  skin,  and  thus  remain  till  they 
are  hatched  into  minute  eel-like  pipe-fish,  which  soon  make  their  way  into 
the  water  by  bursting  open  the  folds  of  the  pouch.  In  the  sea-horses  the 
development  is  carried  one  stage  further,  the  nursing-pouch  being  closed 
along  the  middle  line,  so  as  to  communicate  with  the  exterior  only  by  means 
of  a  small  aperture  at  the  anterior  end,  through  which  the  eggs  are  by  some 
means  or  other  introduced,  and  by  which  in  due  course  the  young  make  their 
escape.  Certain  pipe-fishes  (Doryichthys)  differ  from  the  ordinary  forms  in 
that  the  males  have  the  pouch  placed  beneath  the  abdomen  instead  of  under 
the  tail ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  in  some  allied  genera  (Nerophis)  the  eggs 
are  simply  attached  to  the  lower  surface  of  the  abdomen  of  the  male  without 
the  development  of  any  pouch. 

Both  the  Solenostomatidce  and  Syngnathidce  are  feeble  swimmers  ;  they 
generally  frequent  coasts  well  protected  by  sea-weed,  to  which  the  species 
provided  with  prehensile  tails  attach  themselves  by  means  of  that  useful 
appendage.  In  swimming,  they  generally  maintain  themselves  In  a  more  or 
less  nearly  vertical  position.  Writing  of  the  sea-horse,  Dr.  Bashford  Dean 
says  that,  "in  spite  of  its  many  structural  oddities,  its  genetic  kinship  with 
the  stickle-backs  cannot  be  doubted.  Yet  to  have  attained  its  present  form, 
its  evolution  must  have  carried  it  along  a  widely  divergent  path.  It  may,  in 
the  first  place,  have  fused  the  lines  of  its  metameral  scales,  dividing  off  the 
surface  of  its  elongate  body  in  sharp-edged  rectangles,  whose  corners  have 
become  produced  into  spines.  At  this  state  of  evolution  its  appearance 
might  well  be  represented  by  that  of  the  kindred  pipe-fish.  To  secure  more 
perfect  anchorage  in  its  algous  feeding-ground,  its  body-terminal  must  now 
have  discarded  its  fin-membranes  and  become  prehensile,  probably  the  most 
remarkable  adaptation  in  the  entire  class  of  fishes',  since  it  causes  metameral 
organs  to  change  the  plane  in  which  they  function  from  a  horizontal  to  a 
vertical  one." 

SUB-ORDER   III. — PLECTOGNATHI. 

The  spine-clad  globe-fishes,  of  which  dried  specimens  are  so  frequently 
exhibited  in  old  curiosity  shops,  may  be  taken  as  a  familiar  example  of  this 
small  sub-order,  which,  like  the  last,  includes  highly  modified  and  specialised 
forms.  All  these  fishes  have  a  narrow  mouth,  and  some  of  the  bones  of  the 
upper  jaw  fused  together,  while  in  some  of  them  the  jaws  are  produced  into 
a  beak-like  form.  They  have  but  few  segments  in  the  back-bone,  and 
whereas  the  bones  of  the  head  are  fully  hardened,  those  of  the  rest  of  the 
skeleton  are  comparatively  soft.  In  form,  the  gills  are  pectinate  ;  the  gill- 
apertures  being  very  small,  and  placed  in  advance  of  the  pectoral  pair  of  fins. 
If  the  pelvic  fins  persist  they  are  reduced  to  mere  spines ;  the  spinous  dorsal, 
too,  is  more  or  less  rudimental,  although  the  soft  dorsal  is  generally  well 
developed  and  situated  far  back,  immediately  over  the  anal.  Very  various 
is  the  covering  of  the  body,  the  skin  in  some  forms  being  naked,  while  in 
others  it  is  dotted  over  with  long  spines  ;  in  others  the  whole  head  and  body 
is  invested  in  a  complete  cuirass  of  true  bone,  while  in  others  there  are 
roughened  scales.  All,  however,  agree  in  the  absence  of  a  duct  to  the 
air-bladder. 


BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS. 


489 


Fig.  19. — COFFEE-FISH. 


The  first  family  of    the    Plectogathi  is    represented  by  the  file-fishes 
(Batistes,  etc.)  and  the  strange  coffer-fishes  (Ostracium).     In  these  fishes  there 
are  a  few  separate  teeth  in  the  jaws,  and  traces  of  the  spinous 
dorsal  and  pelvic  fins  usually  persist.     In  form,  the  body  Family 

may  be  either  compressed  or  angulated,  and  the  muzzle  is  Balistidce. 
rather  elongated  ;  the  skin  being  either  spiny  or  rough,  or 
replaced  by  a  bony  armour.  Their  chief  habitat  is  the  tropical  oceans,  al- 
though some  range  into  cooler  seas.  The  Oriental  genus  Triacanthus  belongs 
to  a  sub-family  characterised  by  the 
presence  of  roughened  scale-like  plates 
on  the  skin,  and  the  retention  of  from 
four  to  six  spines  in  the  first  dorsal 
fin.  On  the  other  hand,  Batistes  is 
included  in  a  sub-family  in  which 
there  are  never  more  than  three  spines 
in  the  fin  last  mentioned  ;  while  the  pelvic  fins  are  absent,  or  indicated  only 
by  a  swelling  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  body  ;  the  compressed  body  being 
clothed  with  scale-like  plates  capable  of  being  moved,  or  with  a  roughened 
skin.  There  are  several  genera  in  this  group,  and  the  flesh  of  certain  kinds 
is  poisonous.  Batistes  itself,  which  is  furnished  with  powerful  cutting  teeth 
in  the  front  of  the  jaws,  browses  upon  living  coral,  or  eats  through  the  shells 
of  molluscs  in  order  to  get  at  the  animal  within.  The  angulated  bony  cara- 
pace— composed  of  hexagonal  plates  joined  together  like  mosaic — sufficiently 
distinguishes  the  coffer-fishes  (Ostracium),  which  constitute  a  sub-family  by 
themselves. 

The  second  family  includes  the  globe-fishes  and  their  near  allies  the  sun- 
fishes,  in  both  of  which  the  bones  of  the  jaws  are  welded  together  so  as  to 
form  a  cutting  parrot-like  beak  of  great  power.     The  teeth 
are  modified  into  large  dental  plates  tightly  adherent  to  the  Family 

jaws,  and  consisting  structurally  of  a  number  of  very  thin      J)iodontidce. 
parallel  laminae,  arranged  like  the  leaves  in  a  book.     These 
fishes  are  mostly  inhabitants  of  the  hotter  seas,  although  a  few  have  taken  to  a 
fresh -water  existence.     The  one  Oriental  species  of  Tfiodon  alone  represents 
the  first  sub-family,  and  has  the  skin  of  the  lower  surface  dilated  into  a  large, 
inflatable  sac ;  the  dental  plate  of  the  upper-jaw  being  divided  in  the  middle, 

while  that  of  the  lower  is  single. 
Spiny  bony  plates,  which  do  not  over- 
lap, clothe  the  body,  and  the  tail-fin  is 
forked.  The  globe-fishes  (Diodon, 
Tetrodon,  etc.)  form  the  second  sub- . 
family,  and  have  the  more  or  less 
shortened  and  rounded  body  covered 
with  spines,  while  there  is  a  distinct 
tail  and  caudal  fin,  and  the  distensible 
throat  can  be  inflated  with  air.  The 
different  genera  are  chiefly  distin- 
guished from  one  another  by  the  con- 
formation of  the  dental  plates,  and  the  size  and  distribution  of  the  spines. 
Dr.  Giinther  writes,  that  "  these  fishes  have  the  power  of  inflating  their  body 
by  filling  their  distensible  oesophagus  with  air,  and  thus  assume  a  more  or 
less  globular  form.  The  skin  is  then  stretched  to  its  utmost  extent,  and  the 
spines  protrude  and  form  a  more  or  less  formidable  defensive  armour,  as  in  a 


Fig.  20.— GLOBE-FISH. 


490 


PISCES— SUB-CLASS  III.—TELEOSTOML 


hedgehog  ;  therefore  they  are  frequently  called  sea-hedgehogs.     However,  it 

is  probable  that  the  spines 
are  a  protection  not  only 
when  the  fish  is  on  the  sur- 
face and  able  to  take  in  air, 
but  also  when  it  is  under 
water."  The  third  sub-family 
of  the  Diodontidce  includes 
only  the  two  species  of  sun- 
fish,  Orthagoriscus,  specimens 
of  which  at  times  grow  to  as 
much  as  seven  feet  in  length. 
Having  the  body  excessively 
compressed  and  deep,  with  a 
very  tall  dorsal  and  anal  fin 
placed  one  above  the  other 
at  the  hinder  end,  the  sun- 
fishes  are  especially  charac- 
terised by  the  short,  deep, 
and  truncated  tail,  of  which 

fig.  21.— COMMON  SUN-FISH.  the  fin  is  confluent  above  with 

the  base  of  the  dorsal,  and 

below  with  that  of  the  anal.  There  is  no  dilatable  sac  beneath  the  skin, 
which  may  be  either  rough  or  smoothly  tesselated  ;  and  externally  the 
pelvic  fins  and  internally  the  air-bladder  are  absent.  Sun-fish  are  pelagic 
forms,  generally  swimming  in  a  vertical  position  near  the  surface  of  the 
water.  Both  kinds  seem  to  feed  chiefly  on  shell-fish. 


SUB-ORDER  IV. — AXACANTHINI. 

The  members  of  this  comparatively  small,  although  highly  important 
sub-order  are  distinguished  from  the  Acanthopterygii  by  the  pelvic  and 
median  fins  being,  as  a  general  rule,  devoid  of  spines  and  composed  of  soft 
jointed  rays.  When  present  at  all,  the  pelvic  fins  are  invariably  either  thor- 
acic or  jugular  in  position  ;  and  in  those  forms  furnished  with  an  air  bladder, 
this  has  no  communication  with  the  oesophagus. 

The  first  four  families  of  the  sub-order  form  a  section  known  as  the  Ga- 
doidei,  and  are  characterised  by  the  normal  and  symmetrical  form  of  the  head 
and  body.      The  family  of  the  Lycodidce  includes  several 
Family          genera  of  blenny-like  fish  characterised  by  the  union  of  all 
Lycodidce.        the  median  fins,   and  by  the  pelvics,   when  present,  being 
small,  jugular,  and  articulated  to  the  pectoral  arch.     Most  of 
these  fishes  are  inhabitants  of  the  seas  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  two  poles. 
Passing  by  the  family  with  the  bare  mention  that  Lycodes  and  Gymnelis  are 
two  of  the  best-known  genera,  we  turn  to  the  much  more  important  cod 
family.     In  these  the  caudal  fin  is  generally  distinct  from  the  others,  but 
when  it  is  united  therewith,  the  first  dorsal  is  divided,  so 
Family  Gadidce.  that  three  dorsals  are  produced.     Generally  the  pelvic  fins 
— which  are  jugular — are  well  developed,  but  in  those  in- 
stances where  they  are  filamentary,  the  first  dorsal  is  double.     There  may 
be  either  a  single  or  a  double  anal.     As  regards  their  internal  anatomy,  it 
will  suffice  to  say  that  the  cods  generally  have  an  air-bladder  ;  while  as  their 


BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS.  491 


external  form  is  so  familiar,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  say  more  than  that  the 
scales  are  small  and  the  lateral  line  distinct.  Cod  are  for  the  most  part  in- 
habitants of  comparatively  shallow  seas  of  the  cooler  portions  of  the  Northern 
Hemisphere,  although  there  are  some  widely  distributed  deep-sea  forms,  and 
a  very  few  live  in  fresh  water.  All  the  members  of  the  family  are  edible  ;  and 
as  they  are  particularly  suitable  for  salting,  their  value  as  a  food-supply  is 
very  great,  although  the  taste  and  quality  of  their  flesh  is  far  inferior  to  that 
of  many  other  fish.  In  the  typical  genus  Gadus  are  included  the  greater 
number  of  the  larger  and  more 
valuable  species,  such  as  the  com- 
mon cod  (G.  morrhud),  the  haddock 
(G.  ceglefiiiits),  the  whiting  (G.  mer- 
langus),  the  pollack  (G.  pollachius), 
and  the  coal-fish  (G.  virens).  In  all 
of  these  there  are  three  dorsal  and 
two  anal  fins  ;  and  whereas  teeth 
are  developed  on  the  vomerine  bones 
of  the  palate,  the  palatines  are 
toothless.  Most,  although  not  all,  •*%•  22.— COMMON  COD. 

have  a  barbel  on  the  chin.     In  the 

allied  group  of  the  hakes  (Merluccius)  this  barbel  is  wanting,  while  the  num- 
ber of  dorsal  fins  is  reduced  to  two,  and  there  is  but  a  single  anal ;  the  pelvic 
fins  being  strong,  and  broad  at  the  base,  and  teeth  being  present  alike  in  the 
jaws  and  on  the  vomer.  The  large  fresh- water  cod  known  as  the  burbot  (Lota 
vulgaris)  is  found  both  in  Europe  and  in  North  America,  and  has  the  same 
number  of  fins  as  the  hakes,  but  the  body  is  longer,  the  head  flatter,  and  the 
chin  bears  a  barbel.  Nearly  allied  are  the  marine  lings  (Molva\  distinguished 
by  having  several  large  teeth  on  the  vomer  and  in  the  lower  jaw.  In  the 
rocklings  (Motella)  the  first  dorsal  fin  merely  forms  a  fringe,  partly  concealed 
in  a  groove  ;  and  there  are  barbels — varying  in  number  with  the  species — to 
both  jaws.  Some  members  of  this  genus  are  remarkable  on  account  of  their 
southern  habitat,  being  found  in  the  seas  of  New  Zealand  and  the  Cape. 

Although  most  familiarly  known  by  the  sand-eels,  the  chief  interest  in  the 
family  Ophidiidce  centres  round  the  blind  cave-fish  from  the  caves  of  Cuba. 
In  none  of  the  tribe  are  the  pelvic  fins  fi>lly  developed,  and 
in  eome  they  are  wanting  ;  while  there  is  no  distinct  first          Family 
dorsal  or  first  anal,  and  the  caudal  fin  is  in  most  cases  nob        Ophidiidce. 
distinct  from  the  other  median  fins.     The  two  small  fresh- 
water fishes  constituting  the  genus  Lucifuga  are  sufficiently  distinguished  by 
the  absence  of  eyes  ;  but  they  have  a  near  ally  in  the  marine  Brotula,  which 
possesses  fully  developed  visual  organs.     There  are,  however,  blind  deep-sea 
types,  such  as  Typhlonus.     All  these  retain  pelvic  fins,  which  are  jugular  in 
position  ;  but  in  the  typical  Ophidium  these  are  replaced  by  long  filaments. 
Very  interesting  are  the  somewhat  eel-like  small  parasitic  fishes  constituting 
the  genera  JSncheliophis  and  Fierasfer,  which  frequent  the  breathing-chambers 
of  sea-cucumbers,  the  interior  of  bivalve  molluscs,  and  other  safe  positions  in 
living  animals.     They  have  no  pelvic  fins,  and  the  vent  is  situated  quite  close 
up  to  the  throat.     On  the  other  hand,   in  the  sand-launces,  or  sand-eels 
(Ammodytes),  while  pelvic  fins  are  absent,  the  position  of  the  vent  is  normal. 
These  fish — which  love  to  bury  themselves  in  the  sand — have  elongated  bodies, 
on  which  the  low  dorsal  fin  extends  from  a  little  distance  behind  the  head  to 
the  tail,  while  the  anal  occupies  almost  all  the  hinder  half  of  the  lower  surface. 


492  PISCES— SUB-CLASS  JIL—TELEOSTOML 


Of  comparatively  little  importance  is  the  small  marine  family  typified  by 

the  genus  Macrurus.      Their  chief  character  is  that  the  body  terminates 

behind  in  an  elongated,  tapering,  compressed  tail,  without 

Family          an  expanded  caudal  fin,  and  is  coated  with  scales,  which  may 

Macruridce.       be  either  striated,  keeled,  or  spined.     Some  of  the  numerous 

species  measure  as  much  as  a  yard  in  length. 

The  last  family  of  the  sub-order  is  that  of  the  flat-fishes,  which  forms  a 
section  to  itself,  known  as  the  Pleuronectoidei,  and  characterised  by  the  un- 
symmetrical  conformation  of  the  head  and  anterior  portion 
Family  of  the  body  in  the  adult.     This  strange  modification  renders 

Pleuronectoidce.  the  flat-fishes  quite  distinct  from  all  other  members  of  the 
class,  and  by  bringing  the  two  eyes  to  one  side  of  the  body — 
it  may  be  the  right  or  it  may  be  the  left — enables  them  to  rest  with  the  other 
side  on  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  Generally,  too,  they  swim  in  this  position, 
although  it  is  believed  that  some  of  the  less  modified  types  swira>  at  least  at 
times,  in  the  normal  manner.  In  this  type  of  fish  we  have,  as  Dr.  Bashford 
Dean  remarks,  "  a  singular  instance  of  environmental  evolution,  the  flattened 
body  adapting  itself  both  in  shape  and  colour  to  its  bottom-living.  Its  entire 
side — not  the  ventral  region,  as  in  the  rays — is  flattened  to  the  bottom.  The 
unpaired  fins  now  become  of  especial  value  ;  they  increase  in  size,  and  their 
undulatory  movements  enable  the  fish  to  swim  rapidly  yet  retain  its  one- 
sided position ;  ventral  fins  become  useless  and  degenerate.  The  further 
adaptations  of  the  flat-fish  include  its  pigmentation  only  on  the  upper  or 
light -exposed  side,  in  this  giving  one  of  the  most  remarkable  cases  of  adapta- 
tion known  among  vertebrates.'5  Among  the  rather  numerous  genera  consti- 
tuting this  family,  the  one  in  which  the  adaptation  is  least  developed  is 
Psettodes,  represented  by  a  species  whose  distribution  extends  from  China  to 
the  west  coast  of  Africa.  In  this  fish  the  dorsal  fin,  which  in  the  other  types 
commences  at,  or  in  front  of  the  eye,  begins  on  the  neck  ;  the  eyes  being 
either  on  the  left  or  the  right  side.  The  two  species  of  halibut  (Hippoglossus) 
mark  one  step  in  advance,  the  dorsal  fin  starting  above  the  eye,  although  the 
jaws  are  still  of  nearly  equal  development  on  both  sides.  More  specialised 
is  the  genus  Rhombus,  which  includes  the  turbot,  brill,  and  mary-sole.  Here 
the  dorsal  fin  commences  on  the  snout,  and  the  eyes  are  situated  on  the  left 
side  of  the  body;  the  scales  being  either  minute  or  wanting.  All  these  fishes 

have  teeth  on  the  vomerine  bones 
of  the  palate,  but  since  the  so- 
called  top-knot  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  Channel  has  an 
edentulous  vomer,  it  is  referred  to 
a  genus  apart,  under  the  name  of 
Phrynorhombus.  Omitting  men- 
tion of  a  number  of  other  less 
familiar  genera,  brief  reference 
must  be  made  to  Pleuronectes,  so 
well  known  in  the  shape  of  the 
flounder  and  the  plaice.  In  these 
Fig.  23.— THE  FLOUNDER.  fish  the  dorsal  fin  starts  above  the 

eye,  and  the  narrow  mouth  is  very 

unsymmetrical,  having  its  teeth  much  more  developed  on  the  blind  than  on 
the  coloured  side.  There  are  no  teeth  in  the  palate,  and  the  eyes  are  gener- 
ally on  the  right  side,  scales  being  small  or  wanting.  Lastly,  the  soles  (Solea) 


BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS.  493 


are  right-eyed  fishes,  with  the  upper  eye  somewhat  in  front  of  the  lower  one, 
and  the  narrow  mouth  twisted  round  to  the  left  side ;  the  dorsal  fin,  which  is 
distinct  from  the  caudal,  starting  on  the  snout. 


SUB-ORDER   V. — PHYSOSTOMI. 

Section  A. — Apodes. 

The  bony  fishes  formhig  the  present  group  are  broadly  distinguished  from 
all  the  foregoing  by  the  possession  of  a  duct  to  the  air-bladder  when  present; 
such  duct  opening  either  into  the  oesophagus  or  the  stomach.  To  this  leading 
and  all-important  internal  feature  of  the  group  it  may  b?  added,  that  exter- 
nally all  these  fishes  have  the  pelvic  fins  situated  far  behind  the  pectoral  pair, 
whence  they  are  described  as  abdominal  in  position.  If  the  skull  be  ex- 
amined, it  will  be  found  that,  as  a  general  rule,  the  parietal  bones  meet  in  the 
middle  line.  The  rays  supporting  the  fins  are  mostly  soft,  although  the  first 
in  the  pectoral  pair  and  dorsal  are  spiny.  Most  of  these  features  are  primi- 
tive— a  duct  to  the  air-bladder  being  found  in  the  succeeding  sub-orders  of 
the  Teleostomi,  which  are  clearly  low  types — and  it  may  accordingly  be 
inferred  that  the  Physostomi  are  inferior  in  their  organisation  to  the  groups 
in  which  the  air-bladder  is  unprovided  with  a  duct.  The  section  named 
above  includes  three  families  of  eel-like  fishes,  but  as  the  features  by  which 
this  section  differs  from  those  that  follow  are  deep-seated  and  would  require 
a  considerable  amount  of  technical  language  for  their  adequate  explanation, 
they  cannot  be  described  on  this  occasion. 

The  Murwnidm  are  all  characterised  by  their  snake-like  bodily  form,  but  as 
this  form  is  common  to  the  other  two  families  included  in  the  section,  other 
features  have  to  be  relied  on  for  the  definition  of  the  group. 
Unfortunately,  many  of  these  features  can  only  be  observed  The  Eel-Tribe. — 
by  an  examination  of  the  skeleton  or  internal  soft  parts.  Family  Murcen- 
Externally  eels  are  characterised  by  the  absence  of  the  pelvic  idee. 

pair  of  fins,  and  in  some  forms  the  pectorals  are  likewise 
wanting.  If  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  are  developed,  these  either  form  with 
the  tail  a  continuous  fringe,  or  are  merely  separated  by  the  projecting  ex- 
tremity of  the  latter.  The  skin  is  either  bare,  or  contains  minute  rudimental 
scales.  The  backward  position  of  the  vent  is  likewise  a  characteristic  feature 
of  the  family.  More  important  is  the  structure  of  the  upper  jaw,  of  which 
the  front  portion  of  the  margin  is  formed  by  the  premaxillse,  while  the  sides 
are  constituted  by  the  maxillae,  which  are  well  provided  with  teeth.  Equally 
important  is  the  circumstance  that  posteriorly  the  skull  has  no  connection  with 
the  pectoral  arch,  which  is  attached  solely  to  the  vertebrae  of  the  neck.  Of 
the  soft  parts,  it  will  suffice  to  state  that  there  are  no  ducts  to  the  reproduc- 
tive organs.  Whereas  some  members  of  the  family  are  exclusively  marine, 
others  pass  a  considerable  portion  of  their  existence  in  fresh  waters.  Among 
the  former  are  the  brightly-coloured  and  frequently  gigantic  species  constit- 
uting the  genus  Murcena,  some  of  which  grow  to  fully  eight  feet  in  length. 
They  have  no  paired  fins,  although  the  median  ones  are  well  developed  ;  and 
save  for  the  presence  of  the  latter,  are  exceedingly  like  large  snakes.  In  all 
the  skin  is  naked,  and  in  many  the  teeth  are  very  large  and  powerful.  A 
peculiar  feature  is  the  presence  of  two  pairs  of  external  nostrils,  of  which  the 
foremost  are  tubular,  while  the  hinder  pair  are  also  of  a  similar  type  in  certain 


494  PISCES— SUB-CLASS  III.—TELEOSTOML 


species.  There  are  many  representatives  of  the  genus  from  tropical  and  tem- 
perate seas,  some  of  which  ascend  tidal  rivers.  All  are  highly  predaceous. 
The  so-called  glass-eels  (Leptocephalus)  are  larval  forms  of  the  members  of 
the  present  family.  Although  occasionally  brought  by  currents  to  the  surface, 
they  live  at  great  depths  in  the  sea.  Before  turning  into  the  adult  form  they 
undergo  a  distinct  metamorphosis.  Nearly  allied  are  the  five  representatives 
of  the  genus  Gymnomurcena,  which  inhabit  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans,  and 
have  the  median  fins  represented  by  mere  rudiments  near  the  extremity  of 
the  tail.  From  both  these  genera  the  true  eels  (Anguilla)  may  be  easily 
distinguished  by  the  retention  of  the  pectoral  fins,  which  are  placed  close  to  the 
head,  and  have  the  narrow  gill-openings  just  behind  their  roots.  The  two 
jaws  are  approximately  equal  in  length;  the  skin  contains  a  number  of  rudi- 
mental  scales ;  and  the  teeth  are  small  and  arranged  in  the  form  of  bands.  Eels 
are  so  familiar  to  all  that  they  need  no  further  description.  Before  com- 
panies were  so  careful  in  filtering  their  water  as  at  present,  eels  would,  not 
unfrequently,  enter  the  service-pipes,  where  they  would  remain  until  the  pas- 
sage became  completely  choked,  owing  to  their  increase  in  size.  Eels  occur 
in  the  fresh  waters  of  all  parts  of  the  world  where  the  temperature  is  not  per- 
manently below  the  freezing  point.  Reams  of  paper  have  been  spoilt  in  dis- 
cussing their  breeding-habits,  which  long  remained  a  mystery.  It  is,  how- 
ever, now  ascertained  that  eels  breed  only  in  the  sea,  and  that  the  repro- 
ductive process  seems  to  be  fatal  to  their  existence  ;  such  individuals  as  are 
confined  to  fresh  waters  being  sterile.  In  autumn  such  adults  as  are  enabled 
to  find  a  passage  make  their  way  to  the  ocean,  whence  they  never  return  ; 
while  in  spring  the  elvers,  or  young  eels,  ascend  the  rivers,  frequently  in  enor- 
mous numbers.  On  such  migrations  scarcely  any  obstacles  will  stay  their  ad- 
vance, and  they  have  even  been 
known  to  circumvent  a  barrier  by 
leaving  the  water  and  making  a 
detour  over  moist  rocks  or  marshy 
ground.  Thus  St.  John  writes  that 
in  a  Scotch  river  when  the  elvers 
"  came  to  a  fall  that  they  could  not 
possibly  ascend,  they  wriggled  out 
of  the  water,  and  gliding  along  the 
rock,  close  to  the  edge  where  the 
stone  was  constantly  wet  from  the 
Fig.  24.— SERPENT-EEL.  splashing  and  spray  of  the  fall,  they 

made  their  way  up  till  they  got  above 

the  difficulty,  and  then  again  slipping  into  the  water,  continued  their  course." 
Writing  of  eel-migrations  in  the  Thames,  Jesse  observes  that  this  takes  place 
in  May.  "  The  young  eels  are  about  two  inches  in  length,  and  they  make 
their  approach  in  one  regular  and  undeviating  column  of  about  five  inches  in 
breadth,  and  as  thick  together  as  it  is  possible  for  them  to  be.  As  the  pro- 
cession generally  lasts  two  or  three  days,  and  as  they  appear  to  move  at  the 
rate  of  nearly  two  miles  and  a  half  an  hour,  some  idea  may  be  formed  of  their 
enormous  number.''  The  largest  eels  occur  in  Oceania,  where  examples 
measuring  as  much  as  ten  feet  in  length  have  been  recorded.  From  the  true 
eels  the  marine  species  included  in  the  genus  Conger  differ  by  the  total  want 
of  scales,  as  well  as  by  the  larger  mouth,  the  presence  of  an  outer  series  of 
cutting  teeth  in  the  jaws,  and  the  more  forward  extension  of  the  dorsal  fin. 
At  least  four  species  of  conger  are  known,  among  which  C.  vulgaris  is  almost 


BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS.  495 


cosmopolitan  in  distribution.  Congers  are  found  at  moderate  depths  on  rocky 
bottoms,  and  are  extremely  voracious,  taking  at  night  almost  any  kind  of  bait. 
Eight  feet  is  not  an  uncommon  length  for  one  of  these  eels.  There  are  also 
deep-sea  congers,  such  as  Synaphobranchus  and  Saccopharynx,  living  at  depths 
down  to  two  thousand  fathoms  ;  the  former  being  characterised  by  the  union 
of  the  gill-openings  to  form  a  median  slit  on  the  under  surface  of  the  fore-part 
of  the  body,  and  the  latter  by  the  soft  and  spongy  texture  of  the  flesh  of  the 
body.  An  allied  group  is  formed  by  the  numerous  tropical  species  of 
Ophichthys,  in  which  the  nostrils  are  situated  in  the  lips,  and  the  extremity  of 
the  tail  is  free  and  finless. 

There  are  many  other  generic  representatives  of  the  Murcenidce,  but  we 
pass  on  to  briefly  notice  the  small  family  of  the  Symbranchidce,  which  takes  its 
name  from  the  gill-openings  forming  a  transverse  slit  on  the 
lower  surface.     In  these  eels  the  median  fins  are  wanting,  Family 

and  the  paired   fins  rudimental,  while  the   margin   of  the    Symbranchidce. 
upper  jaw  is  formed  solely  by  the  premaxillse.     The  air- 
bladder,  too,  is  wanting  ;  but  ducts  are  present  to  the  reproductive  organs. 
Most  of  the  members  of  the  family  are  fresh-water  forms  from  Tropical 
America  and  Asia,  but  the  Tasmanian  and  Australian  genus  Chilobranchiis 
is  marine.      The   Indian   Amphipnous  —  in   which  the   gills  are  much  re- 
duced— is  remarkable  for  the  possession  of  an  additional  breathing-organ 
in   the   form   of  a   lung-like   sac   on   each   side   of   the   body  close   behind 
the  head. 

The  third  and  last  family  of  the  section  is  represented  by  certain  fresh- 
water eels  from  Tropical  America,  which  are  arranged  in  five  genera.     From 
the   Murcenidce  these   eels    may   be   distinguished    by  the 
absence  or  rudimental  condition  of  the  dorsal  fin,  the  great  Family 

elongation  of  the  anal,  and  the  general  absence  of  the  caudal,       Gymnotidce. 
fin,  the  tail  terminating  in  a  point,  and  being  as  fragile  as 
that  of  the  blind-worm.     The  vent  is  placed  close  to  the  throat,  the  repro- 
ductive organs  have  ducts,  and  the  pectoral  girdle  is  connected  with  the  skull. 
The  chief  interest  of  this  family  is  concentrated  on  the  electric  eel  (Gymnotus 
electricus),  from  the  fresh-waters  of  the  Guianas  and  Brazil,  which  attains  a 
length  of  six  feet,  and  is  provided 
with    electric    organs    very  similar 
in  structure  to  those  of  the  electric 
ray  described  in   the    sequel,    and 
capable  of  inflicting  equally  power- 
ful shocks.     Most  books  on  natural 
history    copy    from    Humboldt    a 
wonderful  account  of  the  capture 
of  these   eels  by  means  of  horses 
driven    into    the   waters  they  fre- 
quent, but  there  is  only  too  much 
reason  to    believe  that  the  whole  Fig.  25.— ELECTRIC  EEL. 

story  is  a  pure  fiction,  although  not 

an  intentional  one,  on  the  part  of  the  illustrious  traveller.  It  is  high 
time  that  it  should  be  forgotten. 


496  PISCES— SUB-CLASS  III.—TELEOSTOMI. 


Section  B. — Nematagnathi. 

The  second  section  of  the  Physostomi  includes  only  the  cat-fishes  or  sheath- 
fishes,   typified  by  the   huge  wels  (Siluriis  glaitis)  of  the  larger  rivers   of 
Eastern  Europe,  which  is  the  sole  European  representative 
Cat-fishes. —      of  this  immense  family.     Apart  from  the  structural  features 
Family          distinctive  of  the  section,  the  cat-fishes  are  characterised  by 
SiluridcB.         the  skin  of  the  body  being  either  naked,  or  protected  by 
bony  plates  of  variable  size,  scales  being  invariably  wanting. 
In  all,  the  mouth  is  provided  with  barbels,  or  feelers,  frequently  of  great 
length,  and  it  is  from  the  presence  of  these  highly  sensitive  organs  that  the 
name  of  cat-fish  is  due.     Many  of  them  have  the  bones  of  the  hinder  region 
of  the  skull  ornamented  with  a  rough  tubercular  sculpture,  and  there  is  fre- 
quently a  large  shield,  similarly  sculptured,  covering  the  upper  surface  of  the 
neck  and  shoulders.     Often,  too,  the  front  of  the  dorsal  fin  is  armed  with  a 
long,  powerful,  and  sometimes  poisonous,  spine,  which  in  some  forms  can  be 
raised  or  depressed  by  the  aid  of  a  kind  of  trigger-like  arrangement  connected 
with  the  spines  of  the  vertebrae  of  the  neck.     Very  often  there  is  a  fatty 
dorsal  fin,  and  there  is  also  a  rayed  dorsal.     In  the  skull  the  margin  of  the 
upper  jaw  is  mainly  formed  by  the  premaxillse  ;  but  a  more  important  char- 
acter is  to  be  found  in  the  absence  from  the  gill-cover  of  the  bone  technically 
known  as  the  subopercular.     The  air-bladder,  which  may  be  bony,  is  very 
generally  present,  and  is  then  connected  with  the  internal  ear  by  means  of 
minute  bones.      Cat-fishes  are  ugly  creatures,   with  large  ungainly  heads, 
small  eyes,  and  the  aforesaid  long  barbels.     Some,  like  the  Oriental  Bayarius 
yarelli,  grow  to  a  length  of  a  couple  of  yards,  and  have  huge  ugly  mouths, 
opening  nearly  the  full  width  of  the  head.     In  habits  they  are  sluggish,  and 
dwell  for  the  most  part  on  the  bottom  of  muddy  rivers,  lakes,  or  ponds, 
where  their  barbels  probably  play  a  large  part  in  enabling  them  to  find  their 
way  about.     They  are  remarkably  tenacious  of  life,  and  the  writer  once  found 
it  absolutely  impossible  to   kill  some   of   these  fish,   caught  while  he  was 
quarantined  on  board  ship  in  the  Rio  de  la  Plata.     All  these  fishes  should  be 
handled  with  extreme  caution,  as  the  spines  of  many  of  them  are  capable  of 
inflicting  extremely  dangerous  wounds.     Their  flesh,  although  eatable,  is  of 
poor  quality.     In  the  rivers  and  lakes  of  India  and  other  Oriental  countries, 
cat-fish  are  extremely  abundant,  as  they  also  are  in  those  of  South  America, 
where  the  shores  of  every  little  pond  is  strewn  with  their  skulls.     They 
appear  to  inhabit  ponds  or  lakes  liable  to  be  dried  up  in  seasons  of  unusual 
drought,  and  at  such  times  they  doubtless  are  enabled  to  survive  by  burying 
themselves  deep  down  in  the  mud.     Although  the  majority  are  fresh-water 
fishes,  some  will  enter  salt  water  temporarily,  while  others  are  permanent 
residents  there.     For  the  most  part  they  keep  near  the  coasts,  but  from  the 
circumstance  that  one  species  is  common  to  the  rivers  of  India  and  some  of 
the  Malayan  countries,  it  would  seem  that  certain  kinds  occasionally  traverse 
a  considerable  extent  of  sea.     In  certain  forms,   like  the  members  of  the 
genus  Arius,  the  males  are  in  the  habit  of  taking  charge  of  the  nursery 
arrangements,  by  carrying  the  eggs  about  with  them  in  their  mouths.     Since 
the  family  comprises  considerably  more  than  a  hundred  distinct  genera,  it  is 
obviously  impossible  to  give  any  adequate  account  in  a  work  of  the  present 
nature.     It  is  sub-divided  into  several  sections,   in  the  first  of  which  the 
dorsal  and  anal  fins  occupy  the  greater  part  of  the  length  of  the  body,  the 


BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS.  497 


African  and  Asiatic  genus  Clarias  being  an  example  of  this  section.     To  the 

second  section  belongs  the  typical  SHuTUS,  of  which  there  are  five  species,  from 

the  temperate  regions  of  Asia  and  Eastern  Europe.     Here  the  rayed  portion 

of  the  dorsal  fin  is  much  reduced  in  length, 

and,  if  present  at  all,  confined   to   the 

hinder  region  of  the  back,  while  the  fatty 

dorsal  is  also  small  or  wanting.     On  the 

other  hand,  the  anal  is  long,  occupying 

nearly  the  whole  of  the  caudal  region. 

The  third  group  is  small,  and  of  little 

importance  ;    but  the   fourth  is  a  very 

large    one,    and     includes    the    Nilotic 

Bagriis  (represented  by  the  bagad),  the  Fig.  26.— THE  WELS. 

South  American  Pimelodus,  the  widely 

spread  Arius,   the   gigantic   Asiatic  Bagarius,   and   a   host   of   others.      In 

this  group  the  short-rayed  dorsal  does  not  include  more  than  a  dozen  rays, 

and  is  placed  far  back  on  the  body  ;  the  fatty  dorsal  is  present,  although 

often  small  ;  and  the  anal  is  much  shorter  than  the  caudal  portion  of  the 

backbone.     If  barbels  are  present  on  the  nose,  they  belong  to  the  hinder 

of  the  two  pairs  of  nostrils.     Passing  over  the  fifth  group,   and  likewise 

omitting  mention  of  the  seventh  and  eighth,  attention  may  be  directed  to  the 

sixth,  011  account  of  its  including  a  number  of  South  and  Central  American 

forms  in  which  the  body  is  invested  in  a  more  or  less  complete  armour, 

formed  of  large  plates  of  bone.     As  examples,  may  be  mentioned  the  short 

and  deep-bodied  Callichthys,  and  the  long  and  slender  Loricaria  and  Hypo- 

ptopoma,  all  three  of  which  are  abundantly  represented  in  the  Amazons. 


Section  C. — Plectispondyli. 

The  third  section  of  the  Physostomi  is  an  important  one,  as  containing  the 
large  family  of  the  carps,  together  with  two  other  family  groups.  In  both 
the  Nematognathi  and  Plectispondyli  the  first  four  vertebrae  in  the  neck  are 
specially  modified  and  united  into  a  single  mass  ;  but  the  subopercular  bone, 
which,  as  already  mentioned,  is  wanting  in  the  gill-cover  of  the  former  sec- 
tion, is  present  in  that  of  the  latter. 

Although  the  numerous  members  of  the  large  fresh-water  family  of  the 
carps  come  under  the  designation  of  "  coarse-fish,"  yet,  owing  to  its  cheap- 
ness, their  flesh  affords  an  important  article  of  food  among 
certain  races  and  classes,  while  many  of  the  species  afford  Family 

sport  to  those  anglers  who  do  not  aspire  to  the  highest  grade  CyprinidcK. 
of  their  pastime.  All  the  carps  have  naked  heads  and  tooth- 
less sucking  mouths  ;  such  teeth  as  they  may  possess  being  confined  to  the 
pharyngeal  bones  of  the  throat.  Usually  the  body  is  covered  with  scales, 
but  if  these  are  wanting  the  skin  is  naked.  Some  kinds  are  provided  with 
false  gills  of  a  glandular  type  ;  and  the  air-bladder,  when  present,  is  large, 
and  may  be  divided  either  longitudinally  or  transversely  into  two  portions. 
When  longitudinally  divided,  it  has  a  bony  capsule.  In  no  carps  is  there  a 
fatty  dorsal  fin  ;  but  the  mouth  often  bears  short  barbels.  Carp  are  un- 
known both  in  Central  and  South  America  and  Australasia,  but  are  elsewhere 
almost  universally  distributed.  Their  distribution  is  thus  coextensive  with 
the  Arctogseic  realm,  as  defined  in  the  introductory  part  of  the  section  on 
33 


X 
498  PISCES— SUB-CLASS  IIL—TELEOSTOMI. 


mammals.  Unlike  the  cat-fish,  the  carps  prefer  clear  water ;  and  while  the 
majority  subsist  on  a  mixed  diet,  some  prefer  animal  substances  ;  some  others 
confine  themselves  more  or  less  exclusively  to  food  of  a  vegetable  nature. 
Although  the  family  approaches  the  Siluridw  in  point  of  numbers,  the  .im- 
portance of  its  members  claim  for  it  a  somewhat  fuller  notice. 

The  typical  sub-family  Cypridince  is  characterised  by  the  air-bladder  being 
divided  by  a  transverse  constriction  into  two  chambers,  and  not  invested  in 
a  bony  capsule.  With  the  exception  of  the  Oriental  genus  Homalopterus — 
in  which  they  are  increased  to  three,  and  the  air-bladder  is  wanting — the 
number  of  pairs  of  barbels  does  not  exceed  two,  but  one  or  both  of  these 
may  be  absent.  Of  the  various  genera  of  this  sub-family,  the  typical 
Cyprinus  includes  a  small  number  of  species  from  the  fresh  waters  of  tem- 
perate Asia  and  Europe,  the  common  Cyprinus  carpio  having  been  originally 

introduced  to  the  latter  continent  from 
the  former.  In  common  with  certain 
other  genera,  Cyprinus  generally  has 
the  short  anal  fin  provided  with  five  or 
six  branching  rays  ;  but  it  is  specially 
characterised  by  the  lateral  line  oc- 
cupying the  middle  of  each  side  of  the 
tail,  and  by  the  dorsal  fin  having  its 
Fig.  27.— COMMON  CARP.  front  edge  placed  immediately  above 

the   pelvic    pair,    and    including    one 

serrated  bony,  and  more  than  nine  branching  rays.  The  blunted  muzzle 
carries  two  pairs  of  barbels  ;  and  the  teeth  form  a  complete  triple  series,  the 
outermost  of  which  are  adapted  for  crushing.  From  this  genus,  Carassius, 
which  includes  the  crucian  carp  of  Europe  and  the  gold-fish  of  China  and 
Japan,  differs  by  the  absence  of  barbels.  Nearly  allied  is  the  very  large  Old 
World  genus  Barbus,  typified  by  the  common  European  barbel,  but  also  well 
known  in  the  person  of  the  huge  mahasir  (B.  tor\  which  affords  such  excel- 
lent sport  with  rod-and-line  from  Kashmir  to  Ceylon.  The  members  of  this 
genus  have  the  mouth  arched,  and  are  provided  with  false  gills  ;  the  barbels 
may  be  either  four,  two,  or  none,  and  the  scales  are  very  variable  in  size, 
while  the  form  of  the  body  is  often  less  deep  than  in  Cyprinus.  Of  the 
mahasir,  or  mahseer,  General  Macintyre  writes,  that  * '  on  the  back  its  hue  is 
a  dark  olive-green,  shaded  off— on  the  sides  of  a  well -conditioned  fish— into 
a  golden  orange,  which  merges  into  pale  pink  and  silvery- white  below,  it 
has  rather  large  toothless  jaws,  lined  with  a  very  tough  membrane,  so  it 
requires  to  be  struck  pretty  hard  to  be  properly  hooked.  When  I  say  struck, 
I  mean  that  after  the  fish  has  hooked  itself,  as  it  will  do  by  its  own  weight, 
a  good  pull  without  a  jerk  is  necessary  to  drive  home  the  barb  into  its 
leathern  jaws.  Owing  to  this  toughness  of  mouth,  a  mahasir  when  fixed  is 
seldom  lost  unless  it  breaks  the  tackle.  This  a  big  fish  will  often  do  in  its 
first  plunge,  when  it  sometimes  has  a  way  of  lashing  its  tail  over  the  line. 
That  crisis  being  safely  over,  if  your  tackle  is  trustworthy,  landing  your  fish 
is  usually  only  a  matter  of  time  and  patience.  Its  strong  teeth  are  set  far 
back  in  its  gullet,  and  the  stoutest  tackle  has  a  poor  chance  if  it  gorges  your 
lure  beyond  them.  It  cannot  be  easily  clipped,  as  its  large  round  scales  are 
so  hard  that  the  sharpest  gaff  will  glance  off  them.  When  running  a  mahasir 
after  it  has  been  finely  hooked,  I  have  never  known  it  leap  from  the  water, 
and  I  think  it  rarely  does  so,  but  its  long  and  rapid  rushes  quite  equal,  if 
they  do  not  surpass,  those  of  any  salmon  of  a  similar  size,  As  regards  its 


BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS.  499 


weight,  I  am  well  within  the  mark  when  I  state  that  the  mahasir  reaches 
nearly,  if  not  quite,  100  Ibs.  The  largest  mahasir  I  ever  heard  of  as  having 
been  taken  with  a  trolling  bait  was  93  Ibs. ;  and  with  fly,  and  that  turned  the 
scale  at  62  Ibs.  But  such  monsters  as  these  are  very  seldom  landed  with 
the  rod." 

Nearly  allied  are  the  two  species  of  gudgeons,  constituting  the  genus  Gobio, 
which  differ  from  the  carps  in  that  the  pharyngeal,  or  throat-teeth,  are 
arranged  in  one  or  two  series  instead  of  forming  three  rows.  In  these 
familiar  fish  the  whole  of  the  body  is  invested  with  scales  of  moderate  size, 
and  the  mouth,  which  is  inferior  in  position,  has  the  bones  on  its  upper 
margin  protrusile,  and  there  are  two  barbels.  Gudgeon  are  found  on  the 
pebbly  beds  of  clear  streams,  where  they  feed  on  minute  aquatic  animals. 

The  numerous  kinds  of  so-called  white  fish,  such  as  the  dace,  roach,  and 
chub,  belong  to  the  genus  Leuciscus,  and,  in  common  with  certain  other 
genera,  differ  from  the  foregoing  types  in  the  conformation  of  the  anal  fin, 
which  is  either  of  moderate  length  or  short,  includes  from  eight  to  eleven 
branching  rays,  and  does  not  extend  so  far  forwards  as  the  line  of  the  hinder 
edge  of  the  dorsal.  In  the  preceding  forms  the  same  tin  usually  has  only  five  or 
six  branched  rays.  The  white  fish  have  no  barbels,  neither  is  there  a  cutting 
edge  to  their  jaws  ;  while  the  throat-teeth  are  arranged  in  one  or  two  rows, 
and  the  dorsal  fin  is  short,  and  without  a  bony  ray.  White  fish  are  found 
throughout  the  fresh  waters  of  the  cooler  portions  of  the  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere, but  their  species  are  more  numerous  in  Europe  and  Asia  than  in 
America.  Their  form  and  habits  are  sufficiently  familiar  to  all.  Nearly 
allied  to  the  white  fish  is  the  golden-coloured  tench,  which  represents  a 
genus  (Tinea)  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  a  pair  of  barbels  to  the  mouth, 
the  slight  extent  to  which  the  tail  is  notched,  and  the  minute  size  of  the 
scales.  In  this  fish  the  lateral  line  is  complete,  and  runs  nearly  in  the  middle 
of  each  side  of  the  tail,  as  it  does  in  such  of  the  white  fish  as  have  it  fully 
developed.  Certain  allied  fishes  from  the  Old  World,  constituting  the  genus 
Chondrostoma,  may  be  recognised  by  the  sharp  cutting  edge  of  the  lower  jaw, 
which  is  sheathed  in  horn.  None  of  these  fishes  are  British,  as  is  also  the 
case  with  the  so-called  bitterlings  (fihodeus),  of  which  there  are  four  species. 
The  breams  (Abramis)  bring  us,  however,  to  another  genus  with  an  English 
representative.  In  this  and  certain  other  genera  of  the  carp  tribe,  the  anal 
fin  is  considerably  elongated,  and  some  portion  at  least  of  the  lower  border 
of  the  abdomen  is  compressed  to  such  an  extent  as  to  form  a  sharp  keel-like 
edge.  In  the  bream  the  short  and  spineless  dorsal  fin  is  situated  over  the 
space  between  the  pelvics  and  anal,  the  scales  are  of  moderate  size,  and  the 
lateral  line  runs  somewhat  below  the  middle  line  of  the  tail.  As  in  the  white 
fish,  the  bones  of  the  upper  jaw  are  capable  of  protrusion,  and  some  members 
of  the  genus  present  the  remarkable  peculiarity  of  being  "underhung,"  that 
is  to  say,  they  have  the  lower  jaw  somewhat  longer  than  the  upper.  Passing 
over  several  allied  species,  mention  must  be  made  of  the  beautiful  pearly  little 
fish  known  as  bleak  (Alburnus\  of  which  there  are  a  considerable  number  of 
species  inhabiting  the  fresh  waters  of  Europe  and  Western  Asia.  In  addition 
to  the  silvery  lustre  from  which  they  take  their  name,  these  little  fishes  are 
specially  characterised  by  the  slender  form  of  their  gill-rakers,  which  are 
placed  close  together  ;  the  body  being  rather  slender,  the  lateral  line  running 
somewhat  below  the  middle  of  the  tail,  and  the  lower  jaw  somewhat  exceed- 
ing the  upper  in  length.  Formerly  the  scales  of  the  bleak  were  employed 
for  making  artificial  pearls,  the  pearly  matter  being  washed  off,  and  after- 


500  PISCES— SUB-CLASS  IIL—TELEOSTOML 


wards  deposited  in  the  inner  side  of  thin  glass  balls,  of  which  the  small 
aperture  was  finally  closed  with  wax.  An  account  of  this  manufacture  will 
be  found  in  a  small  work  on  British  fishes  by  Frank  Buckland.  On  account 
of  the  almost  vertical  position  of  the  cleft  of  its  up-turned  mouth,  mention 
must  be  made  of  the  sichel  of  Eastern  Europe,  which  forms  a  genus  (Pelecus) 
sufficiently  distinguished  by  this  one  characteristic. 

The  rare  and  local  British  fish  known  as  the  spiny  loach  (Cobitis  tcenia)  is 
the  typical  member  of  the  second  sub-family  (Cobitiiwe)  of  the  carp  tribe  ;  a 
group  which  includes  several  other  genera  of  loaches,  all  confined  to  the 
fresh  waters  of  Europe  and  Asia.  In  all  the  members  of  this  sub-family  the 
air-bladder  is  enclosed,  either  completely  or  partly,  in  a  bony  capsule,  and 
none  possess  false  gills.  The  body,  too,  never  has  the  deep  form  character- 
istic of  the  carps,  and  in  some  groups  is  much  elongated.  Barbels,  varying 
in  number  from  six  to  twelve,  are  always  present,  and  the  mouth  is  inferior 
in  position,  with  fleshy  lips.  Whereas  the  pelvic  pair  may  be  Van  ting,  the 
median  fins  are  devoid  of  spines,  the  number  of  rays  in  the  dorsal  being 
variable,  but  those  of  the  anal  always  few.  The  tail-fin  is  rounded,  and  the 
scales,  if  present,  are  small,  and  buried  in  the  mucus  of  the  skin.  One  genus 
from  the  Oriental  countries  is  peculiar  in  possessing  scales  on  the  top  and 
sides  of  the  head.  The  spiny  loaches,  of  which  there  are  at  least  three 
species,  take  their  name  from  the  presence  of  a  pair  of  forked  spines  below 
the  eyes  ;  such  spines  being  capable  of  erection  at  the  will  of  their  owners. 
In  the  large  genus  Nemachilus,  which  includes  the  common  loach  (N.  barba- 
tulus)  of  every  English  stream,  the  spines  below  the  eyes  are  wanting,  and 
the  upper  jaw  alone  is  furnished  with  barbels,  of  which  there  are  three  pairs. 
The  third  European  genus,  Misyurnus,  includes  the  giant  loach  of  Europe, 
and  three  other  species ;  its  distributional  area  including  Europe  and  Asia 
north  of  the  Himalaya.  In  this  genus  there  are  either  five  or  six  pairs  of 
barbels,  two  of  which  arise  from  the  lower  jaw.  Many  other  genera  are 
found  in  the  Oriental  countries,  and  it  is  noteworthy  that  whereas  the 
European  forms  are  inhabitants  of  clear  running  waters,  these  latter  dwell 
in  tanks,  where  they  bury  themselves  in  the  mud  at  the  bottom.  All,  how- 
ever, agree  in  that  their  food  is  composed  exclusively  of  animal  substances. 

In  the  fresh  waters  of  Tropical  Africa  the  place  of  the  loaches  is  taken  by 
the  two  species  of  the  genus  Kneria,  which  form  a  family  by  themselves, 

distinguished  from  the  Cyprinidce  by  the  absence  of  throat, 
Family          or  pharyngeal  teeth,  the  simple,  undivided  form  of  the  air- 
Kneriidce.        bladder,  and  the  absence  of  barbels. 

Of  far  more  importance  than  the  last  is  the  very  exten- 
sive family  of  fresh-water  fishes  commonly  known  as  characinoid  fishes,  but 
which  might  perhaps  be  termed  the  southern  carps.  Their  distribution  is 

indeed  largely  complementary  to  that  of  the  Cyprinidce,  since 

Family          they  are  confined  to  Central  and  South  America,  and  Africa 

Erythrinidce.      south  of  the  Sahara  ;    carps  being  absent  from  the  former 

countries,  although  present  in  the  latter.  This  peculiar 
geographical  distribution  is  one  among  many  instances  of  the  close  affinity 
existing  between  the  faunas  of  these  two  areas.  The  explanation  of 
the  absence  of  the  Cyprinidce  from  South  America  may  possibly  be  that 
the  characinoids  entered  Africa  at  the  time  when  that  country  was  in 
communication  with  South  America,  whereas  the  carps  did  not  come  in  till 
that  communication  was  severed.  If  that  be  so,  the  Cyprinidce  must  have 
come  into  Africa  at  the  same  time  as  many  of  the  large  mammals,  such  as 


BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS.  501 


hippopotami,  giraffes,  rhinoceroses,  elephants,  and  antelopes.  From  the 
Cyprinidce  the  present  family  is  broadly  distinguished  by  certain  peculiarities 
in  the  structure  of  the  skull,  and  by  the  number  of  upper  pharyngeal  bones  being 
one  or  four,  in  place  of  two.  The  margin  of  the  upper  jaw  is  also  different,  in 
that  it  is  formed  in  front  by  the  premaxillse,  and  by  the  maxillae  at  the  sides, 
instead  of  entirely  by  the  former  bones.  Barbels,  too,  are  wanting  ;  but 
whereas  the  head  is  as  devoid  of  scales  as  in  the  Cyprinidcz,  the  jaws  may  be 
either  smooth  or  furnished  with  powerful  teeth.  In  such  an  extensive  family, 
it  is  but  little  use  referring  to  genera  by  name,  when  their  distinctive 
features  cannot  be  described.  It  may  be  mentioned,  however,  that  the 
African  and  the  American  genera  are  distinct  from  one  another,  and  that  the 
typical  Erythrinus  is  from  America.  Two  genera — of  which  Hydrocyon  is 
African,  and  Cynodon  Tropical  America — are,  however,  noteworthy  on  account 
of  the  large  size  and  predaceous  habits  of  some  of  their  representatives. 
Two  species  of  the  former  genus  are  abundant  in  the  Nile,  where  they  grow 
to  about  four  feet  in  length,  and  are  respectively  known  by  the  Egyptians  by 
the  names  of  Kelb-el-bahr  and  Kelb-el-moyeh. 


Section  D. — Haplopomi. 

In  this  fourth  section    of  the  Physostomi  the  first  four  vertebrae  of  the 
backbone  are  distinct  from  one  another,  and  unmodified  ;  the  supraoccipital 
bone  of  the   skull   extends  forwards  to   separate  the  two 
parietals,  and  the  full  number  of  bones  is  developed  in  the  Family 

gill-covers,  or  operculum.  The  pharyngeal  bones,  too,  are  Cyprinodontidce. 
separate,  and  in  the  upper  jaw  are  three  or  four  in  number, 
and  directed  forwards.  The  first  family  of  the  section  is  that  of  the 
Cyprinodontidce,  which  includes  a  considerable  number  of  genera  of  small 
fishes  ranging  over  America,  Africa,  Asia,  and  the  south  of  Europe,  and 
inhabiting  alike  salt,  brackish,  and  fresh  water.  With  a  mouth  devoid  of 
barbels,  these  fish  are  easily  recognised  by  the  scales  extending  on  to  the 
head,  as  well  as  by  the  absence  of  a  fatty  dorsal  fin,  and  the  backward 
position  of  the  rayed  dorsal.  As  in  the  carps,  the  margin  of  the  upper  jaw  is 
formed  entirely  by  the  premaxillary  bones.  The  third  upper  pharyngeal 
bone  is  enlarged,  and  teeth  are  present,  not  only  on  the  pharyngeals,  but 
likewise  in  the  margins  of  the  jaws.  Whereas  some  cyprinodonts  feed  on 
living  animals,  others  seek  their  food  in  mud.  The  males,  which  are  much 
inferior  in  size  to  their  partners,  include  some  of  the  smallest  of  all  living 
fishes  ;  and  most  species  produce  their  young  in  a  living  condition.  In  a 
family  so  extensive,  it  is  difficult  to  select  genera  for  special  mention.  The 
typical  Cyprinodon  has  a  very  wide  distribution,  and  is  represented  by  seven 
species  from  the  countries  bordering  the  Mediterranean.  Some  of  its 
members  are  remarkable  for  inhabiting  springs  or  pools  almost  saturated  with 
salt,  while  others  are  found  in  springs  of  very  high  temperature.  Perhaps 
the  most  noteworthy  forms  are  the  species  of  the  genus  Anableps  from 
Tropical  America,  in  which  the  eyes  are  divided  by  a  horizontal  line  into  an 
upper  and  a  lower  half.  The  convexity  of  the  lens  differs  in  these  two  halves, 
the  upper  half  being  suited  to  vision  in  air,  and  the  lower  in  water.  This 
enables  the  fish  to  see  perfectly  in  both  media  when  swimming  near  the 
surface  of  the  water,  with  one  half  of  the  eye  below,  and  the  other  above,  the 
surface.  A  good  account  of  the  habits  of  these  curious  fishes  has  been 


502  PISCES— SUB-CLASS  IIL—TELEOSTOMI. 


recently  published  in  the  Field  newspaper.  It  may  be  mentioned  that, 
according  to  an  American  writer,  the  name  of  the  family  should  be  changed 
from  Cyprinodontidce  to  Pceciliidce. 

•  Nearly  allied  to  the  last  are  two  genera  of  small  North  American  fishes,  in 

one  of  which  (Amblyopsis)  the  eyes  are  wanting,  while  in  the  second  (Cholo- 

gaster)  they  are  very  minute.     The  one  is  represented  by  the 

Family          well-known  blind  fish  from  caves  and  other  subterranean 

Amblyopsidce.     waters,  while  the  single  species  of  the  latter  is  found  in  the 

rice-fields    of    the    Southern    States,    although    very  rare. 

Chologaster  has  no  pelvic  fins,   but  these  may  or  may  not  be  present  in 

Amblyopsis.  as  is  also  the  case  with  Cyprinodon.     The  blind  fish,  which  grows 

to  a  length  of  about  five  inches,  is  quite  colourless,  and  when  the  dark  waters 

of  their  habitat  are  artificially  illuminated  these  fishes  have  a  weird  and 

ghostly  appearance. 

Of  the  other  two  families  of  the  section,  the  first  is  an  unimportant  one, 
represented  by  one  species  of  the  single  genus   Umbra  from  Austria  and 
Hungary,  and  a  second  from  the  United  States.     Small  in 
Families         size,  these  fish  are  very  similar  to  the  Cyprinodontidce,  from 
UmbridiK  and    which  they  may  be  distinguished  by  the  lateral  margin  of 
Esocidce.         the  upper  jaw  being  formed  by  the  maxillae.     Although  like- 
wise represented  only  by  a  single  genus  (Esox),  the  pikes  are 
a  much  more  important  and   better-known  family,  the  common  European 
species  (E.  lucius)  being  well  known  to  all.     Pike  are  inhabitants  of  the  fresh 

waters  of  North  America,  Tem- 
perate Asia,  and  Europe,  but  are 
more  numerously  represented  in 
the  Western  than  in  the  Eastern 
Hemisphere,  six  species  being  ex- 
clusively American,  whereas  the 
common  pike  ranges  over  all  three 
continents.  In  these  fishes  the 
Fig.  28.— COMMON  PIKE.  margin  of  the  upper  jaw  is  formed 

in  the  same  manner  as  that  of  the 

Umbrers  ;  but  the  absence  of  scales  on  the  head  serves  to  distinguish  them 
from  all  other  members  of  the  section.  Their  elongated,  "pike "-like  form, 
their  large  size,  and  their  voracious  habits,  are  familiar  features  of  the  family  ; 
but  it  may  be  added  that  there  are  no  barbels  to  the  mouth,  while  there  is  no 
fatty  fin,  and  the  dorsal  occupies  the  position  of  the  fatty  fin  of  the  Salmonidce. 
Summarising  some  of  the  accounts  which  have  been  given  of  the  voracity  and 
fierceness  of  the  pike,  the  editor  of  this  volume  writes  as  follows  : — "It  has 
been  known  to  attack  a  man  when  its  retreat  has  been  cut  off,  to  bite  the  legs 
of  bathers,  and  to  snap  at  the  fingers  of  persons  cooling  their  hands  in  the 
water  ;  and  when  pressed  with  hunger,  to  fight  an  otter  for  the  possession  of  a 
carp.  Its  strength  and  endurance  have  often  been  demonstrated  in  the 
destruction  of  strong  tackle,  and  in  its  power  to  survive — without  apparent 
inconvenience — with  hooks  and  wires  mingling  with  its  anatomy.  Captain 
Brown  gives  an  instance  of  a  pike  being  caught  which  had  a  strong  piece  of 
twisted  wire  projecting  from  its  side.  It  was  in  excellent  condition,  and  on 
being  opened,  discovered  in  its  stomach  a  double  eel-hook,  much  corroded, 
and  attached  to  the  protruding  wire.  Another  pike,  when  caught  in  the 
River  Ouse,  was  found  in  possession  of  a  watch  with  a  black  ribbon  and  seals 
attached — property  which,  it  was  afterwards  discovered,  had  belonged  to  a 


BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS.  503 


gentleman's  servant  who  had  been  drowned.  The  pike  has  often  been  caught 
with  portions  of  tackle  broken  from  the  line  in  former  engagements  hanging 
from  its  mouth.  Its  rapacity  is  extraordinary.  Eight  hundred  gudgeon  are 
said  to  have  been  consumed  in  three  weeks  by  eight  pike  of  not  more  than 
five  pounds  weight  each. " 


Section  E. — Scyphophori. 

The  next  family  of  the  Physostomi  comprises  a  few  fishes  from  Tropical 
Africa  which  appear  to  have  no  very  near  relations,  and  are  consequently  re- 
garded as  forming  a  sectional  group  by  themselves.      The 
chief  characters  of  the  section  are  derived  from  the  bones  of  Family 

the  skull,  in  which  the  parietals  are  separate  alike  from  one  Mormyridce. 
another,  and  from  the  supraoccipital ;  while  the  pterotic 
bones,  which  are  situated  on  the  outer  sides  of  the  parietals,  are  large,  funnel- 
shaped,  and  contain  a  cavity  closed  by  a  lid.  The  full  series  of  bones  are 
developed  in  the  gill-cover,  and  in  the  back-bone  the  four  first  joints  are 
separate  and  unmodified.  As  a  family,  the  Mormyridce  are  characterised  by 
the  naked  head,  the  want  of  barbels,  the  slit-like  opening  of  the  gills,  the 
simple  air-bladder,  and  the  absence  of  a  fatty  fin  on  the  back.  The  front 
portion  of  the  margin  of  the  upper  jaw  is  constituted"  by  the  premaxillse, 
which  are  united  together ;  but  the  sides  are  formed  by  the  maxillse.  All 
these  fishes  are  dwellers  in  fresh  water.  The  typical  genus  is  Mormyrus, 
from  which  some  writers  distinguish  certain  species  under  the  name  of 
Mormyrops,  other  members  of  the  family  being  included  in  Gymnarchus, 
which  is  characterised  by  the  complete  disappearance  of  the  pelvic,  anal,  and 
caudal  fins,  the  tail  terminating  in  a  point.  Many  of  the  species  of  Mormyrus, 
have  the  muzzle  more  or  less  elongated  and  beak-like,  but  M.  petersi  has  the 
extremity  of  the  lower  jaw  produced  into  a  large,  conical,  fleshy  appendage 
of  great  relative  length.  Gymnarchus — of  which  there  is  only  one  species — is, 
on  the  other  hand,  a  large  eel-like  fish,  growing  to  a  length  of  a  couple  of 
yards. 

Section  F. — Isospondyli. 

The  sixth  and  last  section  of  the  Physostomi  is  the  largest  and  most  im- 
portant of  all,  including— in  addition  to  many  other  groups — the  families  of 
the  herrings  and  salmon,  whose  numerous  representatives  are  so  highly 
valued  as  food. 

These  fishes  are  the  most  generalised  of  all  the  Physostomi,  and  conse- 
quently make  the  nearest  approach  to  the  under -mentioned  ganoids.     In  all 
of  them  the  two  parietal  bones  are  separate,  and  the  so-called 
symplectic  bone,  which  is  wanting  in  the  preceding  family,  is  Family 

here  present.     As  in  the  latter,  the  anterior  segments  of  the      Notopteridce. 
vertebral  column  are  of  the  simple,  unmodified  type ;  but 
both  the  upper  and  the  lower  pharyngeal  bones  are  separate.      The  first 
representative  of  the  section  is  the  genus  Notopterus,  which  constitutes  a 
family  by  itself,  and  includes  several  species  from  the  Oriental  countries  and 
West  Africa.     None  of  these  fishes  have  a  fatty  dorsal  fin  or  barbels,  but 
many  of  them  possess  a  short  and  tall  dorsal  fin,  situated  far  back  on  the  body, 


504  PISCES— SUB-CLASS  IIL—TELEOSTOMI. 

and  standing  up  in  such  a  conspicuous  manner  as  to  give  rise  to  the  name  of 
'*  feather-back.''     A  better  character  is,  however,  to  be  found  in  the  backward 
continuation  of  the  anal  fin  to  form  a  fringe  surrounding  the  tail.     There  are 
many  other  structural  peculiarities  in  these  fresh-water  fishes,  but  it  will 
suffice  to  mention  that  the  air-bladder  is  divided  into  a  number  of  compart- 
ments, and  furnished  at  each  end  with  a  pair  of  prolongations,  so  that  it  pre- 
sents some  resemblance  to  a  shark's  egg  in  form.     More  important,  on  account 
of  their  peculiar  geographical  distribution,  are  the   small 
Family  fresh-water  fishes  from  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  forming 

Galaxiidce.  the  genus  Galaxias,  and  typifying  a  family  by  themselves. 
They  have  the  base  of  the  skull  single,  the  pterotic  bones 
solid,  and  the  tail  forked  or  rounded,  while  there  are  neither  scales,  barbels, 
or  a  fatty  fin,  the  dorsal  being  situated  directly  over  the  anal  fin.  The  eggs 
of  the  female  are  discharged  into  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen,  as  in  the  last 
family,  from  which  these  fishes  differ  by  the  simple  structure  of  the  air- 
bladder.  The  typical  Galaxias  has  long  been  known  from  the  extremity  of 
South  America,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand  (where,  from  their  spotted 
coloration,  they  were  formerly  known  as  trout),  but  it  is  only  recently  that 
a  species  has  been  recorded  from  the  Cape.  The  New  Zealand  Neochanna — 
of  which  the  known  specimens  have  been  found  buried  in  mud  far  away  from 
water — differs  by  the  lack  of  the  pelvic  fins. 

This  family  is  noteworthy  on  account  of  its  containing  the  largest  fresh- 
water bony  fish,  the  huge  Arapaima  gigds  of  the  Guianas  and  Brazil,  which 
attains  a  length  of  fully  fifteen  feet,  and  a  weight  of  four 
Family          hundred  pounds.      As  a  family,  the  arapaimas  are  distin- 
Osteoglossidce.     guished  from  the  Galaxiidce,  by  generally  possessing  three, 
instead  of  two,  upper  pharyngeal  bones.     The  body  of  these 
fishes  is  invested  with  unusually  large  scales,  marked  with  a  kind  of  mosaic- 
like  sculpture,  but  the  head  is  devoid  of  scales,  and  protected  by  large  rough- 
ened,  ossified  plates.      Wide 
openings  of  the  mucus  canal 
constitute  the  lateral  line,  and 
the  long  dorsal  fin  is  placed 
immediately  over  the  anal — 
to  which  it  is  almost  similar 
— very  far  back  on  the  body. 
Fig.  29.— ARAPAIMA.  Indeed,  so  far  back  are  these 

fins,  that  they  sometimes  co- 
alesce with  the  caudal.  The  openings  of  the  gills  are  wide,  and  both  the 
premaxillse  and  maxillae  enter  into  the  formation  of  the  margin  of  the  upper 
jaw  ;  but  there  are  no  false  gills.  Whereas  some  forms  have  the  air-bladder 
simple,  in  others  it  is  composed  of  cells.  Allusion  having  been  already  made 
to  Arapaima,  we  pass  on  to  the  typical  Osteoylossum,  of  which  there  is  one 
species  from  South  America,  and  a  second  from  Borneo  and  Sumatra,  while 
the  other  two  are  inhabitants  of  Australia.  A  pair  of  barbels  to  the  lower 
jaw,  and  the  obliquity  of  the  cleft  of  the  mouth,  are  sufficient  to  distinguish 
these  large  fishes  from  Arapaima.  The  flesh  is  of  excellent  quality.  The 
last  genus,  Heterotis,  is  African,  and  differs  from  the  other  two  in  having 
only  two  upper  pharyngeal  bones — thereby  resembling  the  Galaxiidce— and 
its  air-bladder  is  cellular.  The  one  species  is  common  to  the  Nile  and  the 
rivers  of  West  Africa. 

A  fresh-water  fish  from  North  America  known  as  the  moon-eye  (Hyvdon 


BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS.  505 


tergissus),  and  a  small  fish  (Pantodon  bucholzi)  remarkably  like  a  cyprinodont, 
from  West  Africa,  severally  represent  two  families.     From 
the  foregoing  families  of  the  section,  these  two  groups  are         Families 
distinguished    by    the    under-mentioned    characters.      The  Hyodontidce  and 
pterotic  bones  are  of  normal  conformation  ;  there  are  four    Pantodonlidce. 
separate  upper  pharyngeal  bones,  of  which  the  third  and 
largest  is  directed  forwards  ;   and  the  base  of  the  skull  is  double.     All  these 
features  are  common  to  the  remaining  families  of  the  section.     In  the  Hyo- 
dontidce  the  two  parietal  bones  are  united  together,  and  the  bony  structure 
supporting  the  tail-fin  is  preceded  by  two  true  caudal  vertebrae.     Whereas  in 
the  moon-eye  the  tail  is  deeply  forked,  in  Pantodon  it  terminates  in  a  point. 
A  long  slender  fish  from  the  seas  of  Australia,  Japan,  and 
South  Africa,  known  as  the  beaked  salmon  (Gonorhynchus          Family 
greyi\  likewise  constitutes  a  separate  family,  distinguished  Gonorhynchidce. 
from  the  last  two  by  the  presence  of  barbels  to  the  mouth,  and 
the  absence  of  true  caudal  vertebrae.     The  beaked  salmon  varies  from  a  foot  to  a 
foot  and  a  half  in  length,  and  is  often  found  in  sandy  bays.     Its  flesh  is  eaten. 
The  three  families  now  to  be  mentioned  include  marine  fishes,  of  which  the 
majority  are  deep-sea  or  pelagic  in  their  habitat,  while  many  are  remarkable 
for  the  development  of  special  phosphorescent  organs,  by  the 
aid  of  which  they  find  their  way  in  the  dark  ocean  abysses.  Families 

From  the  preceding  family,  the  Scopelidce  are  distinguished  Scopelidce, 
by  the  absence  of  barbels,  and  of  spines  on  the  scales  (when  Sternoptychidce, 
the  latter  are  developed),  and  the  presence  of  a  small  and  Stomiatidce. 
fatty  fin  posterior  to  the  dorsal.  Whereas  some  forms  are 
scaled,  others  are  naked  ;  but  all  are  characterised  by  the  wide  gill-opening, 
the  possession  of  false  gills,  the  absence  of  an  air-bladder,  and  the  formation 
of  the  margin  of  the  upper  jaw  by  the  premaxillse  alone.  A  peculiarity  of 
these  fishes  is  the  extreme  shortness  of  the  intestine.  The  typical  genus 
Scopelus  includes  fishes  of  normal  form,  with  rows  of  phosphorescent  spots  on 
the  lower  side  of  the  body  ;  but  in  Ipnops  the  whole  body  is  exceedingly  long 
and  slender,  and  the  upper  surface  of  the  flattened  head  occupied  by  a  large 
luminous  organ.  Other  genera  are  Saurus,  Paralepis,  Plagyodus  (in  which 
the  body  is  naked,  and  the  jaws  are  armed  with  large  tusks),  and  Gymno- 
scopelus,  in  which  scales  are  likewise  wanting.  Of  the  other  two  families  it 
will  be  unnecessary  to  give  all  the  characters,  but  it  may  be  mentioned  that 
in  the  Sternoptychidce  the  fatty  fin  is  either  very  small  or  rudimental,  while 
there  are  no  barbels,  and  the  body  may  be  either  naked  or  covered  with  thin 
deciduous  scales,  while  the  maxillse  enter  into  the  margin  of  the  upper  jaw. 
On  the  lower  parts,  light-organs  are  developed.  One  of  the  best-known 
forms  is  the  somewhat  elongated  Photichthys,  from  which  the  allied  CJiauliodus 
differs  by  the  large  size  of  its  teeth.  On  the  other  hand,  the  typical  Ster- 
noptyx  has  the  body  deep  and  compressed,  and  the  tail  short.  The  Stomiatidce 
differ  by  the  presence  of  a  long  barbel  attached  to  the  hyoid  bone,  which 
depends  from  the  lower  jaw,  the  fatty  fin  being  often  totally  wanting. 
Astronesthes,  which  is  one  of  the  genera  with  a  small  fatty  fin,  has  a  large 
head,  and  jaws  armed  with  powerful  teeth.  Stomias  and  Echibstoma  both 
lack  the  fatty  fin,  but  whereas  the  former  has  the  body  covered  with  minute 
scales,  in  the  latter  the  skin  is  naked,  and  the  small  pectoral  fins  have  some 
of  their  rays  prolonged  into  thread-like  filaments.  At  times  the  deep-sea 
fishes  of  the  present  group  are  met  with  floating  in  a  helpless  inert  condition 
on  the  surface  of  the  ocean  ;  but  they  are  generally  only  obtained  by 


506  PISCES— SUB-CLASS  I1I.—TELEOSTOMI. 


dredging.  When  brought  to  the  surface,  owing  to  the  sudden  diminution  of 
pressure,  their  eyes  start  out  of  the  sockets,  the  scales  stand  erect,  and  the 
flesh  is  loose  and  fragile,  so  that  the  preservation  of  specimens  is  frequently 
a  matter  of  considerable  difficulty. 

These  two  unimportant  families,  severally  represented  by  a  single  type, 
may  be  distinguished  from  the  preceding  members  of  the  Isospondyli  by  the 
circumstance  that  the  supraoccipital  bone  of  the  skull  ex- 
Families  Chiro-  tends  forwards  so  as  to  separate  the  two  parietals  from  one 
centridce  and  another.  And  in  this  feature  they  agree  with  the  members 
Bathythrissidm.  of  the  following  families  of  the  section,  except  for  a  few 
aberrant  types  of  two.  The  first  family  is  represented  by 
the  dorab  (Chiroceidrus  dorab),  of  the  Malayan  and  Red  Seas,  and  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  possession  of  but  one  caudal  vertebra.  The  dorab  is  a  large 
elongated  fish,  with  a  deeply-forked  tail,  no  fatty  fin,  an  up-turned  muzzle, 
powerful  teeth,  and  a  sharply-keeled  and  serrated  under  surface.  In  length 
it  is  stated  to  grow  to  as  much  as  twelve  feet.  Very  different  is  the  deep-sea 
Bathythrissa  dorsalis  of  Japan,  in  which  the  body  is  deep  and  oblong,  with 
the  under  surface  rounded,  the  head  naked  and  without  barbels,  and  the 
dorsal  fin  so  much  elongated  as  to  occupy  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the 
back,  a  fatty  fin  being  wanting.  This  fish  forms  an  exception  to  the  gener- 
ality of  the  members  of  the  sub-order  in  lacking  an  air-bladder. 

The  familiar  "red-herring,"  in  its  natural  condition,  is  the  type  of  a  family 
of  mostly  marine  and  littoral  fishes  whose  importance  as  a  food-supply  can 
scarcely    be    overrated.      Limits    of    space,    unfortunately, 
Herrings.          allow  of  only  a  very  inadequate  notice  of  the  group.     Dr. 
~,    *™y          Giinther  writes  "  that  the  family  of  herrings  is  probably  un- 
upei  ce.        surpassed   by  any  other  in  the  number  of  individuals,  al- 
though others  comprise  a  much  greater  variety  of  species.     The  herrings  are 
principally  coast  fishes,  or  at  least  do  not  go  far  from  the  shore  ;  none  belong 
to  the  deep-sea  fauna,  scarcely  any  have  pelagic  habits,  but  many  enter  or 
live  in  fresh-waters  communicating  with  the  sea.     They  are  spread  over  all 
the  temperate  and  tropical  zones. "     With  the  exception  of  one  genus,  agree- 
ing with  the   Cfliirocentidce  in  the  structure  of  the  skull  and  presence  of  a 
single  caudal  vertebra,  the  Clupeidce  are  specially  characterised  by  the  want 
of  a  fatty  fin,  and  the  general  presence  of  small  plates  of  bone  on  the  lower 
surface  of  the  body,  which  is  usually  sharp  and  often  serrated.     The  head 
is  devoid  of  barbels,  and  usually  also  of  scales,  but  the  body  is  always  fully 
scaled,  although  the  lateral  line  is  generally  wanting.     The  margin  of  the 
upper  jaw  is  formed  in  part  by  the  premaxillse,  and  in  part  by  the  maxillre  ; 
each  of  the  latter  bones  consisting  of  three  distinct  elements.     Usually  the 

gill-openings  are  complete,  and  the 
operculum  comprises  the  full  number  of 
elements.  The  rays  of  the  short  dorsal 
fin  are  few  and  weak,  although  those  of 
the  anal  may  be  numerous.  The  air- 
bladder  is  comparatively  single,  and 
most  members  of  the  family  are  fur- 
fig.  30,— THE  HERRING.  nished  with  false  gills.  In  the  typical 

genus  Clupea  the  two  jaws  are  sub-equal 

in  length,  the  eyes  have  fatty  lids,  and  the  body  is  compressed,  with  the 
abdomen  serrated  inferiorly  as  far  forwards  as  the  chest.  The  cleft  of  the 
mouth  is  of  moderate  width,  and  if  teeth  are  present  at  all,  they  are  rudi- 


BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS.  507 


mental  and  deciduous.  The  anal  fin  is  of  moderate  length,  with  less  than 
thirty  rays,  the  dorsal  fin  is  placed  above  the  pelvic  pair,  and  the  caudal  is 
deeply  forked.  Among  over  half  a  hundred  species,  we  may  name  the  common 
herring  (C.  harengus),  the  spratt  (C.  sprattus),  the  alliceshad  (C.  alosa},  the 
shad  (C.  finta),  the  American  mossbanker  (C.  menhaden},  and  the  pilchard  or 
sardine  (C.  pilchardus).  Herrings,  as  is  well  known,  are  gregarious  and  car- 
nivorous fishes,  going  about  in  huge  shoals,  the  presence  of  which  is  often 
indicated  not  only  by  the  appearance  of  the  surface  of  the  water,  but  by  the 
flocks  of  sea-birds  which  hover  overhead  in  search  of  prey.  The  shoals 
appear  to  approach  the  coasts  solely  for  the  purpose  of  spawning,  after  which 
they  retire  to  deeper  water.  Australia  is  the  home  of  certain  fresh-water 
herrings  forming  the  genus  Diplomystus,  and  characterised  by  having  plates  of 
bone  behind  the  head  similar  in  character  to  those  on  the  under  surface. 
Another  and  larger  genus  (Engraulis)  is  typified  by  the  Mediterranean 
anchovy,  and  is  characterised  by  the  prolongation  of  the  nearly  conical  snout 
beyond  the  tip  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  by  the  eyes  being  covered  with  a  con- 
tinuous skin.  The  Mediterranean  species,  either  preserved  whole,  or  made 
into  a  paste,  affords  the  piquant  anchovy  of  commerce.  The  only  other  type 
that  can  be  mentioned  here  is  Elops,  which  is  peculiar  in  that  the  parietal  bones  of 
the  skull  are  in  contact,  and  also  for  the  possession  of  two  caudal  vertebrae. 
There  are  two  species  from  the  warmer  seas,  in  both  of  which  the  space 
between  the  two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw  is  protected  by  a  thin  plate  of 
bone,  while  the  lower  surface  of  the  body  is  rounded  and  smooth. 

Very  brief  notice  must  suffice  for  two  small  and  unimportant  families  now 
generally  placed  between  the  closely  allied  groups  of  the  herrings  and  salmon. 
The  Alepocephalidce,  resemble  Elops,  and  thus  the  Salmonidce, 
in  having  two  caudal  vertebrae,  but  differ  from  the  former,  Families  Alepo- 
and  thereby  agree  with  most  of  the  latter,  in  that  the  two  cephalidce  and 
parietal  bones  of  the  skull  are  separated  by  the  supra-  Haplochitonidce. 
occipital.  They  lack,  however,  the  fatty  fin  of  the  latter,  and 
barbels  are  wanting  to  the  head,  which  is  likewise  devoid  of  scales,  as  is 
sometimes  also  the  body.  Both  pairs  of  jaw-bones  enter  into  the  formation 
of  the  margin  of  the  upper  jaw,  and  the  stomach  lacks  the  blind  appendage, 
or  caecum,  characterising  that  of  the  herrings.  In  the  typical  genus  Alepo- 
cephalus  the  body  is  covered  with  thin  scales,  but  in  Xenodermichthys  these 
are  replaced  by  fine  nodules.  Two  other  genera  are  known.  The  trout-like 
fish  from  the  rivers  of  Chili  and  the  southern  extremity  of  South  America 
and  the  Falklands  known  as  Haplochiton,  together  with  the  allied  Austra- 
lian genus  Prototroctes,  represent  the  second  of  the  two  families  now  under 
consideration  ;  the  first  of  these  resembling  a  scaleless  trout,  whereas  in  the 
second  the  body  is  scaled  and  the  jaws  are  armed  with  minute  teeth.  These 
fish  differ  from  the  families  last  noticed  in  possessing  a  small  fatty  fin.  In 
this  respect  they  resemble  the  Salmonidce,  from  which  they  may  be  dis- 
tinguished by  the  fact  that  the  maxillae  do  not  enter  into  the  formation  of  the 
margin  of  the  upper  jaw. 

From  the  other  allied  families  the  Salmonidce  may  be  distinguished  by  the 
possession  of  a  small  fatty  fin  between  the  dorsal  and  the  tail,  coupled  with 
the  circumstance  that  the  margin  of  the  upper  jaw  is  formed 
in  front  by  the  premaxillae  and  at  the  sides  by  the  maxillae.  Salmon  Tribe. — 
The  inferior  aspect  of  the  body  is  rounded  ;  and  whereas  the  Family 

skin  of  the  head  is  invariably  naked,  the  body  is  generally      Salmonidce, 
clothed  with  scales.     The  Salmonidce  are  in  the  main  re- 


508  PISCES— SUB- CLASS  III.—  TELEOSTOML 


stricted  to  the  cooler  portions  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  although  one 
genus  is  found  in  the  fresh  waters  of  New  Zealand.  Whereas  some  kinds 
spend  the  whole  of  their  time  in  fresh  water  lakes  or  rivers,  others  descend 
periodically  to  the  sea — or,  as  it  is  perhaps  more  correct  to  say,  ascend  rivers 
from  the  sea  for  the  purpose  of  spawning.  Certain  kinds  are,  however,  per- 
manently marine,  most  of  these  being  deep-water  fishes,  although  the  mem- 
bers of  two  genera  are  pelagic.  On  account  of  the  large  size  of  many  of  the 
species,  coupled  with  the  superlatively  excellent  quality  of  their  flesh,  the 
Salmonidm  are  commercially  one  of  the  most  valuable  families  of  fishes.  It 
appears  that  the  "salmon-colour"  characterising  the  flesh  of  some  of  the 
species  is  due  to  the  pigment  derived  from  the  crustaceans  on  which  they 
feed  ;  the  action  of  the  gastric  juice  turning  such  pigment  red  in  the  same 
manner  as  boiling.  Volumes  have  been  written  on  the  life-history  of  the 
Salmonidce,  and  the  question  as  to  the  number  of  species  of  fresh-water  trout 
and  charr ;  and  many  pages  of  this  work  would  be  necessary  to  give  even  a 
full  outline  of  the  subject.  As  it  is,  little  more  than  a  bare  mention  of  the 
leading  genera  and  species  can  be  attempted.  It  should,  however,  be  men- 
tioned that  whereas  the  adults  are  usually  silvery,  or  spotted  with  black  and 
red,  the  immature  fish  pass  through  a  stage — the  "parr" — when  they  are 
marked  by  dark  transverse  bars.  In  certain  fresh-water  kinds  these  imma- 
ture markings  may,  however,  be  retained  individually  during  the  whole  of 
life.  There  are  also  sexual  or  seasonal  differences  in  the  adult  fish  ;  as 

exemplified  by  the  hooked  lower 
jaw  of  the  male  salmon  in  the 
spawning  season.  The  genus 
Salmo,  which  includes  the  com- 
mon salmon  (S.  salmo),  and  the 
various  species  or  varieties  of  trout 
and  charr,  has  the  dorsal  fin 
Fig.  31.— THE  SALMON.  situated  nearly  or  immediately 

above  the  pelvic  pair,  the  scales 

small,  and  well-developed  teeth  in  the  jaws,  and  likewise  on  the  vomerine 
and  palatine  bones  and  tongue  ;  while  the  anal  fin  never  includes  more  than 
fourteen  rays,  and  the  intestine  is  furnished  with  a  large  number  of  small 
blind  appendages  or  caeca.  Moreover,  the  mouth  is  so  deeply  cleft,  that  its 
opening  extends  at  least  as  far  back  as  the  eye.  Southwards,  the  range  of 
this  large  genus  does  not  extend  beyond  the  Atlas  and  Hindu  Kush  in  the 
Eastern  Hemisphere,  or  the  rivers  flowing  into  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of 
California  in  the  Western.  In  the  various  kinds  of  true  salmon  and  trout  the 
whole  length  of  the  bone  known  as  the  vomer  carries  teeth  during  some 
period  of  life.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  mostly  smaller  and  more  brilliantly- 
coloured  charr  the  vomerine  teeth  are  restricted  to  the  head  of  that  bone. 
The  largest  member  of  the  charr  group  is  the  Danubian  hucho  (8.  hucho), 
which  rivals  the  salmon  in  size.  The  migratory  species,  which  periodically 
ascend  the  rivers  of  North  America  and  Asia  flowing  into  the  Pacific  in  in- 
credible numbers,  form  the  genus  Onchorhynchus,  distinguished  by  the 
possession  of  more  than  fourteen  rays  in  the  anal  fin.  A  third  genus 
(Osmerus)  contains  the  three  species  of  smelt,  and  is  to  some  extent  inter- 
mediate between  Salmo  and  Onchorhynchus  on  the  one  hand,  and  Coregomts 
on  the  other.  They  are,  however,  peculiar,  on  account  of  the  small  size  and 
number  of  the  csecal  appendages  to  the  intestine,  while  their  eggs  are  rela- 
tively small.  As  examples  of  the  large  and  mostly  fresh-water  genus  Core- 


BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS.  509 


may  be  mentioned  the  vendace  (C.  vandesius),  the  pollan  (C.  pottaii), 
and  the  powan  (C.  dupeoides),  all  of  which  are  British.  Like  smelts,  these  fish 
have  small  eggs  ;  but  then  they  have  a  great  number  of  blind  appendages  to 
the  intestine,  and  if  any  teeth  remain  in  the  adult,  they  are  usually  restricted 
to  the  tongue,  while  even  in  the  young  state  these  organs  are  minute.  The 
cleft  of  the  mouth  is  always  much  less  deep  than  in  the  Salmo,  while  the 
forking  of  the  tail  is  more  strongly  marked.  In  common  with  the  grayling, 
these  fishes  differ  from  the  other  members  of  the  family  in  that  the  two 
parietal  bones  meet  together  for  a  short  distance  in  the  middle  line  in  ad- 
vance of  the  supraoccipital.  The  genus  extends  over  a  considerable  portion 
of  Northern  Europe,  Asia,  and  America ;  and  its  very  numerous  members 
are  for  the  most  part  permanent  inhabitants  of  fresh  water.  The  grayling 
(Thymallus),  which  have  a  geographical  distribution  very  similar  to  that  of 
Coregonus,  differ  from  that  genus  by  the  taller  and  longer  dorsal  fin,  in  which 
the  number  of  rays  varies  from  thirteen  to  twenty-three.  The  mouth,  too, 
has  a  smaller  cleft ;  while  the  blind  appendages  of  the  intestine  are  much 
less  numerous,  and  teeth  are  present  in  the  jaws,  and  on  the  palatines  and 
the  head  of  the  vomer,  although  wanting  from  the  tongue.  Although  rang- 
ing from  Lapland  to  Venice,  and  from  England  to  Russia,  the  grayling  is  a 
very  local  fish,  which  is  unknown  in  Ireland  ;  and  it  appears  that  only  under 
certain  conditions  will  it  thrive  and  multiply  in  a  river.  A  writer  in  Land 
and  Water  for  1868  remarks,  that  "there  is  one  singular  peculiarity  about 
the  grayling  that  distinguishes  it  from  all  other  .species  of  Salmonidce,  and 
that  is  its  remarkable  odour.  It  resembles  more  than  anything  else  the  smell 
of  a  freshly-cut  cucumber  ;  by  this  criterion  it  may  be  immediately  detected. 
Some  authorities  assert  that  the  smell  of  this  fish  resembles  thyme,  but  I 
cannot  endorse  this,  or  perceive  the  slightest  affinity." 

A  small  family  is  represented  by  the  North  American  fresh-water  Percopsis 
gnttata  and  the  allied  Columbia  transmontana,  which,  although  possessing  the 
structural  features  of  the  Salmonidce,  assimilate  in  the  nature 
of  the  scales  and  the  bones  of  the  mouth  to  the  perch       Percopsidse. 
tribe. 

SUB-ORDER  VI. — ^THEOSPONDYLI. 

This  and  the  next  subordinal  group  of  the  Actinopterygii  are  now  respec- 
tively represented  only  by  a  single  North  American  genus,  although  both 
were  abundant  during  earlier  epochs  of 
the  earth's  history.  To  understand 
fully  their  relationship  to  other  fishes 
it  is  essential  to  take  the  extinct  forms 
into  consideration,  but  as  this  is  im- 
possible here,  their  general  structural 

features  can  be  only  very  slightly  touched  j^  32.— BOXY  PIKE. 

upon.      The  present  sub-order  is  now 

represented  only  by  the  three  species  of  bony  pike  (Lepidosteus)  from 
the  fresh  waters  of  North  America,  which  typify  the  family  Lepidosteidm. 
These  fishes,  some  of  which  measure  fully  six  feet  in  length,  have  the 
head  covered  with  bony  plates,  and  the  whole  body  invested  with  a 
coat  of  hard,  shining,  quadrangular  scales,  which  articulate  together  by  means 
of  a  peg  and  socket.  The  long  head  is  depressed,  with  the  jaws  well-armed 
with  teeth  ;  and  the  body  is  elongated,  with  the  anal  and  dorsal  fins — which 
have  no  spines — placed  near  the  tail,  and  the  latter  of  the  so-called  abbreviate 


510  PISCES— SUB-CLASS  IIL—TELEOSTOMI. 


heterocercal  type.  In  the  skeleton,  the  vertebrae  are  unique  among  living 
fishes  in  that  the  articular  surfaces  of  their  bodies  form  a  cup  behind  and  a 
ball  in  front.  The  air-bladder  has  a  duct,  and  the  nerves  supplying  the  eyes 
where  they  meet  one  another  in  the  middle  line  give  off  interlacing  fibres,  and 
there  are  remnants  of  a  spiral  valve  in  the  lining  membrane  of  the  intestine. 
Bony  pike,  which  are  abundant  in  many  of  the  North  American  rivers,  are 
very  analogous  in  their  habits  to  true  pike,  feeding  upon  other  fishes. 

SUB-ORDER  VII. — PROTOSPONDYLI. 

The  single  existing  family  (Amiidce)  of  this  once  abundant  subordinal 
group  is  now  represented  by  the  bow-fin  (Amia-calva)  of  the  fresh  waters  of 
the  United  States.  This  fish,  while  agreeing  with  the  bony  pike  in  the  con- 
formation of  the  optic  nerves  supplying  the  eyes,  differs  in  the  fuller  develop- 
ment of  the  spiral  valve  in  the  intestine,  and  in  the  simpler  form  of  the 
bodies  of  the  vertebrae,  which  are  disc-like.  Although  the  scales  are  coated 
with  ganoin,  they  differ  from  those  of  the  bony  pike  in  being  thin,  rounded, 

and  deeply  over-lapping.  A  peculiar 
feature  of  the  bow-fin,  and  the  one 
from  which  it  takes  its  vernacular 
name,  is  the  great  length  of  the 
dorsal  fin,  which  occupies  more  than 
half  the  entire  length  of  the  back, 
and  posteriorly  is  separated  only  by 
a  notch  from  the  tail-fin  ;  the  latter 
Fig.  33.— BOW-FIN.  being  of  the  abbreviate  heterocercal 

type.     The  bow-fin  grows  to  a  length 

of  about  a  couple  of  feet,  and  is  a  carnivorous  fish,  exceedingly  abundant  in 
some  of  the  North  American  lakes.  It  feeds  not  only  on  other  fishes,  but 
likewise  on  various  invertebrate  animals,  and  can  exist  for  a  considerable 
time  out  of  water.  Its  favourite  haunts  are  the  dense  masses  of  floating 
vegetation  fringing  the  North  American  lakes,  among  which  it  lays  during 
the  month  of  May  a  host  of  minute  eggs. 

SUB-ORDER  VIII. — CHONDROSTEI — STUEGEONS. 

The  title  of  royal  fish  bestowed  on  the  common  sturgeon  would  seem  to  in- 
dicate that  it  has  some  special  claim  to  superiority  over  the  other  members 
of  the  finny  tribe.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case,  the  title  being  due  to  the 
circumstance  that  all  such  fish,  according  to  an  act  of  Edward  II.  which 
appears  to  be  still  in  force,  belong  of  right  to  the  crown.  The  enactment 
runs  that  "  the  king  shall  have  wreck  of  the  sea  throughout  the  realm,  whales, 
and  great  sturgeons,  taken  in  the  sea  or  elsewhere  in  the  realm,  except  in 
certain  places  privileged  by  the  king."  From  all  the  other  subordinal  groups 
of  the  Teleostomi,  the  sturgeons  and  their  extinct  allies  are  broadly  distin- 
guished by  the  greater  relative  number  of  the  dermal  rays  in  the  dorsal  and 
anal  tins,  which  exceed  the  bony  or  cartilaginous  elements  pertaining  to  the 
true  skeleton  by  which  they  are  supported,  instead  of  these  two  elements 
being  numerically  equal.  As  regards  the  optic  nerves  and  the  lining  mem- 
brane of  the  intestine,  the  sturgeons  resemble  the  preceding  sub-order.  All 
the  members  of  the  sub-order  have  a  persistent  notochord  and  a  cartilaginous 
skeleton,  but  the  tail  may  be  of  either  the  heterocercal  or  the  diphycerca, 


BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS.  5 1 1 


type.  It  might  be  thought  that  the  bony  shields  investing  the  head,  and  the 
longitudinal  rows  of  prominent  bony  tubercles  or  plates  frequently  present 
on  the  otherwise  entirely  naked  skin,  would  form  a  distinctive  feature  of  the 
group.  As  a  matter  of  fact  this  is  not  so,  seeing  that  a  number  of  extinct 
tishes  now  classed  with  the  sturgeons  have  a  complete  coat  of  ganoid  scales. 
Still,  however,  as  distinctive  of  the  existing  forms — with  which  alone  we  are 
concerned  here — the  presence  of  these  shields  or  plates,  or  both,  coupled  with 
the  absence  of  scales  (save  in  one  family  on  part  of  the  tail)  are  very  dis- 
tinctive. Existing  sturgeons  may  be  classified  in  two  families,  in  both  of 
which  the  tail  is  heterocercal. 

The  first  of  these  is  represented  only  by  two  genera,  each  with  a  single 
speeies,  and  its  distinctive  features  are  to  be  found  in  the  presence  of  minute 
teeth  in  the  jaws  throughout  life,  as  well  as  of  a  median  series 
of  unpaired  bony  shields  in  the  armour  of  the  head,  and  Family 

likewise  by  the  skin — save  for  a  few  minute  stellate  ossifica-  Polyodontidce. 
tions— being  naked  all  over  the  body,  although  there  may  be 
a  few  scales  on  the  upper  lobe  of  the  tail.  The  typical  Polyodon  falius,  from 
the  Mississippi  basin,  is  a  comparatively  small  fish,  apparently  not  exceeding 
about  six  feet  in  length,  characterised  by  the  upper  jaw  terminating  in  an 
enormous  shovel-like  beak,  furnished  with  soft  thin  margins,  and  equal  to 
fully  one  quarter  the  entire  length  of  the  fish.  Vastly  larger  is  Psephurus 
gladius  from  some  of  the  great  Chinese  rivers,  which  grows  to  something 
approaching  twenty  feet,  and  has  a  much  more  slender  beak.  Both  these 
fishes  have  minute  eyes,  and  appear  to  grovel  in  the  mud  in  the  river  bottom 
hi  search  of  their  food.  The  occurrence  of  two  such  closely  allied  forms  in 
the  rivers  of  North  America  and  China  is  paralleled  by  the  instance  of  the 
American  and  Chinese  alligators,  and  likewise  the  two  kinds  of  giant 
salamander  (Megalobatrachus  and  Cryptobranchus),  all  these  examples  indicat- 
ing the  close  affinity  between  the  fauna  of  North  America  and  that  of  North- 
Eastern  Asia. 

The  members  of  the  second  family  of  the  group  differ  from  the  Polyodon- 
tidce  by  the  disappearance  of  the  teeth  in  the  adult,  and  likewise  by  the  bare 
skin  of  the  body  being  traversed  by  five  longitudinal  rows  of 
large  elevated  bony  plates.     The  median  series  of  shields  is  Family 

also  wanting  on  the   head,  and  the  under  surface  of  the     Acipenseridce. 
muzzle  is  provided  with  two  pairs  of  flexible  barbels,  of 
which  there  is  no  trace  in  the  first  family.     All  the  members  of  the  family 
are  restricted  to  the  temperate  parts  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  and  all 
are  largely  fresh  water  in  their  habits,  some  being  exclusively  so,  although 
others  ascend  the  larger  rivers 
only  for  the  purpose  of  spawn- 
ing, after  which  they  return  to 
the  ocean.    Whereas  the  typical 
members  of  the  family  belong 
to  the  genus  Acipenser,  certain 
fresh- water  kinds  from  the  basin 
of  the  Mississippi  and  Central  Fig.  34.— COMMON  STURGEON. 

Asia  form  a  genus  apart,  under 

the  name  of  Scaphirhynchus,  one  of  their  distinctive  features  being  the  pro- 
duction of  the  muzzle  into  a  shovel-like  beak  very  similar  to  that  of  Psephurus. 
Of  the  typical  genus,  the  largest  species  is  the  huso  (Acipenser  huso)  of  the 
Russian  rivers  and  inland  seas,  which  occasionally  attains  the  enormous 


512  PISCES-SUBCLASS  IIL-TELEOSTOML 


length  of  four-and-twenty  feet.  The  smallest  is  the  sterlet  (A.  ruthvenus), 
whose  length  is  only  about  three  feet,  while  the  common  species  (A.  sturio) 
is  intermediate  between  the  other  two.  The  sterlet  claims  pre-eminence  on 
account  of  the  excellent  quality  of  its  flesh,  while  the  roe  of  all  the  larger 
species  affords  caviare,  and  the  air-bladder  isinglass.  Frank  Buckland  writes 
that  "  sturgeons  seek  their  food  chiefly  among  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  rivers, 
and  their  head  is  admirably  adapted  for  the  purpose.  The  elongated 
snout,  protected  by  broad  plates,  ploughs  up  the  mud  as  a  hog  does  the 
ground  ;  and  it  is  probably  from  this  habit  they  got  the  name  of  sturgeons, 
from  the  German,  storen  (which  means  to  rake  up,  poke,  or  stir).  A  little 
way  behind  the  point  of  the  snout,  and  on  the  under  side,  is  placed  a  series  of 
worm-like  tentacles,  or  feelers,  the  office  of  .which  is  to  examine  the  objects 
turned  up  by  the  snout  ;  and  in  rear  of  these  comes  the  sucker-like  mouth, 
ready  to  receive  what  is  thus  provided."  In  reference  to  the  last  sentence, 
it  may  be  suggested  that  the  use  of  the  tentacles  may  be  to  attract  other  fishes 
within  range  of  the  mouth. 

ORDER  II. — CROSSOPTERYGII. 

FRINGE-FINNED   GANOIDS. 

Africa  is  a  country  where  several  ancient  types  of  animal  life  that  have  dis- 
appeared from  other  regions  of  the  globe  still  linger  on,  and  a  remarkable 
instance  of  this  survival  is  afforded  by  two  fishes  from  the  fresh  waters  of  that 
continent.  One  of  these  is  the  bichir  (Polypterus  bichir)  of  the  Nile  and  its 
tributaries,  as  well  as  the  rivers  of  the  west  coast,  and  the  other  the  reed-fish 
(Calamoichthys  calabaricus)  of  the  fresh  waters  of  Old  Calabar  on  the  west 
coast.  In  the  structure  of  their  fins,  and  likewise  in  the  hard  quadrangular 
ganoid  scales  with  which  the  body  is  covered,  these  strange  fishes  resemble 
a  host  of  ancient  types  which  were  widely  spread  over  the  fresh  waters  of  the 
globe  during  the  Palaeozoic  epoch.  Their  essential  difference  from  all  other 
living  representatives  of  the  sub-class  Teleostomi  is,  however,  to  be  found  in 
the  structure  of  the  fins,  seeing  that  scales  of  a  similar  nature  are  met  with 
in  the  bony  pike  already  described.  In  all  these  fishes  the  pectoral  and 
pelvic  fins  consist  internally  of  a  jointed  longitudinal  axis,  from  which  pro- 
ceed a  larger  or  smaller  number  of  divergent  rays  belonging  to  the  dermal 
system.  On  the  under  surface  of  the  lower  jaw  there  is  at  least  one  pair  of 
jugular  plates  occupying  the  space  left  between  its  two  branches.  The  nerves 
supplying  the  eyes  when  meeting  one  another  in  the  middle  line  give  off  inter- 
lacing fibres,  and  another  primitive  feature  is  the  presence  of  a  spiral  valve  in 
the  lining  membrane  of  the  intestine.  The  air-bladder  is  provided  with  a 
duct,  this  being  probably  likewise  a  primitive  character.  Both  the  living 
members  of  the  order  are  included  in  the  family  Polypteridce,  which  is 

characterised  by  the  replacement  of  the 
primitive  notochord  by  bony  vertebrae, 
as  well  as  by  certain  features  of  the 
skeleton  which  need  not  be  noticed 
here.  The  tail  is  very  short,  and 
terminates  in  a  diphycercal  fin  ;  and 
the  dorsal  fin  is  peculiar  in  being  split 
Fig.  35.— THE  BICHIR.  up  into  a  number  of  finlets,  severally 

supported    by  a   spine   in   front,    such 
finlets  varying    in  the    type  genus    from    eight    to  eighteen  in    number. 


SHARKS  AND  RAYS.  513 


The  anal  fins  are  situated  very  far  back  on  the  elongated  body,  so  as 
to  be  separated  by  only  a  short  distance  from  the  caudal.  It  is 
only  in  the  pectoral  fins  that  the  lobate  structure  is  visible  externally, 
each  of  these  consisting  of  a  central  scaled  portion,  surrounded  on  the 
free  margins  by  a  fringe  of  rays.  The  bichir,  which  grows  to  a  length  of 
four  feet,  is  characterised  by  the  moderate  elongation  of  the  body,  and  the 
presence  of  well-developed  pelvic  fins.  These  last  are  wanting  in  the  much 
smaller  reed-fish,  which  takes  its  name  from  the  excessive  attenuation  of 
the  body.  Information  is  much  wanting  as  to  the  life-history  of  these  fishes, 
although  it  is  known  that  they  lay  small  eggs.  If  we  may  judge  from  the 
analogy  of  the  Australian  lung-fish,  which  has  a  similar  type  of  fins,  it  is, 
however,  probable  that  they  are  comparatively  slow  and  sluggish  in  their 
movements,  and  live  on,  if  not  in,  the  mud  at  the  river  bottoms.  In  the  late 
larval  state,  Polypterus,  at  any  rate,  develops  a  large  external  gill  on  each 
side,  projecting  backwards  from  the  gill-opening.  In  addition  to  the  fringing 
dorsal  fin,  the  tubular  nasal  openings  may  be  noticed  as  peculiar  characters 
of  the  existing  forms.  It  may  be  added  that  some  authorities  like  Dr. 
Steindachner  recognise  more  than  a  single  species  of  bichir,  one  of  them 
being  named  Polypterus  lapradei. 


SUB-CLASS  IV.—  ELASMOBRANCHII. 
SHARKS  AND  RAYS. 

THE  dreaded  sharks  are  the  types  of  a  fairly  large  sub-class  of  6shes,  which 
also  includes  the  smaller  but  very  similar  dog-fishes,  as  well  as  the  more 
aberrant  saw-fishes,  and  the  skates  and  rays.  The  latter  are,  indeed,  so 
unlike  sharks  in  general  appearance,  that  it  is  probable  their  affinities  to  the 
latter  are  not  generally  recognised.  Nevertheless,  the  two  groups  agree  in 
all  essential  structural  features,  and  are  evidently  very  nearly  allied.  Per- 
haps the  most  characteristic  feature  of  the  sub-class,  and  the  one  from  which 
it  derives  its  title  of  Elasmobranchii,  is  the  conformation  of  the  gills  and  their 
apertures.  Everybody  knows  the  five  vertical  slits  on  each  side  of  the  neck 
of  a  dog-fish.  These  are  the  apertures  leading  into  the  gill-chambers;  and 
in  the  latter  the  gills  themselves  are  attached  by  their  margins  to  the  skin. 
It  will  not  fail  to  be  noticed  that  in  this  type  of  structure  there  is  nothing 
comparable  to  the  gill-cover  or  operculum  of  the  bony  fishes  and  their  allies. 
Still  there  is  a  very  important  point  of  connection  between  the  Elasmo- 
branchii and  the  Teleostomi ;  this  being  a  feature  whereby  these  two  sub- 
classes are  broadly  distinguished  from  the  Dipnoi  and  Holocephali.  To 
explain  this  peculiarity  in  detail  requires  the  use  of  a  number  of  technical 
terms;  and  it  must  suffice  to  state  that  it  is  connected  with  the  manner  in 
which  the  suspending  apparatus  of  the  lower  jaw  is  attached  to  the  skull ; 
the  attachment  in  this  case  being  movable,  whereas  in  the  other  two  sub- 
classes it  is  immovably  fixed.  It  has  been  said  above  that  the  number  of 
gill-slits  in  a  dog-fish  is  five,  and  this  number  is  very  characteristic  of  the 
order  generally.  Still,  however,  there  are  a  few  exceptions,  and  the  number 
of  slits  may  be  increased  to  six  or  even  seven  on  each  side  of  the  neck. 
34 


5H  PISCES— SUB-CLASS  IV.—ELASMOBRANCHTL 


Although  the  structure  of  the  breathing  apparatus  alone  is  sufficient  to  dis- 
tinguish the  Elasmobranchii  from  all  other  fishes,  it  is  advisable  to  glance  at 
some  of  the  other  leading  structural  features  of  their  organisation.  And 
here  it  may  be  mentioned  that  we  allude  only  to  the  living  forms,  and  that 
some  extinct  groups  do  not  agree  in  all  respects  with  the  characteristics  of 
the  sub-class  as  defined  from  the  former  alone.  From  the  typical  bony 
fishes,  the  Elasmobranchii  are  distinguished  internally  by  the  cartilaginous 
nature  of  the  skeleton  ;  such  hardening  as  takes  place  in  this  framework 
being  due  to  the  deposition  of  calcareous  matter  in  the  cartilage,  and  not  to 
the  replacement  of  the  latter  by  bone.  In  consequence  of  this  want  of 
development  of  bony  structures,  the  primitive  cartilaginous  skull  persists 
throughout  life  ;  and  the  functional  jaws  are  bars  of  cartilage,  which  do  not 
correspond  with  the  bony  jaws  of  higher  creatures.  Teeth  of  the  ordinary 
structure  are  developed  on  these  spurious  jaws;  and  such  hard  structures  as 
exist  in  the  skin  likewise  partake  of  the  nature  of  teeth,  and  are,  therefore, 
very  distinct  from  bone.  Of  this  kind  are  the  fine  granules  found  in  the 
skin  of  sharks,  and  the  larger  pustules,  cones,  knobs,  or  spines  occurring  on 
that  of  many  kinds  of  rays,  where  they  are  often  arranged  in  a  number  of 
isolated  prominent  ridges  on  different  parts  of  the  back.  From  this  remark- 
able absence  of  bone  in  the  group,  the  name  of  boneless  fishes  would  not  be 
an  inappropriate  name  for  the  sharks  and  rays.  Owing  to  the  number  of 
minute  tooth-like  structures  embedded  in  its  surface,  shark-skin  forms  an 
admirable  polisher;  and  as  it  also  affords  a  firm  hand-hold,  it  is  likewise  used 
for  covering  sword-hilts. 

In  their  internal  structure  the  Elasmobranchii  show  a  decidedly  primitive 
type,  in  that  where  the  two  nerves  supplying  the  eyes  meet,  there  the  fibres 
interlace  to  form  a  chiasma.  The  formation  of  a  spiral  valve  by  the  lining 
membrane  of  the  intestine  also  seems  to  be  a  primitive  feature.  In  no  mem- 
ber of  the  group  is  an  air-bladder  ever  developed.  Unlike  ordinary  tishes, 
sharks  lay  a  small  number  of  eggs,  each  of  which  is  of  large  size,  and  is 
entirely  separate  from  the  other.  Generally  these  eggs  are  invested  in  a 
hard,  horny  envelope,  which  is  of  an  oblong  shape,  and  furnished  at  each 
angle  with  a  curling  tendril,  by  means  of  which  they  become  moored  to  the 
stems  of  sea-weeds  or  other  submarine  objects,  where  they  remain  till  the 
young  come  forth.  The  empty  envelopes  are  frequently  to  be  found  thrown 
up  on  the  beach,  and  are  commonly  known  as  sea- purses.  In  certain  species 
the  eggs  are,  however,  retained  within  the  body  of  the  female  parent  until 
hatched,  so  that  the  young  are  born  alive.  While  within  the  shell,  young 
sharks  and  rays  are  provided  with  external  gills,  and  thus  resemble  tadpoles, 
but  these  gills  are  always  lost  before  birth.  The  upper  surface  of  the  head 
in  many  members  of  the  group  is  furnished  with  the  organs  known  as 
spiracles. 

As  regards  the  internal  skeleton  of  the  fins  of  the  Elasmobranchii,  it  will 
suffice  for  our  present  purpose  to  state  that  the  supporting  cartilages  are 
arranged  somewhat  in  the  form  of  a  fan  made  up  of  flattened  divergent  rays,  at 
the  base  of  which  are  certain  other  short  cartilages.  To  the  homologies  of 
these  latter  it  is  unnecessary  to  refer  in  this  work.  In  a  few  living  sharks 
powerful  spines — whose  structure  is  also  comparable  to  that  of  teeth — form 
the  front  portion  of  the  dorsal  fins,  such  spines  being  loosely  inserted  in  the 
flesh,  without  any  basal  connection  with  the  vertebrae.  The  pelvic  fins  are 
situated  a  long  distance  behind  the  pectoral  pair;  and  in  the  males  the  sup- 
porting axis  of  each  of  the  former  is  developed,  as  in  the  Chimseroids,  into  a 


SHARKS  AND  RAYS.  515 


long  conical  clasper.  The  tail-fin  is  of  the  heterocercal  type,  with  its  upper 
lobe — which  is  traversed  by  the  extremity  of  the  back-bone — greatly  de- 
veloped at  the  expense  of  the  lower  one.  As  all  are  aware  who  have  ever 
seen  a  shark  turn  over  on  its  back  to  seize  its  prey,  in  most  members  of  the 
class  the  mouth  is  situated  on  the  lower  aspect  of  the  head,  some  considerable 
distance  behind  the  tip  of  the  muzzle.  And  a  cruel  mouth  it  is  in  the  case 
of  ordinary  sharks,  where  it  is  lined  with  row  after  row  of  sharp  triangular 
teeth,  of  which  the  outermost  stand  upright  in  readiness  for  immediate  use, 
whereas  those  of  the  innermost  rows  are  recumbent,  and  not  destined  to  see 
active  service  until  those  near  the  margins  have  been  worn  out  and  shed.  Some 
sharks,  like  the  Port  Jackson  species,  have,  however,  the  mouth  placed  in 
the  ordinary  position  at  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle,  while  the  teeth — except 
a  few  at  the  front  of  the  jaws— have  low  flattened,  crowns,  and  form  a  mill- 
like  pavement  adapted  to  grinding  the  shells  of  molluscs  and  crabs.  Rays, 
too,  have  pavement-like  teeth  of  a  still  more  markedly  crushing  type, 
although  in  the  males  of  certain  kinds  the  individual  denticules  are 
cusped. 

Sharks  include  the  most  predaceous  and  most  dreaded  of  all  fishes,  and 
many  of  the  rays  are  likewise  formidable  monsters,  which  have  the  power  of 
inflicting  terrible  wounds  by  means  of  the  poisonous  spines  arming  the  whip- 
like  tail.  Bodily  size  is,  however,  by  no  means  a  criterion  of  offensive  power 
among  the  members  of  the  sub-class,  since  the  largest  of  all  sharks,  namely, 
the  basking-sharks,  are  harmless  species,  whose  terminal  mouths  are  armed 
only  with  feeble  teeth,  and  whose  food  consists  chiefly  of  various  invertebrate 
animals.  Skates  and  rays,  which  are  bottom-haunting  creatures,  likewise 
feed  on  invertebrates,  their  grinding  teeth  being  specially  adapted  for  crush- 
ing shells.  Although  many  kinds  ascend  tidal  rivers  for  considerable  dis- 
tances, while  a  few  have  become  adapted — probably  owing  to  physical 
alterations  on  the  earth's  surface — to  a  fresh-water  mode  of  life,  the  Elasmo- 
branchii  in  general  are  marine  fishes.  Although,  as  already  stated,  the  rays 
are  found  on  the  sea-bottom,  while  some  sharks  are  met  with  at  great  depths, 
the  majority  of  the  latter  group  are  essentially  pelagic  creatures,  pursuing 
their  prey  at  or  near  the  surface  of  the  open  sea.  The  abundance  of  food  to 
be  met  with  in  the  neighbourhood  of  frequented  harbours  renders  these  fishes 
generally  more  numerous  in  such  localities  than  elsewhere. 


ORDER  I.— SELACHIL 

SUB-ORDER  I. — ASTEROSPONDYLI. 

As  all  the  existing  members  of  the  sub-class  are  placed  in  a  single 
ordinal  group,  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  enter  into  the  consideration  of  the 
features  by  which  that  order  is  distinguished  from  the  extinct  groups  now 
included  among  the  Elasmobranchii.  It  will  accordingly  suffice  to  point  out 
the  distinctive  features  of  the  sub-order  Asterospondyli,  which  includes  the 
greater  number  of  the  sharks.  The  group  takes  its  name  from  the  structure 
of  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae,  which  in  section  show  a  star-like  arrangement 
of  the  calcareous  plates  forming  their  internal  support,  such  radiating  plates 
being  considerably  more  numerous  than  the  circular  ones  running  parallel  to 
the  outer  surface.  The  members  of  this  sub-order  are  characterised  exter- 


5i6  PISCES— SUB-CLASS  IV.—ELASMOBRANCHIL 


nally  by  the  long  and  nearly  cylindrical  body,  the  powerful  rudder-like  tail, 
the  presence  of  an  anal  tin,  the  moderate  dimensions  of  the  pectorals,  and 
the  small  size  or  absence  of  the  spiracle.  In  consequence  of  the  divergence 
of  the  two  branches  of  the  jaws,  the  teeth  form  oblique  rows,  and  at 
least  the  teeth  in  the  front  of  the  jaws  are  sharp-pointed,  their  general 
form  being  a  much  flattened  cone,  with  or  without  lateral  cusps  at  the 
base. 

In  the  family  typified  by  the  formidable  blue  shark  there  are  no  spines  to 
the  fins  ;  the  first  dorsal  fin  is  placed  immediately  over  the  space  separating 
the  pelvics  from  the  pectorals,  the  teeth  have  hollow  crowns, 
Family          and  are  generally  sharp-pointed,  the  mouth  is  inferior,  the 
Carchariidce.      skin  is  of  the  shagreen  type,  and  the  eyes  are  furnished  with 
a  nictitating  membrane,  which  fulfils  the  function  of  an  eye- 
lid.    The  limits  of  our  space  forbid  giving  the  distinctive  features  of  the 
various  genera  included  in  this  family.     The  blue  shark  (Carcharias  glaucus) 

is  the  most  familiar 
representative  of  the 
type  genus,  while  the 
strange-looking  ham- 
mer-headed sharks 
form  another  genus 
(Sphyrna),  distin- 
guished from  all 
other  fish  by  the 

Fig.  36.—  BLUE  SHARK,  peculiar      flattening 

and  lateral  expan- 
sion of  the  muzzle  into  a  pair  of  projecting  lobes,  each  bearing  an  eye  at  its 
apex.  These  sharks  grow  to  a  length  of  about  fifteen  feet,  and  are  fairly 
abundant  in  the  warmer  seas.  The  genus  Galeus,  in  which  the  head  is  of 
normal  form,  includes  small  sharks,  represented  in  British  waters  by  the 
tope  (G.  canis).  Other  small  British  sharks  known  as  hounds  (Mustelus) 
differ  externally  by  the  more  blunted  form  of  the  muzzle.  Unlike  the  species 
of  Carcharias,  these  sharks  haunt  the  bottom  of  shallow  seas,  where  they 
feed  on  shell-fish,  crabs,  etc.  They  produce  living  young.  Stories  of  the 
ferocity  of  the  various  kinds  of  large  carnivorous  sharks  are  so  numerous  that 
it  is  difficult  to  make  a  selection.  The  following  anecdote  by  the  well-known 
writer,  Mrs.  Bowdich,  is,  however,  of  special  interest,  as  illustrating  the 
indifference  to  the  near  presence  of  these  terrible  monsters  which  seems  to 
become  habitual  to  the  natives  of  many  of  the  warmer  coasts.  "  Sharks 
abounded  at  Cape  Coast,"  writes  this  lady,  "and  one  day,  as  I  stood  at  a 
window  commanding  a  view  of  the  sea,  I  saw  some  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
town  bathing,  and  the  sharks  hastening  to  seize  upon  them — they  being 
visible  from  always  swimming  with  part  of  their  dorsal  fin  out  of  water.  I 
sent  to  warn  the  men  of  their  danger,  and  all  came  ashore  except  one,  who 
laughed  at  the  caution  of  his  companions.  A  huge  shark  was  rapidly  ap- 
proaching, and  I  sent  my  servant  again,  and  this  time  armed  with  half  a 
bottle  of  rum  to  bribe  the  man  to  save  himself.  It  was  too  late.  The  mur- 
derous creature  had  seized  him,  and  the  water. around  was  dyed  with  his 
blood.  A  canoe  was  despatched  to  bring  him  ashore,  but  a  wave  threw  him 
on  to  the  beach,  and  it  was  found  that  the  shark  had  taken  the  thigh-bone 
completely  out  of  the  socket.  The  man,  of  course,  expired  in  a  few  minutes. 
Accidents  were  often  happening,  and  always  fatal,  and  yet  the  negroes,  who 


SHARKS  AND  RA  YS.  517 


seldom  think  beyond  the  present  moment,  could  not  be  dissuaded  from  bath- 
ing. A  man  walking  in  the  sea  up  to  his  knees  was  dragged  away  by  one 
almost  before  my  eyes." 

From  the  Carchariidce  the  members  of  the  allied  family  Lamnidce  differ  by 
the  solid  crowns  of  the  fully  developed  teeth  as  well  as  by  the  absence  of  a 
nictitating  membrane  to  protect  the  eye.  The  typical  re- 
presentative of  the  family  is  the  well-known  porbeagle  Family 
(Lamna  cornubica),  a  species  widely  spread  in  the  seas  of  Lamnidce. 
the  Northern  Hemisphere,  where  it  feeds  on  fishes,  which  are 
bolted  whole.  It  seldom  grows  to  more  than  about  ten  feet  in  length,  and  is 
believed  to  produce  its  young  alive.  Far  larger  is  the  gigantic  Carcharodon 
rondelctii,  which  may  attain  the  enormous  length  of  forty  feet,  and  is  in 
truth  the  giant  of  the  carnivorous  sharks.  It  has  huge,  flattened,  triangular 
teeth  of  great  depth  ;  but  as  teeth  of  similar  type,  although  of  much  larger 
dimensions,  are  met  with  in  various  superficial  deposits,  as  they  are  also  in 
some  of  the  ocean  abysses,  it  is  evident  that  the  living  species  is  only  an  un- 
worthy representative  of  its  ancestors.  It  is,  however,  quite  large  enough, 
and  we  may  be  thankful  that  its  still  more  gigantic  predecessors  have  dis- 
appeared from  the  scene.  Much  smaller,  and  with  a  different  type  of  teeth, 
are  the  two  species  of  the  allied  genus  Odontaspis.  Next  comes  the  thresher 
or  fox-shark  (Alopecias  vulpcs),  a  species  growing  to  a  length  of  about  fifteen 
feet,  and  easily  recognised  by  the  excessive  development  of  the  upper  lobe  of 
the  tail,  which  forms  more  than  half  the  total  length  of  the  creature.  It  has 
feeble  teeth,  and  feeds  on  mackerel  and  other  fish,  which  it  drives  together 
by  striking  the  surface  of  the  water  with  its  tail,  whence  the  name  of 
thresher.  Sailors  state  that  threshers  also  harass  whales  by  jumping  up  in 
the  air,  and  dealing  them  sounding  "whacks"  with  their  tails  in  their 
descent.  But  this  naturalists,  who  are  for  the  most  part  an  incredulous  race, 
stoutly  refuse  to  believe.  However,  we  think  that,  as  in  the  case  of  adders 
swallowing  their  young,  popular  observation  is  more  likely  to  be  in  the  right 
than  conclusions  drawn  from  the  study  of  museum  specimens.  To  the  same 
family  belongs  the  gigantic  basking-shark  (Cetorhinus  maximus)  of  the  North 
Atlantic,  commonly  met  with  off  the  west  coast  of  Ireland,  and  attaining  a 
length  of  fully  thirty  feet.  This  shark,  which  has  very  minute  teeth,  is 
characterised,  among  other  features,  by  the  small  size  of  the  anal  and  second 
dorsal  fins,  and  the  large  dimensions  of  its  gill-slits.  It  is  a  somewhat  sociable 
species,  floating  motionless  on  the  surface  of  the  sea  in  calm  sunny  weather. 
On  account  of  the  large  quantity  of  excellent  oil  yielded  by  its  liver,  it  is  a 
regular  object  of  pursuit. 

Another  species  (Rhinodon  typicus),  commonly  known  by  the  same  ver- 
nacular name  as  the  last,  forms  a  family  by  itself,  being  distinguished  from  all 
the  foregoing  members  of  the  order  by  the  terminal  position 
of  the  mouth,  which  is  of  huge  size,  and  somewhat  reminds    Family  Rhino- 
us  of  an  open  square-topped  bag.     The  eyes  are  extremely         dontidce. 
minute,   the   teeth  feeble,  and  the  whole   body  much   de- 
pressed, with   the   first  dorsal  fin   relatively  small,  and  placed  behind  the 
highest  point  of  the  back,  nearly  above  the  pelvic  pair.     Still  smaller  is  the 
second  dorsal,  which  is  situated  near  the  tail,  just  over  the  anal.     In  spite  of 
its  huge  dimensions,  fifty  feet  or  more,  this  shark  is  a  perfectly  harmless 
creature.     It  probably  feeds  on  small  fishes  and  various  invertebrate  animals. 
It  appears  to  be  confined  to  the  Indo-Pacific  seas,  where  it  is  common  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Seychelles. 


5i8  PISCES— SUB-CLASS  IV.—ELASMOBRANCHIT. 


The  dog-fishes  and  allied  members  of  this  family  differ  from  the  foregoing 
sharks  with  the   mouth   terminal  by  the   backward  position  of  the  second 
dorsal  fin  which   occupies  a  position   immediately  over,  or 
Family  Scyl-      behind  the  line  of  the  pelvic   pair.     The  teeth,   of  which 
liidce.          several  series  are  generally  in  use,  are  of  small  size,  the  eye 
lacks  the  nictitating  membrane,  and  spiracles  are  present  on 
the  head.     The   dog-Hshes,   of   which   there  are  two  species  from   British 
waters,  form  the  genus  Scyllium ;   most  of  the  species  having  their   skins 
elegantly   spotted.      Much    larger   is  the  Indian   zebra-shark   (Steyostoma), 
growing  to  some  fifteen  feet  in  length,  and  taking  its  name  from  its  zebra  or 
tiger-like  coloration.     Mention  must  also  be  made  of  the  sharks  of  the  genus 
Crossorhinus,  from  'Japan  and  Australia,  not  only  on  account  of  the  circum- 
stance that  they  are  deep-water  forms,  but  likewise  from  the  presence  of 
leaf-like  outgrowths  of  the  skin  of  the  sides  of  the  head  ;  such  appendages 
being   probably  for   the   purpose    of  attracting  prey  within  reach  of  the 
jaws. 

The  Port  Jackson  shark,  together  with  three  allied  species,  form  the  genus 

Cestracion  (or  more  properly,  Cestracium  x),  which  now  alone  constitutes  a 

family  easily   recognised  by  the  peculiar  character   of  the 

Family  dentition,  and  likewise  by  the  presence  of  a  spine  in  the 

Cestraciid'jK.       front  portion  of  each  dorsal  fin.     Whereas  in  the  forepart  of 

both  jaws  the  numerous  rows  of  teeth  are  sharp  and  cusped, 

on  the  sides  and  hinder  region  they  form  a  pavement-like  structure,  arranged 

in  oblique  rows  ;  the  teeth  in  some  of  these  rows  being  much  larger  than 

in  the  others.  The 
mouth  is  situated  at 
the  extremity  of  the 
muzzle,  and  the  eye 
is  unprovided  with  a 
nictitating  membrane. 
These  sharks,  which  do 
not  grow  to  more  than 
about  five  feet  in 
length,  are  widely  dis- 
tributed in  the  warmer 
seas.  Although  we 

7.  37.— PORT  JACKSON  SHARK.  are  still  very  ignorant 

as  to  their  life-his- 
tory, it  is  known  that  their  food  is  principally  composed  of  shell-6sh, 
and  also  that  their  eggs  are  unlike  those  of  other  members  of  the 
order,  their  enveloping  membranes  being  twisted  into  the  form  of  a 
screw. 

The  two  genera  of  sharks  constituting  this  small  sub-family  stand  apart 

from  the  other  members  of  the  sub-order  in  regard  to  the  manner  in  which 

the  jaws  are  articulated  to  the  cranium,  while   externally 

Family          they  are  readily  distinguished  by  the  number  of  gill-clefts 

Notidanidw.       being  increased  from  the  normal  five  to  either  six  or  seven, 

and  also  by  the  single  dorsal  fin.     There  is  no  spine  to  the 

latter,  and  the  teeth  are  cusped,  and  form  several  series.     The  typical  genus 

Notidanus  includes  four  species,  characterised  by  the  simple  gill-slits   and 

the  complicated  structure  of  the  teeth,  which  consist  of  an  elongated  base 

1  The  name  of  the  family  is  commonly  given  as  Cestraciontidce,  but  it  should  be  as  written  here. 


SHARKS  AND  RAYS.  519 


carrying  a  large  number  of  cusps,  these  latter  gradually  diminishing  in  height 
from  one  end  of  the  tooth  to  the  other.  The  notochord  remains  in  its 
original  condition  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  backbone.  These 
sharks,  which  may  grow  to  about  fifteen  feet  in  length,  are  to  be  found  in 
most  of  the  warmer  seas.  In  the  second  genus,  Chlamydoselache,  which  is 
represented  only  by  a  single  species  from  the  Japanese  seas,  the  six  gill-slits 
have  frill-like  expansions  of  skin  on  their  margins,  the  teeth  are  of  simpler 
structure,  and  the  body  is  so  long  and  slender  as  to  be  almost  eel-like. 


SUB-ORDER  II. — TECTOSPONDYLI. 

In  this  sub-order — which  includes  the  spiny  dog-fishes,  saw-fishes,  and  the 
rays — the  vertebrae,  when  fully  developed,  have  their  calcareous  plates  so 
arranged  that  in  cross-section  the  circular  ones  predominate  over  those  that 
radiate  from  the  centre  to  the  circumference.  None  of  the  members  have  an 
anal  fin,  but  the  spiracles  are  large.  In  the  rays  the  body  is  characterised  by 
its  extreme  depression,  and  the  pectoral  tins  are  developed  into  huge  flaps 
bordering  its  sides. 

While  agreeing  with  the  other  members  of  the  sub-order  in  the  structure 
of  the  vertebrae,  the  species  forming  the  family  tfpinacidce  are  externally  like 
sharks.     The  gill-clefts  are  small  and  lateral  in  position,  the 
spiracles  are  situated  behind  the  eyes,  and  there  are  two  Family 

dorsal  fins,  which  may  be  furnished  in  front  with  spines.     In       Spinacidce. 
addition  to  the  typical  genus  Spinax,  the  family  includes  the 
spiny  dog-fishes  (Acanthia&),  taking  their  name  from  the  presence  o*  spines  to 
the  dorsal  fins,  and  likewise  the  Greenland  shark  (Lcemargus),     Whereas  the 
spiny  dog-fishes  do  not  exceed  about  four  feet  in  length,  the  latter  species 
grows  to  as  much  as  fifteen,  and  has  no  spines  to  the  tins  of  the  back.     It  has 
a  peculiarly  tuberculated  skin  ;  and  whereas  the  upper  teeth  are  small,  those 
of  the  lower  jaw  are  taller,  and  have  their  tips  bent  to  one  side.     Nearly 
allied  is  the  spiny  shark  (Echinorhinus)  of  the  Atlantic  and  Mediterranean,  in. 
which  the  upper  and  lower  teeth  are  alike. 

The  monk-  or  angel-*  sh  (Squatina  vulgaris)  is  the  sole  member  of  a  family 
which  serves  to  connect  the  last  with  the  true  rays.     This  ugly  fish  has  a 
depressed  skate-like  body,  but  a  nearly  terminal  mouth,  and 
the  pectoral  tins  not  connected  at  their  bases  with  the  head.  Family 

The  conical  teeth  are  sharply  pointed,  the  gill-slits  are  lateral,       Squatinidce. 
the  skin  is  tuberculated,  and  the  dorsal  tins,  which  have  no 
spines,  are  placed  on  the  tail.     The  monk-nsh  reaches  a  length  of  fully  five 
feet,  and  is  found  in  nearly  all  seas. 

The  production  of  the  extremity  of  the  upper  jaw  into  a  long,  flattened 
bony  process,   armed  on  each  side  with   sharp  quadrangular  teeth   set  in 
sockets,  serves  at  once  to  distinguish  the  saw-tishes  from  all 
their  kindred.     They  form  two  genera — Pristiophorus  and          Families 
Pristis — each  of  which  is  regarded  as  representing  a  family    Pristiophoridce 
by  itself,  although  such  a  division  certainly  seems  somewhat     and  Pristidce. 
superfluous.     The  members  of  the  first  genus  are  relatively 
small  fishes  from  the  seas  of  Australia  and  Japan,  characterised,  among  other 
features,  by  the  lateral  situation  of  the  gill-slits,  and  the  possession  of  a  pair 
of  tentacles  arising  from  the  middle  of  the  jaw,  and  projecting  far  beyond  the 


520  PISCES— SUB-CLASS  IV.—ELASMOBRANCHII. 


teeth.  In  the  second  genus,  of  which  various  members  range  through  all 
the  warmer  seas,  the  gill-slits  are  placed  on  the  inferior  aspect,  and  there 
are  no  tentacles  to  the  saw.  Saw-fishes  of  this  genus  grow  to  twenty  feet 
or  more  in  length,  when  their  offensive  weapon  may  measure  as  much  as 
a  couple  of  yards.  They  are  some  of  the  most  terrible  and  cruel  members 
of  the  whole  order,  using  their  formidable  saw  for  the  purpose  of  ripping 

open  the  bodies  of  their  victims 
by  a  lateral  stroke,  and  then 
feeding  greedily  on  the  in- 
testines and  torn  flesh.  Even 
bathers  in  fresh  waters  are  by 

•=^-~l__^_  -_ _ ^  no  means  exempt  from   their 

attacks,    as    these    fishes    fre- 
Ftg.  38.-  SAW-FISH.  quently  ascend  large  rivers  to 

a  considerable  distance. 

The  genera  of  beaked  rays  constituting  this  family  differ  from  all  the  pre- 
ceding groups  by  the  much  greater  development  of  their  pectoral  fins,  which 
extend  forwards  to  join  the  head,  the  portion  of  the  head 
Family  and  body  thus  surrounded  by  fins  being  technically  termed 

RhinobatidcK.  the  disc.  In  these  and  the  other  rays  referred  to  below,  the 
dorsal  fins  are  shifted  backwards  to  the  more  or  less  whip- 
like  tail,  and  the  gill-slits  are  placed  inferiorly,  as  is  generally  the  mouth. 
The  RhinobatidcR  are  specially  distinguished  from  their  kindred  by  the 
moderate  development  of  the  pectoral  fins,  of  which  the  portion  furnished 
with  cartilaginous  rays  does  not  extend  forwards  to  the  beak  ;  and  the  long 
tail,  which  is  marked  on  the  sides  by  a  fold  of  skin,  carries  two  large  dorsal 
fins.  In  addition  to  the  typical  genus  Rhinobatis,  which  includes  a  consider- 
able number  of  species  from  all  the  warmer  oceans,  the  present  family  com- 
prises the  Australian  Trigonorhina  and  the  two  species  of  Rhynchobatis,  from 
the  hottest  regions  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  last-named  is  remarkable  for 
the  beautiful  structure  of  its  teeth,  which  form  a  compact  pavement,  with  a 
prominent  ridge  in  the  middle  line  of  one  jaw  fitting  into  a  corresponding 
depression  in  that  of  the  other,  and  also  having  undulations  at  the  sides. 
From  six  to  eight  feet  is  a  common  length  for  these  rays.  Like  the  skates 
and  rays  of  the  following  families,  the  members  of  these  genera  are  some- 
what sluggish  fishes,  living  near  the  bottom  in  water  of  moderate  depth,  and 
flapping  lazily  along  when  in  movement  by  the  aid  of  their  huge  pectoral  fins, 
the  tail  acting  merely  as  a  rudder.  When  at  rest,  the  colour  of  the  upper 
surface  of  a  ray's  back  is  so  like  the  sand  or  mud  on  which  the  creature  rests 
that  it  often  requires  a  practised  eye  to  detect  its  presence.  The  ridges  of 
tubercles  found  on  the  backs  of  some  species  probably  increase  the  resem- 
blance by  simulating  lines  of  small  stones  on  the  sand.  The  food  of  rays 
consists  of  shell-fish  and  various  crustaceans,  whose  hard  shells  are  instan- 
taneously ground  up  by  the  powerful  mill-like  jaws.  In  seizing  their  prey, 
these  fish  throw  themselves  right  above  it,  so  as  to  be  able  readily  to  convey 
it  to  the  mouth,  which  is  situated  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  head  some 
considerable  distance  behind  the  muzzle. 

The   second  family  of  rays  includes  the  genera  Raia,  Psammobatis,  and 
Platyrhina,  in  all  of  which  the  disc  is  very  broad,  with  its  rayed  portion  ex- 
tending as   far  forwards  as   the   muzzle,  while  the  tail  is 
Family  Raiidce.    marked  on  each  side  by  a  fold.     Yery  generally  the  skin  is 
roughened  by  tubercles,  which  may  terminate  in  spines.     To 


SHARKS  AND  RA  VS. 


521 


the  typical  genus  belongs  the  common  thornback  skate  of  the  British  seas, 
in  which  the  two   sexes  are   distin- 
guished by  the  structure  of  the  teeth, 
those  of  the  female  forming  a  com- 
paratively smooth  pavement,  whereas 
those    of 
arranged 


L—THORNBACK  SKATE. 


the  male — although  still 
in  the  same  manner — are 
cusped.  In  other  species  of  the 
same  genus  sexual  differences  dis- 
play themselves  in  other  parts  of 
the  body.  Skates  of  this  genus 
are  more  abundant  in  northern  than 
in  tropical  seas,  and  some  of  them 
.range  considerably  farther  north  than 
any  other  members  of  the  group. 
The  flesh  of  all  is  largely  used  as 
food. 

The  presence  of  an  electric  organ, 
composed  of  vertical  prisms,  between  the  head  and  the  pectoral  fins,  serves 
to  differentiate  the  numerous  kinds  of  electric  rays  from  the 
other  representatives  of  the  group.     The  body  of  these  fishes  Family 

forms  a  broad,  smooth  disc,  covered  with  a  naked  skin  ;  the  Torpedinidce. 
tail  has  a  longitudinal  fold  on  each  side  and  a  caudal  fin,  and 
there  is  generally  a  rayed  dorsal  fin.  The  vertical  prisms  of  the  electric 
organ  are  divided  by  a  number  of  horizontal  partitions  into  separate  cells, 
each  filled  with  a  translucent  substance  somewhat  resembling  jelly  in  ap- 
pearance. The  currents  produced  by  this  singular  structure  are  precisely 
similar  to  those  from  a  galvanic  battery  ;  and  in  fishes  of  moderate  dimensions 
are  sufficiently  powerful  to  disable  even  human  beings.  The  typical  genus 
Torpedo  includes  half  a  dozen  species  from  the  Indian  and  Atlantic  Oceans, 
some  of  which  are  also  abundant  in  the  Mediterranean,  while  one  occasionally 
wanders  to  the  southern  shores  of  Britain.  From  the  warmer  seas  there  are 
also  several  other  genera  belonging  to  this  family,  such  as  Astrape,  Discopyqe, 
Uypnus,  Narcine,  and  Temera,  severally  distinguished  by  the  conformation 
and  position  of  the  fins. 

The  largest  and  most  hideous  of  all  the  skates  are  the  so-called  eagle-rays, 
several  of  which  are  popularly  known  as  devil-fish.     In  the  five  genera  in- 
cluded in  this  family  the  pectoral  fins  obtain  an  enormous 
development,  in  consequence   of  which   the   disc   becomes  Family 

greatly  widened.  Along  the  sides  of  the  head  the  pectoral  fins  JSfyliobatidcB. 
are,  however,  interrupted  ;  their  anterior  extremities  form- 
ing small  finlets  on  the  muzzle,  known  as  cephalic  fins.  In  some  of  the 
genera  these  cephalic  fins  are  modified  to  form  a  pair  of  horn-like  structures 
projecting  forwards  on  each  side  of  the  muzzle,  the  function  of  which  is  to 
assist  in  capturing  and  conveying  to  the  mouth  the  prey.  In  all,  the  tail 
forms  a  long,  tapering,  whip-like  organ.  When  the  mouth  is  armed  with 
teeth,  these  take  the  form  of  a  pavement,  which  in  the  typical  genus  Mylio- 
batis  is  perfectly  smooth,  and  composed  of  a  number  of  oblong  and  hexagonal 
plates,  fitted  closely  together  at  their  edges,  and  with  their  grinding  surface 
like  polished  ivory.  Several  widely-spread  species  are  included  in  the 
typical  genus,  two  of  which  are  visitors  to  the  British  coasts.  Most  of  them 
have  a  barbed  spine  to  the  tail,  and  with  this,  when  caught,  they  lash  out 


522  PISCES—  SUB-CLASS  IV.—ELASMOR.RANCHII. 


violently,  and  thus  inflict  severe  wounds.  In  comparison  with  the  electric 
rays — in  which  the  width  of  the  disc  seldom  exceeds  from  two  to  three  feet — • 
these  fishes  are  giants,  their  length  being  at  times  as  much  as  fifteen  feet. 
The  tropical  devil-fishes  forming  the  genera  Dicerobatis  and  Cephaloptera  are, 
however,  still  more  gigantic,  some  examples  measuring  nearly  twenty  feet 
across  the  disc,  and  weighing  considerably  more  than  a  thousand  pounds.  In 
Dicerobatis  the  truncated  muzzle  is  armed  with  a  formidable  pair  of  horns, 
the  mouth  is  inferior,  and  has  both  its  jaws  furnished  with  teeth.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  Cephaloptera,  the  position  of  the  mouth  is  terminal,  and  there 
are  teeth  only  in  the  lower  jaw.  Of  these  ungainly  monsters,  Mr.  S.  Ward, 
in  a  letter  quoted  by  Dr.  Percival  Wright,  describes  his  experiences  in  the 
Seychelles  as  follows  : — "  Coming  home,  we  passed  close  to  an  enormous 
diable-de-mer  floating  quietly  about.  We  changed  from  the  pirogue  to  the 
whale-boat,  which  I  had  scientifically  fitted  up  for  the  grosses  poissous,  and 
went  alongside  of  him,  driving  a  regular  whale-harpoon  right  through  his 
body.  The  way  he  towed  the  whaler  was  beautiful,  but  we  would  not  give 
him  an  inch  of  line,  and  he  had  to  succumb  to  a  rather  protracted  lancing. 
His  size  will  give  you  an  idea  of  his  strength  in  the  water — forty-two  feet  in 
circumference.  We  got  him  awash  on  the  beach,  but  the  united  strength  of 
ten  men  could  not  get  him  an  inch  farther,  so  we  were  obliged  to  leave  him 
there.  By  this  time  the  sharks  will  not  have  left  much  of  him  ;  they  have 
not  had  such  a  meal  for  a  long  time.  The  fishermen  say  that,  when  alive, 
the  sharks  do  not  molest  the  diable-de-mer,  whose  offensive  weapons  consist 
of  their  enormous  flexible  sides  (one  can  hardly  call  them  fins)  with  which 
they  can  beat  almost  any  shark  to  death.  Asa  rule,  when  harpooned,  they 
endeavour,  like  other  rays,  to  bury  themselves  in  the  sand,  and  if  they 
succeed  in  doing  this,  no  line  can  ever  haul  them  out  of  it — their  flat  bodies 
act  on  the  principle  of  an  enormous  sucker.  Another  curious  fact  about 
them  is  that  when  harpooned,  they  swim  sideways,  edge-on,  in  order  to  avoid 
exposing  too  broad  a  surface  to  the  enemy.  They  never  do  this  unless 
harpooned."  Other  genera  are  Aetobatis  and  Ehinoptera,  both  distinguished 
by  the  dentition  and  the  position  and  form  of  the  fins.  Whereas  the  former 
of  these  has  but  a  single  species,  the  latter  possesses  several. 

The  last  existing  representatives  of  the  Elasmobranchii  are  the  formidable 
and  dreaded  sting-rays,  which  are  typified  by  the  genus  Trygon,  but  also 

include  Pteroplatea,  Urogymnus,  and  Urolophus.     In  species 

Family  the  typical  genus  is  very  numerous,  some  of  these  having  a 

Trygonidce.       very  wide  geographical  range.     They  are  mostly  tropical, 

and  attain  their  maximum  development  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
and  the  Indian  seas.  It  is  remarkable  that  certain  species  inhabiting  the 
eastern  districts  of  Tropical  America  have  become  accustomed  to  a  fresh- 
water existence,  and  are  now  restricted  to  certain  inland  lakes.  All  these 
fishes  are  distinguished  by  the  excessive  development  of  the  fore-part  of  the 
pectoral  fins,  which  are  so  extended  as  to  encircle  the  muzzle,  and  thus  com- 
plete the  disc.  The  whip-like  tail  is  distinctly  marked  off  from  the  body, 
and  generally  bears  a  poisonous  serrated  spine  ;  and  in  many  kinds  the 
median  fins — which  are  never  large — are  replaced  by  similar  spines.  These 
armed  rays  are  some  of  the  most  dangerous  of  all  fishes. 


SUB-KINGDOM  I.—  VERTEBRATA. 

CLASS    VL—CYCLOSTOMATA. 
BY  R  LYDEKKER,  B.A.,  F.R.S.,  V.P.G.S.,  &c. 

LAMPREYS  AND  HAG-FISHES. 

As  indicated  by  the  name  hag-fishes,  which  is  popularly  applied  to  the  mem- 
bers of  one  of  the  two  families,  the  animals  now  to  be  considered  are 
commonly  regarded  as  fishes.  Popular  natural  history  and  scientific  zoology 
take,  however,  very  different  estimates  of  the  mutual  relationships  of  or- 
ganised beings  ;  and  zoologists  are  now  pretty  well  agreed  that,  although 
they  were  formerly  admitted  within  its  limits,  lampreys  and  hag-fishes  have 
no  real  claim  to  be  included  in  the  class  Pisces.  Consequently,  they  are  now 
regarded  as  forming  a  class  by  themselves— the  Cyclostomata.  This  class 
includes  the  last  group  of  animals  now  termed  true  Vertebrata;  the  lancelets, 
which  were  likewise  formerly  regarded  as  fishes,  being  now  considered  as  the 
highest  of  the  Protochordata  or  semi- Vertebrates.  The  essential  features  by 
which  the  members  of  the  lamprey  group  are  broadly  distinguished  from  the 
higher  classes  of  the  Vertebrates  are  the  complete  absence  of  jaws,  the  single 
— instead  of  double — aperture  of  the  nostrils,  and  the  rasping  tongue. 
Round-mouths — the  English  equivalent  of  Cyclostomata — is  a  name  which 
well  expresses  the  first  of  these  three  distinctive  features  ;  but,  in  allusion 
to  the  second  characteristic,  the  alternative  name  of  Monorhina  has  likewise 
been  proposed  for  the  class.  Whichever  name  may  be  selected,  there  can  be 
no  doubt  as  to  the  right  of  the  lamprey  group  to  constitute  a  class  by  itself. 
Had  we  these  living  forms  alone  to  deal  with,  there  would  be  no  need  to 
sub-divide  the  class  into  groups  of  higher  rank  than  families.  It  happens, 
however,  that  there  are  certain  extinct,  somewhat  fish-like  creatures,  which 
there  is  considerable  reason  for  regarding  as  more  or  less  distantly  related 
to  the  modern  lampreys.  Consequently,  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  latter 
into  a  sub-class  by  themselves  ;  and  for  this  sub-class  the  name  of  Marsipo- 
branchii  has  been  selected.  This  name  refers  to  the  circumstance  that  in 
the  lampreys  and  hag-fishes  the  gills  form  a  series  of  pouches  on  the  sides  of 
the  neck,  on  which  they  usually  open  by  round  apertures  coincident  in 
number  with  the-  pouches.  Either  six  or  seven  is  the  number  of  pairs  of 
gill-pouches,  in  which  there  are  no  supporting  gill-arches.  The  sucking- 
mouth,  which  occupies  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle,  is  of  circular  form,  with 
its  more  or  less  lip-like  margin  sustained  by  a  system  of  internal  cartilages. 
The  skin  of  the  body  is  soft,  and  unprovided  with  scales  ;  but  the  upper  and 
lower  surfaces  of  its  hinder  half  bear  well-developed  fins  in  the  middle  line, 
which  are  supported  by  vertical  rays  of  cartilage.  Paired  fins — correspond- 
ing to  those  of  fishes  and  representing  the  limbs  of  the  higher  Vertebrates — 
are,  however,  conspicuous  by  their  absence  ;  this  lack  of  limbs  forming,  in- 
deed, a  characteristic  of  the  class  rather  than  a  feature  of  the  sub-class. 
Internally,  a  lamprey  lacks  all  traces  of  ribs,  and  the  vertebral  column  is 
either  represented  by  the  primitive  notochord  alone,  or  by  that  structure 
surrounded  by  a  series  of  calcareous  rings.  In  reality,  therefore,  a  lamprey 

523 


524  CYCLOSTOMATA. 


has  only  the  very  remotest  claim  to  be  called  a  vertebrate  animal ;  but  since 
some  of  the  sharks  are  in  a  very  similar  predicament  as  regards  the  differ- 
entiation of  their  backbones,  this  deficiency  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  a  bar 
to  the  title.  The  heart  of  a  lamprey  is  decidedly  of  a  lower  type  than  that 
of  a  fish,  since  it  lacks  the  chamber  at  the  front  end  technically  designated 
the  bulbus  arteriosus.  The  digestive  tract  is  peculiar  in  being  quite  simple 
and  straight;  and  the  organs  of  reproduction  discharge  their  products  directly 
into  the  general  cavity  of  the  body.  The  function  of  teeth  is  discharged  by 
a  variable  number  of  horny  plates  or  cusps. 

As  a  family,  the  lampreys  are  distinguished  from  the  hag-fishes  by  under- 
going a  metamorphosis,  and  by  the  nostril  terminating  behind  as  a  blind  sac 
without  perforating  the  palate.  In  the  adult  form  rasping 

Lampreys. —  horny  teeth  cover  the  tongue,  and  teeth  of  similar  structure 
Family  are  present  above  and  below  the  mouth,  as  well  as  in  the 

Petromyzidw.  surrounding  adhesive  disc,  while  the  aperture  of  the  nostril 
is  situated  near  the  middle  of  the  head,  and  there  are  well- 
developed  eyes.  The  gill-pouches  are  seven  in  number,  and  each  opens  by  a 
separate  aperture  on  the  side  of  the  neck  ;  but  internally  those  of  each  side 
have  only  a  single  opening  into  the  pharynx,  their  ducts  uniting  to  form  one 
tube.  On  the  other  hand,  the  larvte,  which  were  long  regarded  as  distinct 
creatures,  under  the  name  of  Ammoccetes,  have  an  undivided  median  fin,  and 
toothless  mouth.  All  the  members  of  this  family  lay  very  small  eggs,  and 
the  lining  membrane  of  the  intestine  forms  a  spiral  valve.  The  true 
lampreys,  or  those  included  in  the  genus  Petromywnn,  appear  to  be  four  in 
number,  and  have  a  wide  range  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  one  extending 
as  far  south  as  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  In  this  genus  the  hinder  of  the  two 
fins  on  the  back  is  continuous  with  the  tail-fin  ;  the  rasp-like  teeth  on  the 
tongue  are  serrated  ;  and  on  the  upper  side  of  the  mouth  there  is  either  a 
transverse  horny  ridge  bearing  one  two-cusped,  or  two  separate  teeth  situated 
close  together.  The  largest  form  is  the  sea  lamprey  (P.  marinuni),  which  is 
not  unfrequently  as  much  as  three  feet  in  length,  whereas  the  common  river 
lamprey  (P.  fluviatile)  does  not  reach  a  couple  of  feet.  Lampreys  live 
chiefly  or  entirely  on  the  flesh  of  fishes,  to  whose  bodies  they  attach  them- 
selves by  their  adhesive  discs,  and  then  rasp  off  the  flesh  with  their  horny 
dental  organs.  All  ascend  rivers  for  the  purpose  of  breeding,  and  the  larvae 
of  some  kinds  remain  in  fresh  water  until  they  develop  into  the  adult  form. 
At  the  breeding  season  some  lampreys  ascend  the  rivers  of  the  Northern 
Hemisphere  in  vast  shoals.  They  deposit  their  eggs  in  furrows  excavated  in 
the  river  bottom.  Another  genus  (Mordcicia)  is  represented  by  a  species 
found  in  localities  as  remote  from  one  another  as  the  coasts  of  Tasmania  and 
Chili,  and  differs  in  that  the  teeth  above  the  mouth  are  arranged  in  two 
three-cusped  groups.  In  the  allied  genus  Geotria,  of  which  one  species  is 
found  in  South  Australia,  and  the  second  in  Chili,  the  hinder  fin  on  the  back 
is  distinct  from  the  tail-fin.  The  last  genus  is  the  little-known  Exomegas, 
from  the  Argentine  coast. 

In  this  family  the  nostril  is  extended  backwards  to  perforate  the  palate, 

and  its  front  aperture  is  placed  close  to  the  muzzle.     Two  pairs  of  barbels 

decorate  the  sides  of  the  muzzle,  the  mouth  has  no  lip-like 

Hag-Fishes. —     structure,  a  single  tooth  occupies  the  middle  of  the  palate, 

Family  and  the  teeth  on  the  tongue  are  arranged  in  a  double  comb- 

Myxinida.        like  series.     Each  gill-pouch  opens  by  a  duct  of  its  own  into 

the  pharynx,  and  the  external  apertures  of  the  pouches  are 


LAMPRE  YS  AND  HA  G- FISHES.  525 


situated  a  considerable  distance  behind  the  head,  instead  of  close  to  it. 
The  eggs  differ  from  those  of  the  lampreys  by  their  relatively  large  size,  as 
well  as  by  having  a  horny  coating  furnished  with  tendrils  for  the  purpose  of 
attachment  to  submerged  objects.  The  young  are  hatched  in  a  fully- 
developed  state,  and  undergo  no  metamorphosis.  In  the  members  of  the 
typical  genus  Myxine  there  is  only  one  gill-aperture  on  each  side  of  the  body, 
but  this  gives  rise  to  six  ducts  leading  to  the  gill-pouches.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  the  genus  Bdellostoma  each  of  the  six  or  more  gill-pouches  com- 
municates directly  with  the  exterior  by  a  separate  aperture.  Whereas  the 
members  of  the  first  genus  have  a  wide  geographical  range,  the  two  repre- 
sentatives of  the  second  appear  to  be  confined  to  the  coasts  of  the  South 
Pacific.  All  are  exclusively  marine,  and  they  have  been  taken  at  great 
depths.  They  are  blind,  and  to  a  large  extent  parasitic,  so  that  they  may  be 
regarded  as  degraded  types ;  and  they  have  the  habit  of  secreting  a  vast 
quantity  of  stiff  slime.  Like  the  lampreys,  they  feed  on  the  flesh  of  fishes, 
the  various  members  of  the  cod  tribe  being  their  especial  favourites.  They 
do  not,  however,  content  themselves  by  hanging  on  to  the  surface  of  the  body, 
for  which  the  structure  of  the  mouth  is  less  suited,  but  actually  bore  their 
way  into  the  flesh  of  their  unwilling  hosts. 


SUB-KINGDOM  L— VERTEBRATA. 

CLASS    VIL—PROTOCHORDA. 
BY  W.  GARSTANG,  M.A.,  F.Z.S. 

SUB-CLASS  I.-CEPHALOCHORDA. 

THE  group  Cephalochorda  contains  a  number  of  small  marine  animals  which 
resemble  tishes  in  many  respects,  but  are  much  more  lowly  organised  than 
even  the  simplest  of  the  finny  tribe.  They  breathe  like  fishes  by  taking 
water  into  their  mouths  and  passing  it  out  through  a  series  of  slit-like  holes 
in  the  sides  of  their  throats  (gill-slits).  The  number  of  these  gill-slits  is  much 
greater  than  in  fishes,  frequently  amounting  to  more  than  a  hundred.  A 
supporting  rod,  the  notochord,  the  forerunner  of  the  backbone  of  higher 
forms,  extends  along  the  back  of  the  animal  from  head  to  tail,  and  the  tubu- 
lar nervous  system  lies  above  it.  There  are  no  true  side-fins,  but  a  pair  of 
ridges  along  the  under  side  of  the  body  of  the  young  animal  possibly  re- 
presents them.  In  the  very  young  animal  the  gill-slits  open  directly  to  the 
outside,  but  at  an  early  period  the  fin -like  ridges,  which  have  just  been 
mentioned,  close  over  the  slits  and  unite  with  one  another  on  the  under  side 
of  the  body,  leaving  merely  a  small  hole  or  water-pore  for  the  outflow  of  the 
water.  These  little  animals  are  capable  of  extremely  rapid  movements, 
wriggling  their  lancet-shaped  bodies  from  side  to  side  after  the  manner  of  an 
eel.  They  have  no  jaws,  and  depend  for  their  food  upon  the  microscopic 
plants  and  other  organisms  contained  in  the  stream  of  water  constantly 
passing  through  their  mouths.  This  current  of  water  is  set  up  by  the  action 
of  innumerable  fine  whip-like  lashes  which  beset  the  sides  of  the  gill-slits,  and 
by  their  united  action  drive  the  water  outwards  into  the  surrounding  water- 
cavity,  and  so  to  the  exterior  through  the  water-pore.  New  water  is  con- 
stantly streaming  into  the  mouth  to  take  the  place  of  the  water  driven  out, 
and  the  food-particles  it  contains  are  incessantly  extracted  from  it  by  means 
of  the  slimy  coating  of  the  walls  of  the  throat,  to  which  they  adhere.  Another 
set  of  microscopic  lashes  then  drives  the  entangled  food-particles  down  the 
proper  channel  to  the  animal's  stomach,  where  they  are  digested  in  the 
ordinary  way. 

The  lancelet  (Ampliioxus  lanceolatus)  is  the  only  representative  of  the 
group  in  the  Mediterranean  and  North  Atlantic  seas.  It  is  a  semi-transpar- 
ent little  creature,  from  one  to  two 
inches  in  length,  compressed  from  side 
to  side,  pointed  at  both  ends,  provided 
with  a  circle  of  small  stiff  tentacles  round 
the  mouth,  and  with  a  distinct  tail-fin 

behind.     It  lives  in  shallow  water,   in 
Fig.  I.— THE  LANCELET  (Amvhioxus  lanceo-     ,     ,       .,  ,    .    ,         ,•  i    •,  i 

latus).  beds  of  loose  sand,  into  which  it  burrows 

with    lightning-like    rapidity.      It    lies 

obliquely  on  its  back  in  its  sandy  bed,  its  head  and  mouth  alone  protruding 

526 


UROCHORDA  OR  TUN  1C  AT  A. 


527 


above  the  surface.  These  habits  clearly  provide  the  reason  why  the  delicate 
gill-slit  region  of  the  body  should  be  protected  from  injury  and  enclosed 
within  a  special  chamber,  formed  by  the  union  of  a  pair  of  fin-like  ridges. 

Other  representatives  of  the  group,  closely  resembling  the  European 
lancelet,  are  found  in  shallow  seas  all  over  the  world.  A  peculiar  type 
(Asymmetron  lucayanum\  which  possesses  a  slender  backward  prolongation 
of  its  tail,  is  found  in  the  Bahamas,  where  it  may  be  taken  swimming  freely 
at  the  surface  of  the  sea  at  night,  or  in  the  day-time  buried  in  the  coral  sand. 


SUB-CLASS  II.— UROCHORDA  OR  TUNICATA. 

THIS  group  of  exclusively  marine  animals  is  closely  related  to  the  Cephalo- 
chorda,  although  its  various  representatives  are  very  unlike  Amphioxus  in 
their  final  shape  and  appearance.  They  agree  with  Amphioxus,  however,  in 
having  similar  organs  for  breathing  and  feeding,  and  in  having  a  similar 
tubular  nervous  system  and  supporting  rod  along  the  back  of  the  body.  Un- 
like Amphioxus,  however,  the  primitive  backbone  or  notochord  of  Tunicata 
is  confined  to  the  hinder  part  of  the  body,  which  is  in  the  form  of  a  well- 
marked  tail  like  that  of  a  tadpole.  The  body  also  possesses  the  power  of 
producing  a  gelatinous  envelope  or  tunic  called  the  test,  which  clothes  the 
animal  either  loosely  as  in  Appendicularians,  or  closely  as  in  all  others.  The 
group  consists  of  two  principal  sections,  which  may  be  called  the  Tailed  and 
Tailless  Tunicata. 

The  members  of  the  first  section  (Appendicularians)  are  free-swimming, 
and  retain  their  tails  with  the  nerve-cord  and  notochord  during  their  whole 
career.  They  are  very  small  and  inconspicuous  creatures, 
the  body  being  about  the  size  of  a  small  pin's  head,  and  the 
tail  less  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  the  whole 
animal  is  of  glass-like  transparency.  The  tunic  is  thin,  and 
forms  a  delicate  "  house J'  in  which  the  Appendiculariaij 
swims  about,  and  from  which  it  can  escape  when  attacked  by 
its  enemies.  These  creatures  can  often  be  caught  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  sea  round  our  coasts  by  the  use  of  a  fine  muslin 
net. 

The  members  of  the  second  sec- 
tion, the  Tailless  Tunicata,  are 
tailed  only  in  their  early  stages. 
After  a  brief  free-swimming  career 
they  lose  their  tails,  like  the  tad- 
poles of  the  common  frog,  and  grow 
up  into  soft  back-boneless  animals 
of  a  quite  different  appearance.  Some  of  these 
tailless  forms  retain,  or  regain,  their  free-swimming 
habits,  and  usually  acquire  a  barrel-like  shape  and 


Fig.  2.— AN  AP- 

PENDICULARIAN 

(Oikopleura),    In 
its  house. 


Fig.  3.—  DOLIOLUM  TRITONIS. 


a  number  of  hoop-like  muscle  bands,  by  the  contractions  of  which  they  drive 
themselves  through  the  water  (Salps),  or  they  may  form  definite  colonies  and 
float  idly  about  at  the  mercy  of  the  waves  (Pyrosoma).  The  majority  of  the 
Tailless  Tunicata,  however,  become  permanently  attached  to  rocks,  stones, 
and  sea-weeda  on  the  sea-bottom,  and  are  especially  abundant  between  tide- 


528 


HERMICHORDA  OR  ENTEROPNEUSTA. 


marks  round  our  shores.  They  are  known  as  Ascidians  or  sea-squirts,  and 
they  may  be  either  solitary  or  colonial.  The  solitary  forms  are  sac-shaped, 
leathery  creatures  fastened  at  the  base,  and  possessing  a  mouth  at  the  opposite 


Fig.  4.— FYROSOMA. 


Fig.  5.— COMMON  SEA 

SQUIRT  (Ascidlella, 

aspersa). 


Fig.  6.— BOTRYLLUS. 


end.  There  is  also  another  opening  by  which  the  water  from  the  gill- 
slits  is  passed  out  of  the  body.  The  colonial  forms  are  smaller  in  size,  and 
are  united  together  into  irregular  or  star-shaped  clusters  usually  brightly 
coloured. 


CLASS  VIII.— HERMICHORDA  or  ENTEROPNEUSTA. 

THE  commonest  representative  of  this  group  is  the  remarkable  Balanoglossus, 
an  animal  which  combines  the  creeping  mud-burrowing  habits  of  a  worm  with 
some  of  *he  organs  especially  characteristic  of  ver- 
tebrata.  The  body  is  divided  into  three  parts,  a  flexible 
tongue-like  proboscis  in  front  of  the  mouth,  a  raised 
collar  behind  it,  and  a  long  cylindrical  hind-region,  the 
sides  of  which  are  perforated  by  numerous  inconspicuous 
gill -slits.  In  the  back  of  the  collar  of 
Balanoglossus  a  short  tubular  nerve-cord 
is  found  like  that  of  vertebrata.  In  its 
young  condition  Balanoglossus  is  a  small 
transparent  creature,  about  one-tenth  of 
an  inch  in  length,  remarkably  similar  to 
the  free-swimming  larval  form  of  star- 
fishes and  sea-cucumbers. 

Balanoglossus  has  only  once  been  taken 
on  the  coast  of  the  British  Isles,  but  is  Fig.  8.— TORNARIA. 
not  uncommon  on  the  shores  of  the  Channel  Islands  and 
other  parts  of  the  world.  Balanoglossus  sarniensis,  found  in  the  Channel 
Islands,  varies  from  one  to  three  feet  in  length,  and  is  difficult  to  obtain  in  a 
perfect  condition,  owing  to  its  softness  and  fragility.  The  young  form, 
Tornaria,  may  be  found  in  the  autumn  months  free-swimming  at  the  surface 
of  the  sea  off  the  southern  shores  of  Great  Britain. 


Fig.  7.— BALANO- 
GLOSSUS SARNIENSIS. 


SUB-KINGDOM  II.— ARTHROPODA. 

CRUSTACEA,  INSECTA,  &c. 
BY   W.   F.    KTRBY,    F.L.S.,    F.E.S.,    &c. 

THE  Arthropoda  (otherwise  called  Articulata  or  Annulosa)  include  an  enor- 
mous number  of  animals  with  an  external  skeleton,  or,  at  least,  a  thickened 
integument  to  which  the  muscles  are  attached  ;  and  a  body  divided  into 
segments,  and  furnished  with  jointed  organs  for  locomotion,  etc.  Many  of 
them  undergo  a  metamorphosis,  passing  through  several  dissimilar  stages 
before  reaching  the  perfect  state  in  which  they  become  sexually  mature,  and 
capable  of  reproducing  their  kind.  The  sexes  are  generally  distinct.  They 
breathe  by  tracheae,  or  by  gills,  and  the  nervous  system  consists  of  a  series 
of  ganglia,  of  which  the  largest,  situated  in  the  head,  are  considered  to 
correspond  to  the  brain.  The  blood  is  usually  white. 

The  following  classes  may  be  grouped  under  this  heading  : — 

I.  CRUSTACEA  (Crabs,  Lobsters,  Shrimps,  etc.). 
II.  ARACHNID  A  (Spiders,  Scorpions  and  Mites).  Classes  of 

III.  MYRIOPODA  (Centipedes  and  Millepedes).  Arthropoda. 

IV.  PROTRACHEATA. 
V.  INSECTA  (Insects). 

The  characters  of  these  classes  are  noticed  in  their  places,  and  to  enumer- 
ate them  here  would  be  repetition.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  all  organic 
beings  show  complicated  affinities  all  round,  and  that  no  linear  arrangement 
can  possibly  be  natural,  and,  therefore,  we  can  only  follow  what  appears  to 
be  a  fairly  natural  sequence,  always  remembering  that  by  laying  stress  on 
some  characters  we  are  necessarily  ignoring  others  of  perhaps  equal  or 
greater  importance  ;  and  sometimes  widely  separating  creatures  which,  when 
looked  at  from  a  slightly  different  point  of  view,  are  seen  to  be  closely 
allied. 

Space  at  disposal  necessarily  limits  this  article  to  a  brief  sketch  of  a  vast 
subject  ;  but  care  has  been  taken  to  preserve  a  certain  proportion  in  allotting 
the  space  to  the  different  sections  of  which,  it  is  composed,  and  the  informa- 
tion given,  though  far  from  exhaustive,  will  be  found  to  be  useful  and  in- 
structive. The  selection  made  is  that  of  the  most  important  and  interesting 
groups  into  which  these  animals  have  been  divided.  These  are  dealt  with  in 
the  order  given  above,  and  are  illustrated  by  numerous  original  drawings 
reproduced  in  most  cases  life  size. 

35  529 


530  CRUSTACEA— ORDER  PHYLLOPODA. 


CLASS  I.— CRUSTACEA. 

THE  Crustacea  may  be  considered  as  the  marine  representatives  of  the  Insects; 
for  although  a  few  insects  are  marine,  and  some  Crustacea  are  found  on  land 
or  in  fresh  water,  yet  an  overwhelming  preponderance  of  the  Crustacea  are 
exclusively  marine.    In  the  perfect  state  they  are  covered  with  a  hard  jointed 
shell.     Sometimes  the  head  is  united  with  the  thorax,  as  in  the  class  Arach- 
tiida,  but  it  is  more  often  separated.     Being  water  animals, 
Larval  Forms  of  or  living  with  few  exceptions  in  damp  places  on  land,  they 
Crustacea.        breathe  with  gills.     They  have  generally  two  eyes,  two  pairs 
of  antennae,  three  pairs  of  jaws,  three  pairs  of  foot-jaws, 
the  two  outer  pairs  of  which  often  serve  the  purpose  of  legs,  and   five 
pairs  of  legs.     Most  of  the  species  undergo  a  peculiar  metamorphosis,  like 
that  of   the  Barnacles,   which   has   led   to   the   latter 
being    now  classed   as    retrograde    Crustacea.      These 
larval  forms  are  generally  called  Nauplius,  or   Zoea, 
these   names   having  been   given  to  them   when  they 
were  first  discovered,  and  were  supposed  to  be  perfect 
organisms.      They  have  large  eyes,  and   curious  bifid 
appendages  terminating  in  long  bristles,   and  utilised 
as  swimming  feet.     The  Nauplius-iorm  (compare  Fig. 
5)   shown   by  many  Crustacea  on  emerging  from   the 
egg,  is  oval,  with  a  single  eye,  and  it  gradually  acquires 
three  pairs  of  limbs.     In  the  Copepoda  and  Ostracoda 
it  passes  gradually  into  the  perfect  state  by  successive 
moults;   but  in  the  Siphonostoma  it  undergoes  a   re- 
trograde metamorphosis,  losing  the   eyes,  and   limbs, 
as  locomotive  organs.    This  form  of  larva  is  seldom  met 
with  among  the  Decapoda.      The  Zoea-form  of  larva 
Fig.  l.— ZOEA.-LARVA  OP    ^g  seven  pairs  of  iointed  appendages,   of  which  the 

OPIi)ER-l^RA.B   (JVICilCt,  f        .     .  *f  CP1  /c>, 

Squinado).    Magnified.      foot-jaws  are  very  large  ;    and   two   large  eyes.     (See 
Fig.    1.)      When    the   Zoea    was    first   discovered,   it 

was  thought  to  be  a  creature  of  the  greatest  rarity  and  interest,  and  it  is 
amusing  to  read  in  the  old  books  of  the  capture  of  single  specimens  of  a 
Zoea  at  intervals  of  years,  in  distant  parts  of  the  globe.  Now  they  are 
known  to  be  simply  the  larval  forms  of  many  of  our  commonest  Crustacea. 
Similar  unexpected  discoveries  perhaps  still  exist,  in  the  case  of  other, 
as  yet  unsuspected,  inhabitants  of  our  globe. 

Crustacea  are  carnivorous  or  omnivorous,  and  some  of  the  smaller  kinds 
are  parasitic.     Some  Crustacea  are  of  very  small  size,  while  others  are  the 
largest  of  known  Arthropoda.     Their  average  size  is  considerably  above  that 
of  insects.     There  are  probably  no  species  which  can  be  considered  actually 
injurious   to  man  ;    but  many  are   of  considerable   economic   importance. 
Crabs,  shrimps,  lobsters,  prawns,  and  crayfish  are  the  only  Arthropoda  which 
form  staple  articles  of  diet  among  civilised  nations  at  the  present  day,  though 
there  is  no  reason  why  locusts  and  large  wood-feeding  grubs 
Edible  and  caterpillars  should  not  be  eaten.     Locusts  have  always 

Arthropoda.      been  relished  in  the  East ;  and  the  Cossus,  which  was  pro- 
bably the  larva  of  some  large  beetle,  was  considered  a  dainty 
by  the  Romans.     However,  with  the  exception  of  cheese-maggots  and  cheese- 
mites,  both  of  which  are  probably  less  wholesome  than  the  insects  just 


WATER-FLEAS. 


531 


mentioned,  Europeans  turn  from  insects,  etc.,  with  disgust,  "while  eating 
crabs  and  shrimps  without  hesitation.  Food  is  more  a  matter  of  fashion 
than  of  anything  else,  after  all. 

A  most  ingenious  theory  has  lately  been  propounded  by  Mr.  H.  M. 
Bernard,  in  his  work  on  the  Apodidce.  He  considers  the  Crustacea  to  have 
originated  from  the  Annelida,  and  that  the  earliest  Crustacea  were  simply 
Annelida  with  the  head  bent  down  under  the  body  ;  but  this  is  a  matter  on 
which  only  specialists  are  entitled  to  express  an  opinion.  Nevertheless,  we 
may  begin  the  Crustacea  with  the  Entomostraca,  as  the  group  nearest  ap- 
proaching to  the  Annelida.  We  may  add  that  the  Pycnogonida,  which  we 
have  included  with  the  Arachnida,  have  been  placed  by  some  authors  in  the 
Crustacea,  while  others  have  regarded  them  as  forming  a  distinct  class  of 
Arthropods  by  themselves. 


SUB-CLASS  I.— ENTOMOSTRACA. 

THIS  large  section  is  only  retained  as  a  matter  of  convenience  to  include  the 
smaller  Crustacea,  many  of  which  exhibit  forms  which  have  little  resemblance 
to  the  more  typical  Crustacea.  It  includes  most  of  the  parasitic  species.  The 
Cirripedia  are  sometimes  treated  as  an  additional  order  of  Entomostraca. 


ORDER  I.— PHYLLOPODA. 

The  Phyllopoda  have  received  their  name  from  their  leaf -like  swimming 
legs,  of  which  there  are  four  pairs,  or  more.  Sometimes  more  or  less  of  the 
animal  is  covered  by  a  bivalve  shell,  somewhat  as  in  the  Ostracoda,  or  by  a 


Fig.  2.— WATER-FLEA 

(Daphnia  pulex). 
Magnified. 


Fig.  S.—Apus  cancri- 
furmis.    Nat.  size. 


Fig.  4.— BRTNE 

SHRIMP 

(Artemia  salina). 
Magnified. 


solid  carapace ;  in  other  cases  this  is  wanting.  Some  are  marine,  while  others 
inhabit  fresh  water.  They  have  usually  two  eyes,  which,  however,  are  some- 
times contiguous.  Three  families  of  this  order  may  be  briefly  noticed.  The 


532         CRUSTACEA— ORDERS  COPE  POD  A  AND  CIRRTPEDIA. 


Daphniidce,  or  water-fleas  are  small  Crustacea  which  abound  in  fresh  water. 
They  are  of  a  compressed  oval  form,  and  are  partly  covered  by  a  thin,  trans- 
parent bivalve  shell.  The  first  pair  of  antennae  is  small,  but  the  second  very 
large,  bifid  at  the  extremity,  and  set  with  long  hairs,  which  serve  as  the 
principal  organs  of  locomotion.  The  eyes  are  fused  into  one  large  one,  near 
which  is  often  another  small  one.  They  have  from  four  to  six  pairs  of 
swimming  legs.  They  are  very  favourite  objects  with  microscopists,  being 
abundant,  and  admitting  of  easy  observation.  In  the  Apod  id  fe  the  body  is 
covered  with  a  shield-shaped  carapace,  and  there  are  two  contiguous  eyes, 
and  from  30  to  40  pairs  of  gill-feet.  Apus  caiicriformis,  Schiiff.,  is  a  brownish 
yellow  species,  about  two  inches  long,  which  is  found  in  ponds.  The  large, 
oval  carapace  covers  all  but  the  last  few  segments  of  the  body,  which  ends  in 
a  flat  double  tail,  on  each  side  of  which  a  long  bristly  appendage  is  visible. 
This  family  is  of  interest  as  having  formed  the  subject  of  Mr.  Bernard's 
memoir,  already  alluded  to,  in  which  he  connects  the  Annelida  with  the 
Trilobites  through  the  Apodidw.  The  Branchipodidw  have  no  shell,  but  a 
strongly-segmented  body,  stalked  eyes,  and  a  long  tapering  tail,  ending  in  a 
flat  pair  of  flattened  appendages  set  with  bristles.  The  most  interesting 
species  of  this  family  is  the  brine  shrimp,  Artemia  salina  (Linn.),  which  is  of 
a  pink  colour,  and  about  half  an  inch  long.  It  is  more  shrimp-like  in  appear- 
ance than  any  other  species  of  Entomostraca  which  we  have  mentioned,  and 
is  only  found  in  brine  pits,  appearing  to  prefer  the  most  concentrated  brine. 

ORDER  II. — OSTRACODA. 

In  the  Ostracoda  the  body  is  not  segmented,  and  is  entirely  covered  by  a 
bean-shaped  bivalve  shell.  There  are  four  antennae  set  with  bristles,  and 
one  or  both  pairs  are  used  for  swimming  and  grasping.  There  are  five  pairs 
of  other  appendages,  of  which  the  first,  second,  often  the  third,  and  some- 
times even  the  fourth,  serve  the  purpose  of  jaws,  and  only  the  last  pair  or 
pairs  perform  the  office  of  legs. 

ORDER  III.— COPEPODA. 

In  this  order  there  are  ten  swimming-legs  at  most,  generally  bifid,  and  set 
with  hairs  and  bristles.  One  or  two  sessile  eyes 
are  present,  and  the  mouth  is  furnished  with  leaf- 
like  gills.  The  large  eye  possessed  by  some  of 
the  species  led  to  their  being  placed  in  a  genus 
Cyclops  by  Miiller.  They  commence  life  in  the 
Nauplius-foTm,  to  which  the  full-grown  animal 
still  exhibits  a  strong  resemblance.  Some  species  are 
free,  and  others  parasitic  ;  as,  for  instance,  those 
belonging  to  the  family  Notodelphyidce,  which  live 
within  the  branchial  cavity  of  Ascidia.  A  few 
species  like  these  are  marine,  but  the  majority 
of  the  Cydopidce  live  in  fresh  water,  one  species, 
Fig.  5.-  CYCLOPS  QUABRI-  Canthocamptvs  alpestris  (Vogt)  being  found  in 
CORNIS.  Magnified.  the  glacier  waters  of  the  Aar  in  Switzerland,  at  an 

elevation  of  8,500  feet.  The  family  Argulidce  in- 
cludes some  species  which  are  parasitic  on  the  carp,  and  which  are  known  as 
"carp  lice." 


BARNACLES. 


533 


Fig.  6.— ACORN  BARNACLE 

(Balanus  balanoides). 
Nat.  size. 


ORDER  IY. — CIRRIPEDIA. 

By  recent  authors  the  Cirripedla  have  been  treated  as  a  section  of  the  Crustacea, 
from  which,  however,  they  differ  so  much  when  adult,  that  they  were  formerly 
regarded  as  a  separate  class.  In  their  perfect  state  they  are  fixed  immov- 
ably by  their  heads  to  a  rock,  or  some  other  object  submerged  in  the  sea,  and 
are  without  antennae,  eyes,  or  any  means  of  loco- 
motion. Their  bodies  are  enclosed  more  or  less 
completely  in  a  calcareous  shell,  formed  of  several 
parts,  which  led  to  the  earlier  naturalists  regarding 
them  as  Mollusca,  and  their  shells  were  called  Mul- 
tivalves  by  collectors,  in  opposition  to  Univalves  and 
Bivalves.  In  the  larval  stages  they  are  provided 
with  antennae,  eyes,  and  swimming-feet,  the  last  of 
which  become  modified  into  short,  jointed,  cirrhated 
appendages,  of  which  there  are  usually  six  pairs, 
and  which  are  used  to  capture  prey.  They  are 

generally  hermophrodite.  All  the  species  are  marine.  A  peculiar  interest 
attaches  to  these  animals,  owing  to  their  having  formed  a  special  object 
of  study  with  Charles  Darwin,  who  published  an  elaborate 
monograph  upon  them  in  1851  and  1854.  There  are  several 
sub-divisions  of  the  Cirripedia,  many  of  which  live  para- 
sitically  on  various  Crustacea,  Mottusca,  or  on  other  Cirripedia. 
The  only  two  families  which  we  shall  notice  here  are  the 
Balanidce  and  the  Lepadidce. 

The   Balanidce  or  acorn  barnacles  attach   themselves   to 
the  rocks,  often  between  tide-marks,  after  the  manner  of  a 
limpet ;    but    they   can    always    be    distin- 
guished from    true  Mollusca  by  their  multi-  Acorn  Barnacles 
valve  shells.     The  Lepadidce,   on  the  other       (Balanidce). 
hand,  fix  themselves  by  a  fleshy  stalk  to  any 
suitable  object,  from  which  they  hang.     Some  of  the  larger 
marine  animals  are  often  chosen   by  them  ;   and   they  fre- 
quently attach  themselves  in  great  numbers 
to  the  bottoms  of  wooden  ships,  which  re-    Goose  Barnacles 
quire  to  be    periodically  freed    from   such      (Lepadidce). 
appendages.     There   was  a  curious  belief  in 
the  Middle  Ages    that  the    bird   known  as    the  barnacle 
goose  was  born  from    hanging  barnacles,    and    a    common 
/era)TjPNatTsize.     barnacle  was  named  Lepas    anatifera  by  Linnaeus   on   this 
account.      Old  traditions  of  this  description,  when  investi- 
gated  without  prejudice,   almost  always   prove   to  contain   some  germ  of 
truth ;  but  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  in  what  curious  error  the  story  of  the 
barnacle  goose  could  have  originated. 


Fig.  7. — GOOSE 

BARNACLE 
(Lepas  anati- 


SUB-CLASS  II.— MALACOSTRACA. 

THE  Malacostraca,  which   include   all    the    higher  Crustacea,  are  normally 
composed  of  20  segments;  13  segments,  each  bearing  a  pair  of  jointed  ap- 


534  CRUSTACEA— ORDERS  ARTHROSTRACA  AND  THORACOSTRACA. 


pendages,  composing  the  head  and  thorax  ;  6  abdominal  segments,  also 
frequently  bearing  jointed  appendages  ;  and  a  tail-piece.  They  have  two 
antennae,  and  two  or  four  eyes.  They  differ  very  much  in  shape  and 
appearance,  but  include  nearly  all  the  Cn^tacea  which  fall  under  ordinary 
observation. 

ORDER  I. — ARTHROSTRACA. 

The  ArtJirostraca  are  small  or  moderate-sized  Crustacea,  with  two  compound 
eyes,  which  are  not  stalked.  There  are  two  pairs  of  antennae,  three  pairs  of 
jaws,  and  one  pair  of  foot-jaws  attached  to  the  head.  The  thorax  usually 
consists  of  seven  segments  (rarely  less),  each  bearing  a  pair  of  legs.  The 
abdomen  likewise  generally  consists  of  six  segments  bearing  legs,  and  a 
terminal  segment,  but  is  sometimes  much  modified  and  aborted. 

The  Arthrostraca  are  divided  into  two  sub-orders,  and  these  again  into 
numerous  families. 


Sub-Order  I. — Isopoda. 

In  the  Isopoda  the  head  is  distinctly  separated  from  the  thorax.  The  body 
is  broad,  and  somewhat  arched,  and  there  are  usually  7  thoracic  segments 
bearing  legs  ;  but  the  abdomen  is  short  and  often  imperfectly  developed, 

bearing  lamellated  gill-feet.  In  some  fami- 
lies, such  as  the  Bopyridce,  and  Cymothoidce, 
which  are  parasitic  on  other  Crustacea,  or  oil 
fishes,  the  legs  are  armed  with  claws.  But 
the  most  familiar  family  of  the  Isopoda  is  the 
Oniscidce,  which  includes  the  creatures  known 
as  "wood-lice,"  "sows"  or  "sow-bugs."  They 
are  short,  broad,  brown  scaly  creatures,  with 
conspicuous  antennae,  and  a  body  arched 
above,  and  flattish  below.  Some  are  able 
to  roll  themselves  up  into  a  ball.  They  are 
about  half  an  inch  or  less  in  length,  and 
are  found  in  damp,  dark  places  among  moss, 
under  the  loose  bark  of  trees,  or  in  cellars. 
Onelarge  species,  overan  inch  in  length, Lygia 
oceanica  (Linn.),  is  marine,  and  is  met  with 
running  over  rocks  between  tide  marks.  As 
I  have  already  mentioned  elsewhere,  a  speci- 
men which  was  found  running  along  a  tow- 
rope  in  Dublin  Harbour  during  the  Colorado 
Beetle  scare  some  years  ago,  was  secured  and 
announced  in  the  papers  as  the  dreaded  Colorado  Beetle  just  landing  from 
America ! 

Sub-Order  II. — Amphipoda. 

In  the  Amphipoda,  the  head  and  the  first  thoracic  segment  are  fused  to- 
gether, and  the  body  is  laterally  compressed,  and  strongly  arched.  There  are 


Fig.  8. — LYGIA  OCEANICA. 
Nat.  sue. 


WOOD-LICE  AND  WHALE-LICE. 


535 


always  seven  pairs  of  legs,  and  the  abdomen  and  its  appendages  are 
also  well  developed  in  some  families,  the  hinder  segments  bearing  long 
legs  adapted  for  leaping.  This  description  applies 
best  to  the  Gammaridce,  one  or  two  of  which,  that 
live  in  fresh  water,  grow  to  the  length  of  half  an 
inch.  The  greater  part  of  the  Amphipoda,  however, 
are  marine,  and  differ  considerably  in  size,  shape,  and 
habits.  Some  swim  freely  in  the  water,  and  others  burrow 
into  woodwork.  Many  are  in  the  habit  of  attaching  them- 
selves to  various  marine  animals ;  and  one  family,  Lcemodi- 
podidce,  in  which  the  abdomen  is  rudimentary,  is  truly 
parasitic.  One  curious  genus,  Cyamus  (Lamarck),  which  is 
parasitic  on  whales,  has  strong  hooked  appendages  at 
both  ends  of  the  body;  and  the  species  are  known  as  Whale- 
Lice.  We  have  figured  C.  ovalis  (Roussel). 


Fig.  9.— 
WHALE-LOUSE 

(Cyamus  ovalis). 
Nat.  size. 


ORDER  II. — THORACOSTRACA, 

The  present  order  agrees  with  the  last  in  the  number  of  segments,  but  is 
distinguished  from  it  by  having  more  or  fewer  of  the  thoracic  segments 
united  with  the  head  by  a  common  shell,  or  carapace,  and  there  are  usually 
two  compound  stalked  eyes.  We  find  no  true  parasites  in  this  group,  though 
some  of  them  seek  the  society  of  other  animals  for  the  sake  of  food  and 
shelter,  as  in  the  case  of  the  small  crab  which  takes  up  its  residence  in  the 
shell  of  the  Pinna. 

Sub-Order  1. — Cumacea. 

Includes  small  marine  species,  with  sessile  eyes,  and  a  long,  slender 
abdomen. 

Sub -Order  II. — Stomatopoda. 

This  order  is  now  restricted  to  the  single  family  Syuillidce,  which  are  marine 
Crustacea  resembling  large  prawns,  three  inches  or  more  in  length,  with  the 

cephalothorax  slender,  a 
large  tail-fin,  and  the 
second  pair  of  foot- jaws 
developed  into  an  enor- 
mous claw,  which  has 
led  to  one  of  the  com- 
mon species  being  called 
Squilla  mantis  (Rondel), 
on  account  of  the  shape 
and  attitude  of  its  legs 
very  closely  resembling 
the  predaceous  legs  of 
the  Mantidw  among  the 
Orthoptera.  This  species 
Fig.  10. -SQUILLA  MAKTIS.  swims  strongly,  and  is 

eaten  in  Italy,  where  it 

attains  a  length  of  six  inches ;  in  the  British  seas  it  does  not  exceed  4£ 
inches  in  length. 


536  CRUSTACEA— ORDER  DEC  APOD  A. 


Sub-Order  III. — Schizopoda. 

These  are  slender  shrimp-like  Crustacea,  with  a  large  soft  shield  covering 
the  cephalothorax,  and  even  part  of  the  abdomen.  The  legs  and  gill-feet  are 
bifid,  and  similarly  formed.  They  swim  in  large  shoals  in  the  open  sea,  and 
are  among  the  numerous  surface-animals  which  form  the  food  of  whales. 


ORDER  III.— DECAPOD  A. 

This  extensive  order  is  the  most  important  among  the  Crustacea.  The 
species  which  it  includes  have  a  hard  calcareous  shield,  which  generally  covers 
the  head  and  thoracic  segments,  as  well  as  more  or  less  of  the  abdomen. 
Under  this  shield  lie  the  gills.  There  are  two  faceted  stalked  eyes,  between 
which  frequently  projects  a  strong  spine.  They  have  usually  three  pairs  of 
jaws,  three  pairs  of  thoracic  gill-feet,  and  five  pairs  of  walking  legs,  from 
which  they  derive  their  name.  They  may  be  divided  into  three  sub-orders 
— the  Macrura,  or  lobsters,  prawns,  and  shrimps ;  the  Anomura,  or  hermit 
crabs  ;  and  the  Brachyura,  or  crabs. 

Sub-Order  I. — Macrura. 

In  the  Macrura  the  abdomen  is  largely  developed,  and  the  first  five  (or 
more  rarely,  four)  segments  bear  walking  legs.  There  is  a  large  flattened 
triple  fin  at  the  extremity  of  the  abdomen,  formed  by  the  terminal  segment, 
and  a  leaf-like  appendage  attached  on  each  side  to  the  one  preceding. 

The  Crangonidce  are  moderate- sized  Crustacea  with  semi-transparent  bodies, 
a  thin  horny  carapace,  the  outer  antennae  with  a  large  moveable  scale  at  the 
base,  and  sometimes  a  very  strong  ridged  spine  between  the  eyes.     The  first 
three  pairs  of  legs  are  generally  chelate  (pincer-like).     The 
Shrimps  and        species  generally  live  in  shoals  in  shallow  water,  near  the 
Prawns.  shore,  where  they  are  captured  by  waders  in  specially-con- 

structed nets.  Most  of  the  species  are  marine,  such  as  the 
shrimps  and  prawns ;  some  are  found  in  fresh  water  lakes  and  rivers  ;  and 
one  or  two  blind  species  in  caves.  Some  species,  in  which  the  skeleton  is 
universally  soft,  inhabit  the  large  shells  of  the  Pinna. 

The  Astacidce  are  large  hard-shelled  species,  with  a  small  scale  at  the  base 

of  the  outer  antenme.     The  first  pair  of  legs  is  developed  into  great  claws. 

The  gills  are  numerous  ;  sometimes  there  are  as  many  as  20  pairs.     They 

inhabit  the  sea,  where  they  live  in  clefts  among  the  rocks  ;  and  other  species 

are  found  in  lakes  and  rivers,  where  they  live  in  holes  in  the  banks.     The 

two  representative  species  of  this  family  are  the  lobster  and 

Lobsters.        the  river  crayfish.     Some  years  ago  a  detailed  monograph  on 

the  crayfish  was  published  by  the  late  Prof.  Huxley,  to  which 

those  who  wish  to  study  the  anatomy  of  a  Crustacean  can  easily  refer. 

The  crayfish  forms  a  very  important  article  of  diet  in  Eastern  Europe,  and  is 

recorded  in  the  Esthonian  ballads  to  have  formed  the  principal  article  of  food 

of  their  mythical  hero,  the  Kalevi  poeg,  when  he  retired  to  a 

Crayfish.      hermitage  on  the  banks  of  a  river,  after  a  disastrous  war. 

He  used  a  tall  fir-tree  torn  up  by  the  roots,  as  an  angle,  and 

baited  it  with  the  body  of  a  dead  mare.      (See  my  "  Hero  of  Esthonia,"  i.,  p. 


LOBSTERS,  HERMIT  CRABS,  AND  CRABS.  537 


In  the  Pdlinuridce,  or  Spiny  Lobsters,  the  outer  pair  of  antennae  are  much 
thickened  at  the  base,  but  are  destitute  of  a  scale.     The  legs  are  short  and 
all   end   in    simple  claws  ;    the  abdomen  is  broad.      These 
animals   resemble  lobsters  in  size  and  appearance,  but  the    Spiny  Lobsters, 
shell  is  very  hard  and  spiny.     They  are  numerous  in  the 
Mediterranean,  but  are  not  common  in  the  colder  seas  of  Northern  Europe. 


Sub-Order  II. — Anomura. 

This  section  is  often  included  with  the  Macrura,  but  may  conveniently  be 
treated  separately.  The  abdomen  is  more  or  less  reduced  ;  it  is  soft,  and  its  ap- 
pendages are  rudimentary  ;  the  hinder  legs  are  also  frequently  much  reduced. 
The  front  pair  of  legs  is  armed  with  strong  pincers,  and  the  outer  antennae 
are  long.  The  animals  generally  burrow  in  the  sand,  or  live  in  the  shells  of 
molluscs.  They  are  more  abundant  in  warm  countries  than  in  cold. 

The  following  are  the  two  most  interesting  families  : — 

In  the  Birgidce  the  abdomen  is  hard  above,  and  pouch-shaped  at  the  ex- 
tremity.    The  cephalothorax  is  broad,  and  angulated  in  front.     The  type  of 
this  family,  Birgus  latro  (Herbst),  is  a  very  large  Crustacean, 
measuring  over  two  feet  in  length ;  it  is  of  a  blue  colour.     It    Bobber  Crabs. 
is  common  in  the  Eastern  Archipelago.     It  is  amphibious, 
and  is  said  to  climb  trees  in  search  of  cocoa-nuts,  which  it  is  strong  enough 
to  denude  of  the  husk,  when  it  contrives  to  force  in  the  eye-hole,  and  to 
extract  the  contents  with  its  pincers. 

The  Paguridce,  or  Hermit  Crabs,  have  a  very  soft  abdomen,  and  take  up 
their  abode  in  empty  univalve  shells.     Several  common  species  inhabit  our 
shores,  and  may  often  be  seen  ensconced  in  whelk-shells,  etc., 
into  which  they  retreat  as  far  as  possible  on  the  least  appear-     Hermit  Crabs. 
ance  of  danger.     In  Tropical  countries  they  grow  to  a  much 
larger  size  ;  and  some  of  them  are  land -animals,  and  inhabit  land-shells,  such 
as  Helix  and  Bulimus. 

Sub-Order  III. — Brachyura. 

This  section  includes  the  Crabs  proper,  in  which  the  cephalothorax  is  short 
and  broad  ;  and  the  short  abdomen,  which  has  usually  no  tail-fin,  and  ia 
narrow  in  the  male  and  broad  in 
the  female,  is  curved  under  the 
cephalothorax.  In  the  males  th  ere 
are  one  or  two  pairs  of  abdominal 
feet,  and  in  the  females  five. 

The  Porcellanidce  are  repre- 
sented in  England  by  one  or  two 
species,  the  commonest  of  which 
is  the  Porcelain  Crab,  Porcellana 
platycheles  (Tennant),  a  polished 
flattened  crab,  of  a  reddish  brown  Fig.  11.— SPIDER  CRAB  (Maia  Squinado). 

colour,    with    very    large    broad 

claws.     It  is  nearly  round,  and  about  two  inches  in  length  ;  and  is  common 
under  stones  near  low-water  mark. 


538 


CRUSTACEA. 


The  Spider  Crab,  Maia  Squinado  (Linn. ),  is  the  representative  of  another 
family.  (See  Fig.  11.)  It  is  a  large  oval  crab  sometimes  measuring  8  inches 
in  length  and  6  inches  in  breadth.  It  is  covered  and  margined  with  strong 
sharp  spines,  two  of  which  project  in.  front.  -It  is  an  active  sea- scavenger, 
and  most  of  our  readers  will  remember  the  amusing  account  in  ' '  Glaucus  "  of 
"  Maia  Squinado,  Esq.,'J  sitting  at  the  bottom  of  the  boat,  twiddling  his  feelers. 
It  creeps,  but  does  not  swim.  The  young  form  of  the  larva  is  represented  on  an 
earlier  page  (Fig.  1.)  There  are  a  great  many  other  crabs,  both  British  and 
foreign,  differing  very  much  in  size,  shape,  and  habits.  Some  are  smooth,  others 
rough,  spiny,  or  hairy.  Some  are  round,  others  oval.  Many  small  crabs  and 
some  larger  ones  are  common  running  over  the  sand,  or  among  seaweed,  or 
in  rock-pools  between  tide-marks  ;  others,  like  the  large  Edible  Crab,  Gainer 
pagurus  (Linn.),  are  inhabitants  of  deep  water,  and  some  are  good  swimmers. 
Among  foreign  crabs  we  may  mention  the  genus  Pinnotheres  (Latr.),  which 
lives  in  pairs,  in  large  shells,  such  as  Pinna,  from  which  they  derive  their  name. 

The  land-crabs  of  tropical  coun- 
tries are  large  crabs  which  live 
almost  entirely  on  land.  They 
burrow  in  the  ground,  and  are 
able  to  run  with  extraordin- 
ary swiftness.  One  genus,  with 
very  large  claws,  has  been  called 
Gelasimus  (laughable)  from  the 
ridiculous  appearance  which  it 
presents  when  chasing  along 
brandishing  its  great  claws,  only 
one  of  which  is  fully  developed, 
over  its  body. 

One  of  the  largest  known 
Crustacea  in  expanse  is  Macro- 
cheira  Kampferi  (De  Haan),  a 
Japanese  crab,  not  very  re- 
motely allied  to  the  Spider 
Crabs,  which  has  a  compact,  slightly  oval  body  rather  less  than  a  foot  long, 
but  with  enormously  long,  though  comparatively  slender  legs,  four  or  five 
feet  in  length.  Two  fine  specimens  may  be  seen  in  the  public  Insect  Room 
at  the  Natural  History  Museum,  South  Kensington,  where  Crustacea  are 
exhibited  as  well  as  Insects. 


Fig  12.— GREAT  JAPANESE  CRAB. 

(Macrocheira  Kampferi). 


SUB-CLASS  III.— GIGANTOSTRACA. 
ORDER  XIPHOSURA. — KING-CRABS. 

IN  the  king-crabs,  Limulus  (Miiller),  the  upper  part  of  the  body  is  covered  by 
two  great  horny  shields,  the  first  covering  the  cephalothorax  and  curved 
backwards  at  a  sharp  angle  oh  each  side,  and  the  second  smaller,  covering 
the  abdomen,  and  set  with  several  strong,  sharp  projections  on  the  sides, 


SPIDER-CRABS  AND  KING-CRABS. 


539 


pointing  obliquely  backwards.  Beyond  this  is  a  sharp  horny  spine  not 
jointed,  and  at  least 
as  long  as  the  rest 
of  the  body.  The 
antennae,  jaws,  and 
gill-feet  all  resemble 
legs,  and  all  termin- 
ate in  pincers  except 
the  last  pair.  Two 
compound  and  two 
simple  eyes  are  pre-  Figt  IS.-RING-CRAB  (Limulus  moluccanus).  Reduced, 

sent.      The  legs  are 

short,  and  are  entirely  covered  by  the  shields.  The  few  living  species  known 
are  found  in  the  East  and  West  Indies,  and  on  the  East  coast  of  North  America, 
living  in  shallow  water,  or  running  over  and  burrowing  in  the  sand.  The  species 
figured,  Limidus  moluccanus  (Clusius),  has  larger  spines  than  the  others.  The 
Limulia  sometimes  attain  a  length  of  two  or  three  feet.  They  are  the  last 
survivors  of  a  great  group  of  Crustaceans,  now  only  imperfectly  known 
by  their  fossil  remains.  Three  other  orders,  now  wholly  extinct,  are  referred 
to  the  Gigantostraca:  the  Merostomata,  the  Hemiaspida  and  the  Trilobita. 
Some  authors  have  recently  proposed  to  regard  Limulus  as  more  nearly 
allied  to  the  Arachnida  than  to  the  Crustacea  ;  but  its  external  resemblance 
to  the  latter  is  certainly  far  more  obvious. 


SUB-CLASS  IV.—  PYCNOGONIDA. 

THESE  are  sluggish  animals,  found  among  sea- 
weeds on  the  sea-shore,  and  somewhat  intermediate 
between  Arachnida  and  Crustacea.  The  front  of 
the  body  consists  of  four  well-marked  segments, 
the  first  of  which  is  formed  of  three  fused  together, 
each  bearing  a  pair  of  long,  jointed  legs,  and 
the  abdomen  is  very  small.  They  are  provided 
with  a  long  suctorial  proboscis.  In  their  young 
state,  they  are  parasitic  on  Hydractinice,  and  are  pro- 
vided with  three  additional  pairs  of  limbs,  which  was 
short  or  wanting  in  the  adults. 


Fig.   14. — Pycnogonum 
morale,  Muller.    Nat.  size. 


CLASS  2L— ARACHNIDA  (SPIDERS,  SCORPIONS, 
AND  MITES}. 

THIS  rather  extensive  group  of  animals  is  generally  recognisable  by  a  few 
salient  characters.  The  head  and  thorax,  instead  of  being  separated,  as  in 
insects,  are  usually  fused  together  into  a  single  mass,  called  the  cephalo- 
thorax  ;  there  are  two  pairs  of  jaws,  one  pair  of  which  are  sometimes 
regarded  as  modified  antennae  ;  from  two  to  twelve  simple  eyes,  variously 
arranged  in  different  species  ;  and  usually  eight  pairs  of  legs,  all  situated  on 


540  ARACHNIDA— ORDER  SCORPIONIDEA, 


the  cephalothorax.  The  abdomen  is  without  limbs,  and  is  most  frequently 
separated  from  the  cephalothorax.  The  sexes  are  distinct,  except  in  the 
Tardigrada.  Most  of  the  animals  comprising  this  class  are  carnivorous  ;  but 
among  the  mites,  many  feed  on  vegetable,  as  well  as  on  animal  substances  ; 
and  some  species  are  parasitic,  and  often  subcutaneous,  giving  rise  to, 
or  accompanying  various  diseases,  such  as  itch,  mange,  Plica  Polonica, 
dysentery,  etc.,  in  man  and  beast.  The  Arachnida  may  be  classed  in 
three  main  divisions. 

ORDER  I. — SCORPIONIDEA  (SCORPIONS). 

The  scorpions  are  well  known  by  their  curved  foot-jaws,  cleft  at  the 
end  like  the  claws  of  a  crab,  which  they  much  resemble  ;  and  their  long 
jointed  tail  ending  in  a  sharp  and  venomous  sting.  They  are  generally 
of  a  black  or  yellow  colour,  and  differ  very  much  in  shape  and  size, 
some  being  small  and  slender,  and  not  more  than  a  couple  of  inches  in 


Fig.  15.— GALEODES  ABABS,  Koch.    J  Nat.  size. 

length  ;  and  others  being  much  shorter  and  thicker  in  proportion,  and 
attaining  to  a  length  of  8  or  9  inches.  They  are  not  British,  though 
several  small  species  are  met  with  in  the  South  of  Europe.  They  are  found 
under  stones,  under  the  bark  of  trees,  in  holes  in  walls,  etc.,  and  are  only 
active  at  night.  The  effects  of  the  sting  differ  very  much  in  different  species, 
irrespective  of  size,  as  it  appears.  That  of  many  species  is  probably  not  very 
much  more  severe  than  the  sting  of  the  wasp  ;  but  that  of  others  is  liable  to 
cause  great  pain  and  suffering,  and  sometimes  death.  Scorpions  are  vivipar- 
ous, and  the  young  are  carried  about  by  the  mother  on  her  back  for  some 
time  after  birth.  There  is  an  old  story,  which  has  been  recently  revived, 
that  when  a  scorpion  is  surrounded  by  a  ring  of  fire,  it  will  sting  itself  to 
death  ;  and  the  same  result  is  said  to  ensue  if  a  drop  of  irritating  fluid,  such 
as  whisky,  is  allowed  to  fall  on  its  back. 


SCORPIONS  AND  HARVEST-MEN.  541 


ORDER  II. — SOLPUGID^E. 

These  are  large  animals,  resembling  spiders,  but  with  the  head  and  thorax 
separated,  and  the  abdomen  segmented ;  the  legs  are  very  hairy.  They  are  not 
numerous  in  species,  and  are  chiefly  found  in  warm  countries.  They  inhabit 
sandy  places,  and  although  frequently  called  Solifugce,  the  majority  of  the  species 
are  most  active  by  day.  One  species  is  Galeodes  araneoides  (Pallas),  which  is 
common  on  the  Lower  Volga  ;  it  is  about  two  inches  long,  and  is  much 
dreaded  on  account  of  its  very  painful  bite.  They  hide  themselves  in  the 
sand  and  among  plants,  from  whence  they  rush  upon  their  prey.  They  will 
sometimes  kill  lizards  and  birds,  but  their  commonest  food  appears  to  be 
grasshoppers.  They  are  sometimes  very  troublesome  to  camels  by  their  bite. 
The  North  African  species,  which  we  have  figured,  G.  arabs  (Koch) — (Fig.  15) 
— is  one  of  the  largest  known  ;  it  is  of  a  yellowish  colour. 


ORDER  III.  — PSEUDOSCORPIONIDEA  (BOOK-SCORPIONS) 

These  are  small,  but  not  microscopic,  animals,  with  the  abdomen  united  to 
the   cephalothorax,   but  distinctly  jointed,   and  with 
very  long  curving  foot-jaws,  cleft  at  the  end.     They 
resemble  very  small  tail-less  scorpions,  and  are  fre- 
quently found  among  old  books    and   papers,    where 
they  feed  on  mites  and  other  small  creatures.     They 
are  often  seen  clinging  to  the  legs  of  flies,  but  rather, 
perhaps,   as   a   convenient   means   of   transport  from 
place  to  place,  than  with  the  intention  of  preying  on     j^.  16.— BOOK-SCORPION 
the  flies  themselves.      The  number  of  species  is   not       (Chiridium  musceorum, 
very  large  j  the  typical  genus  is  Chelifer  (Late.).  Leach)'    Magnifle(l' 


ORDER  I V.  — PEDIPULPI  (FALSE  SCORPIONS). 

These  are  large  tropical  creatures,  an  inch  or  more  in  length,  resembling 
spiders,  but  with  a  jointed  abdomen,  large  pincers  like  a  scorpion,  long  hairy 
legs,  of  which  the  first  pair  are  much  longer  and  slenderer  than  the  others, 
and  no  tail,  or  else  a  short  one,  not  terminating  in  a  sting.  They  are  much 
dreaded  by  the  natives  of  the  countries  in  which  they  are  found,  but  whether 
their  claws  are  venomous  does  not  seem  to  have  been  positively  ascertained. 

The  typical  genus  is  Phrynus  (Latr.). 


ORDER  V.—  PHALANGIIDA  (HARVEST-MEN). 

These  are  small  spider-like  animals,  with  enormously  long  slender  legs. 
The  abdomen  is  segmented,  there  are  no  spinning  glands,  and  the  maxillary 
palpi  end  in  a  single  claw,  while  the  mandibles  are  jointed.  They  breathe  by 
trachese.  They  feed  on  Aphides  and  other  small  insects  by  night.  (See  Fig. 


542  ARACHNIDA— ORDER  A  R  ANEW  A. 


ORDER  VI.  — ARANEIDA  (SPIDERS). 

THE  Araneicla,  or  Spiders,  are  a  very  extensive  group,  with  the  usually  un- 
jointed  abdomen  well  separated  from  the  cephalothorax  ;  strong  mandibles ; 
spinning  glands  ;  and  breathing  with  lungs  and  tracheae  or  with  tracheae, 
alone.  There  is  a  variable  number  of  eyes.  They  have  been  divided  into 
many  families  differing  much  in  habits.  They  are  very  ferocious,  and  will 
often  kill  and  eat  each  other,  but  are  much  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  birds 
and  carnivorous  insects,  many  sand-wasps  provisioning  their  nests  chiefly 


Fig  17.—  HARVEST  MAN  (Liobunum  religiosum  Simon).    Nat.  size. 

with  spiders.  As  they  cannot  be  domesticated,  owing  to  their  cannibalistic 
propensities,  their  silk  cannot  be  collected  in  sufficient  quantities  for  com- 
mercial purposes  ;  but  spider's  web  has  been  recommended  as  a  useful 
application  to  stop  bleeding.  There  are  many  kinds  of  spiders  in  various 
countries  the  bite  of  which  is  said  to  be  dangerous  to  man. 


FAMILY  I.— THERAPHOSID^E. 

This  family  is  distinguished  from  all  the  remaining  spiders  by  the  possession 
of  four  lungs  and  only  four  spinnerets  (except  in  Atypus,  etc.,  which  have 
six) ;  the  remaining  spiders  having  only  two  lungs  (or  two  lungs  and  some- 
times two  tracheae  also)  and  six  spinnerets.  These  characters  are  sometimes 
used  to  separate  the  spiders  into  two  main  sections,  the  Tetrapneumones, 
including  only  the  Theraphosidce  (formerly  called  Mygalidce),  and  the 
Dipneumones ,  including  the  remaining  spiders. 

The  Theraphosidce,  are  further  remarkable  for  their  large  size,  very  hairy 

legs  and  bodies,  and  hard  polished  poison-fangs.     Some  of  the  larger  species 

attain  a  length  of  from  two  to  four  inches,  and  spin  a  dense  white  web,  in 

which  birds  as  large  as  finches  are  sometimes  entangled.      This  was  first 

recorded  by  Madame  Merian  two  centuries  ago.     It  was 

Bird-catching       doubted,   but  has  since   been   confirmed  by  Bates  in  his 

Spiders.  "  Naturalist  on  the  Amazons,"  i.  pp.  160-162  ;  and  by  other 

observers.     Bates  further  adds  that  the  hairs  of  these  large 

spiders  are  excessively  irritating  to  the  skin  ;  and  lastly,  "  Some  Mygales  are 

of  immense  size.     One  day  I  saw  the  children  belonging  to  an  Indian  family 

who  collected  for  me,  with  one  of  these  monsters  secured  by  a  cord  round 


SPIDERS.  543 


its  waist,  by  which  they  were  leading  it  about  the  house  as  they  would  a  dog." 
The  amount  of  valuable  scientific  and  general  information  collected  by 
Bates  during  his  eleven  years  of  travel  on  the  Amazons  was  very  ex- 
tensive, and  it  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  though  part  was  published  in  his 
book,  and  in  various  essays  shortly  after  his  return  to  England,  a  great  deal 
must  have  died  with  him. 

The  Theraphosidce  also  includ-e  smaller  spiders,  which  construct  nests  in 
the  ground  provided  with  a  round  trap-door,  which  fits  down  over  it  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  completely  close  and  conceal  it.  Trap- 
door spiders  are  plentiful  in  many  parts  of  the 
world,  including  South  France  ;  but  our  only  British 
representative  of  the  family,  Atypus  sulzeri  (Latr.), 
constructs  a  tubular  gallery  in  the  ground,  about 
half  an  inch  in  diameter,  in  which  the  female  de- 
posits her  eggs,  but  which  is  not  closed  with  a  trap- 
door. The  spider  itself  is  about  half  an  inch  in 
length. 

Turning  now  to  the  remaining  spiders,  it  will, 
perhaps,  be  sufficient  to  illustrate  them  by  noticing  a 
few  of  the  more  interesting  and  representative  groups 
and  species. 

Fig  is  -Utupus  'sulzeri )          The  Salticid(*,  or  hunting-spiders  do  not  construct 
'  Twice  nat.  size.  a  we^  except  as  a  resting-place  at  night  or  when 

moulting  their  skins,  and  as  an  egg- 
sac,  but  capture  their  prey   by  leaping   on  it,   connecting         Hunting- 
themselves,  however,  with  the  spot  they  have  quitted  by          Spiders, 
drawing  out  a  thread  behind  them  as  they  leap.      The 
cephalothorax    is    arched,    and    they  have    eight    eyes.       Their   legs    are 
rather  short   and   stout.     Several   species,    both   British    and   foreign,    re- 
semble   ants,    a    resemblance     which    is    probably    protective     to     them- 
selves rather  than  designed  to  mask  their  approach  from  their  prey. 

The  Lycosidce,  or  wolf-spiders  are  similar  in  some  of  their  habits  to  the  last 
family,  but  generally  pursue  their  prey  by  running,  not  by  leaping. 
Their  cephalothorax  is  arched,  but  narrowed  in  front.  They  have  eight  eyes 
arranged  in  three  or  four  transverse  rows,  and  their  legs  are  long  and  hairy. 
The  egg-pouch  of  the  female  is  carried  about  with  her  attached  to  the  end  of 
her  body  till  the  young  hatch,  when  they  climb  on  her  back.  Some  species 
carry  their  egg-sac  in  their  mandibles. 

To  this  family  belongs  the  famous  spider  Lycosa  tarentula  (Linnaeus),  the 
bite  of  which  was  supposed  in  Italy  to  produce  a  fit  of  melancholia,  that 
could  only  be  cured  by  the  tune  known  as  the  Tarentella. 
The  nests  of  some  of  these  spiders  are  hardly  less  curious        Tarantula, 
than  those  of  the  trap-door  spiders;  that  of  a  North  American 
species,  Lycosa  arenicola  (Scudder),  figured  in  Comstock's  "  Manual  for  the 
Study  of  Insects,"  p.  41,  makes  a  structure  resembling  a  high  bird's-nest,  or 
small  turret,  over  the  entrance  to  the  tube.      Some  of  the  Lycosidce  fre- 
quent water,  and  are  able  to  pursue  their  prey  on  or  in  it ;  and  Dolomedes 
fimbriatus  (Clerck)  actually  constructs  a  small  raft  on  which  it  sails  about. 

The  Thomisidae.,  or  crab-spiders,  have  small  eyes  arranged  in  two  rows, 
and  long  sprawling  legs,  like  those  of  a  crab.  Their  colours  are  usually  pro- 
tective, being  grey  or  brown  in  the  case  of  tree -frequenting  species,  and 
green  or  yellow  in  the  case  of  those  which  conceal  themselves  in  flowers. 


544  ARACHNIDA— ORDERS  ARANEIDA  AND  ACARINA. 


The  Uloboridce&re  an  unimportant  family  in  England;  but  Comstock  quotes 
from  Dr.  Wilder  the  following  curious  account  of  the  use  of  the  triangular 
web  of  Hyptiotes  cavatus  (Hentz),  a  common  species  in  the  United  States: — "Its 
web  is  most  often  found  stretched  between  the  twigs  of  a  dead  branch  of  pine 
or  spruce.  At  first  sight  this  web  appears  like  the  fragment  of  an  orb  web, 
but  a  little  study  will  show  that  it  is  complete.  ...  It  consists  of  four  plain 
lines  corresponding  to  the  radiating  lines  of  an  orb  web,  and  a  series  of 
double  cross  lines.  .  .  .  From  the  points  where  the  radiating  lines  meet,  a 
strong  line  extends  to  one  of  the  supporting  twigs.  Near  this  twig  the  spicier 
rests,  pulling  the  web  tight  so  that  there  is  some  loose  line  between  its  legs. 
When  an  insect  becomes  entangled  in  one  of  the  cross  lines,  the  spider  sud- 
denly lets  go  the  loose  line,  so  that  the  whole  web  springs  forward,  and  the 
insect  is  entangled  in  other  threads.  The  spider  then  draws  the  web  tight, 
and  snaps  it  again.  This  may  be  repeated  several  times  before  the  spider 
goes  out  upon  the  web  after  its  prey." 

The  Epevrid&f  or  garden-spiders,  are  large  and  handsome  spiders,  with  a 
rounded  abdomen,  and  moderately  long  hairy  legs,  the  first  pair  longest. 
They  have  eight  eyes  irregularly  arranged  in  two  rows. 
Garden-Spiders.  They  spin  circular  webs,  and  await  their  prey  either  near  the 
centre  of  their  web,  or  in  a  place  of  concealment  close  by. 
The  commonest  species,  Epeira  diadema  (Clerck),  is  nearly  an  inch  long,  and 
has  a  green  abdomen  marked  with  white  or  yellow  spots  in  the  form  of  a 
cross.  One  North  American  species,  Argiope  riparia  (Walckenaer),  is  re- 
corded to  make  a  large  egg-sac,  in  which  the  young  pass  the  winter  ;  only 
those  emerging  from  it  in  spring  which  have  not  been  devoured  by  their 
fellows  in  the  interval.  Other  species  have  the  same  curious  cannibal 
habit. 

The  Gastracanthidce  are  a  very  curious  family  of  exotic  spiders,  with  hard, 
horny,  angular  bodies,  and  sometimes  with  a  long  curved  spine  projecting  on 
each  side  at  the  extremity  of  the  abdomen.     They  are 
often  of  very  varied  colours.      Many  writers  include 
them  in  the  Epeiridce.     The  species  figured  is  Gastra- 
cantha    fornicata    (Fabr.).      It    is    reddish    (probably 
yellow  when  alive),  with  the  head,  thorax,  and  some 
round  spots  on  the  abdomen,  blackish  ;  and  it  inhabits 
Ceylon,  Java,  and  Australia. 
Fig.  i9.-(Gastracantha        To  the  Agelenida,  a  large  family  in  which  the  eyes 
fornicata.)   Nat.  size.      are  arranged  in  two  curved  transverse  rows,  belong  our 
common  house-spiders,  which  are   too   well-known   to 

need  description,  and  which  spin  their  cobwebs  wherever  they  are  left  for  a 
day  or  two  undisturbed.  Another  very  interesting  species  is  the  water- 
spider,  Argyroneta  aqtiatica  (Linn.),  which  dives  beneath  fresh  water,  enclosed 
in  a  shining  bubble  of  air  entangled  in  the  hairs  of  its  body,  and  constructs 
a  silken  subaqueous  dome,  which  it  fills  with  air  like  a  diving-bell,  in  which  it 
waits  for  prey,  hibernates,  and  deposits  its  egg-cocoons. 

To  the  allied  family  Theridiidce,  belong  several  large  and  handsomely- 
coloured  spiders  found  in  Southern  -Europe,  New  Zealand,  and  elsewhere, 
which  are  much  dreaded  on  account  of  their  poisonous  bite. 


SPIDERS,  MITES,  AND  TICK'S.  545 


ORDER  VII. — ACARINA  (MITES  AND  TICKS). 

This  large  order  includes  a  great  variety  of  creatures.  Most  of  them 
are  very  minute,  and  many  are  almost  microscopic.  The  cephaloihorax 
and  abdomen  are  fused  together,  the  body  forming  a  compact,  rounded,  or 
oval  mass  ;  the  sexes  are  separate,  and  sometimes  very  different  in  appear- 
ance ;  the  mouth  is  formed  for  biting  or  sucking,  and  there  are  nearly  always 
eight  legs  in  the  perfect  state,  but  often  six  only  in  the  earlier  stages.  The 
Phytopti  have  usually  only  four.  Many  of  the  species  are  more  or  less  bristly. 
Some  feed  on  plants,  and  others  on  decaying  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances. A  considerable  number  are  parasitic. 

The  Bdellidce  are  mites  of  a  bright  red  colour,  with  a  long  snout,  and  long 
palpi,  which  are  generally  elbowed,  and  have  the  appearance  of  antennas. 
Some  are  found  among  moss,  and  others  on  the  sea-shore;  while  others,  again, 
are  parasitic  on  various  insects.  The  number  of  eyes  varies,  and  in  some 
cave-frequenting  species,  the  eyes  are  obsolete. 

The  Gamasidce  are  a  family  of  mites,  many  of  which  are  parasitic  on  insects, 
and  others  on  warm-blooded  animals.     They  are  without  eyes,  the  mandibles 
are  pincer-like,  and  the  legs  are  hairy,  and  furnished  with 
two  claws.     The  first  or  second  pair  of  legs  are  frequently      Insect-Mites 
much  thicker  than  the  others ;  and  the  immature  mites  have       (Gamasidce). 
only  six  legs.     The  species  of  Gamasus  (Latr. )  infest  different 
kinds  of  insects,  especially  the  black  dung-beetles  belonging  to  the  genus 
Geotrupes  (Fabr. ),  and  its  allies  ;  and  they  are  also  numerous  on  humble-bees. 
They  may  often  be  found  running  over  these  insects  ;  but  there  are  other 
mites  infesting  beetles  which  are  attached  to  their  host  by  a  thread ;  these  be- 
long to  the  genus  Uropoda  (Latr.).     Other  mites  of  this  family  attack  warm- 
blooded animals,  and  are  very  numerous  among  poultry  and  caged  birds,  and 
sometimes  become  troublesome  to  man  by  transference. 

The  Halacaridce  are  a  small  family  of  mites,  living  habitually  under  the 
sea,  having  either  a  stiff,  or  a  more  or  less  rigid,  cuirassed  skin,  and  with 
their  legs  springing  from  the  inner  margin  of  the  body. 
They  are  found  among  sea- weeds  in  rock-pools,  or  are  brought     Marine  Mites 
up,  sometimes  in  large  numbers,  by  the  dredge.     The  body     (Halacaridce). 
is  oval,  the  snout  more  or  less  produced,  and  the  palpi  rather 
long. 

The  next  family  we  have  to  consider  is  that  of  the  Hydrachnidce,  or  fresh- 
water mites.      These  are  round,  or,  more  rarely,  oval,  and  are  generally 
smooth  and  velvety,  and  of  a  red,  black  and  red,  or  purple 
colour.     Most  of  them  have  only  six  legs  when  immature.       Fresh- Water 
They  have  a  hook  at  the  extremity  of  the  palpi,  and  are  Mites 

in   the   habit   of    attaching   themselves    to    various   water-  (Hydrachnidce). 
animals. 

The  Ixodidce,  or  ticks,  are  among  the  largest  and  most  troublesome  of  the 
whole  group.     They  are  usually  of  an  oval  form,  and  have  a  tough  skin,  and 
a  mouth  fitted  for  sucking.     Some  are  provided  with  eyes, 
and  others  are  blind.     They  live  on  grass  and  herbage,  and  Ticks 

the  usual  habit  of  the  female  is  to  attach  herself  to  any        (Ixodidce). 
warm-blooded  animal,  pierce  the  skin,  and  suck  the  blood 
till  she  is  gorged,  when  she  falls  off.     They  are  sometimes  very  troublesome  in 
summer  and  autumn,  even  in  England  ;  but  in  hot  countries  they  are  often 
a  terrible  pest,  especially  in  the  Southern  States  of  America,  and  in  some 
parts  of  South  America,  where  they  are  particularly  troublesome  to  cattle. 


546        ARACHNIDA— ORDERS  ACARINA  AND  TARDTGRADA. 


In  Brazil  they  are  said  to  have  been  introduced.  This  has  been  doubted  ; 
but  it  is  not  unlikely  that  a  particularly  troublesome  species  may  be  carried 
from  one  country  to  another,  or  introduced  into  districts  in  which  it  was  pre- 
viously unknown.  For  a  tropical  country,  Jamaica  is  remarkably  free  from 
noxious  creatures  ;  and  it  is  only  of  late  years  that  ticks  have  multiplied  in 
the  island  to  such  an  extent  as  to  make  it  highly  unpleasant  to  venture 
among  the  herbage  at  all.  This  is  attributed  to  the  introduction  of  the 
mongoose,  which  was  imported  to  destroy  rats,  and  which  is  said  to  have 
carried  the  ticks  over  the  whole  island.  The  largest  known  ticks,  which 
sometimes  attain  a  length  of  nearly  an  inch,  are  those  which  are  found  occa- 
sionally upon  the  tortoise.  Argas  persicus  (Fisch.)  was  said  by  travellers  to 
produce  fatal  injuries  by  its  attacks,  and  to  abound  so  much  in  some  parts  of 
Persia  as  to  lead  to  the  abandonment  of  whole  villages  ;  but  these  reports 
are  now  believed  to  have  been  much  exaggerated. 

The  Oribatidce  are  dark-coloured,  hard,  shiny  mites,  found  among  moss 
and  vegetable  refuse ;  but  when  they  are  older,  they  feed  on  various  small 
insects.  The  front  of  the  body  is  often  produced  into  a  broad,  triangular 
shape,  and,  as  in  many  other  mites,  the  palpi  are  frequently  so  largely 
developed  as  to  resemble  antennae  in  appearance. 

The  Phytoptidce,  or  gall  mites,  are  an  extremely  large  group,  concerning 

which  much  has  been  written  of  late  years.     They  are  very  long,  microscopic 

mites,  usually  with  only  four  legs  visible  at  the  anterior  end 

Gall-Mites        of  the  body.     They  produce  small  galls  on  the  leaves  of 

(Phytoptidce).     various  plants,  sometimes  conical,  as  on  the  lime  trees,  and 

sometimes  rounded,   as   on  the  vine.     These  galls  may  be 

distinguished  from  insect-galls  by  having  a  small  opening  at  the  base. 

The  Sarcoptidcv,  or  itch-mites,  are  a  family  of  parasites  which,  not  content 
with  sucking  blood,  burrow  under  the  skin  of  warm-blooded  animals,  causing, 
by  their  irritation,  diseases  known  as  the  itch  or  mange. 
Itch-Mites       Various  species  have  also  been  observed  on  patients  suffering 
(Sarcoptidce).     from  Polish  Plait  (Plica  polonica),  and  whether  they  actually 
cause  this  disease  or  not,  they  doubtless  aggravate  it.     The 
itch-mites  are  round,  with  short,  bristly  legs,  and  most  mammals  seem  to  be 
more  or  less  subject  to  their  attacks.     In  birds,  they  frequently  attack  the 
feet.      They  are    most  active  at  night,   and    the 
troublesome  itching    they    cause    is    consequently 
worst  then.      There   are    two    principal  forms   of 
the  disease  in  man,  one  common  in  most  parts  of 
the  world,  caused  by  Sarcoptes  scabiei  (Latr.),  while 
the  other,  S.  scabiei-crustosce  (Murray),  which  is  far 
worse,  is  almost  confined  to  Northern  Europe.     The 
itch  has  often  been  a  great  pest  during  the  hard- 
ships of  a  campaign,  and  the  survivors  of  Sir  John 
Moore's  force,  in  the  Peninsular  War,  were  greatly 
affected  by  it.     Before  the  cause  was  discovered,  it 
was  regarded  as  a  most  formidable  disease,  and  Dr. 
Russell  informs  us  that  in  the  last  century  it  was  more 
dreaded  at  Aleppo  than  the  plague  itself.     But  in 
Fig   20.— TTCH-MITE  recent  years,  the  use  of  sulphur  baths  has  proved 

\Sarcoptes    scabiei).     Under-      ,      •,  -,      «2  J.T      j       *        -.  •  •  -i 

surface  of  male.    Magnified.     to  be  an  easv  and  emcacious  method  of  getting  rid 

of  at  least  the  milder  forms  of  this  complaint. 
Two  other  families  of  parasitic  mites  may  be  briefly  mentioned.     These 


MITES.  547 


are  Myobiidce,  small,  oval  mites,  not  unlike  lice  in  shape,  which  infest  mice 
and  other  small  mammals,  and  birds  ;  and  Demodicidce,  the  few  species  of 
which  are  long,  tapering,  microscopic  mites,  infesting  the  hair-follicles  of 
man  and  other  animals.  In  man,  the  common  Demodex  follicidorum  (Simon) 
often  occurs  on  the  face,  where  its  presence  is  indicated  externally  by  a  black 
speck  ;  but  as  it  is  a  parasite  of  very  small  size  and  stationary  habits,  its 
presence  does  not  cause  anything  like  the  same  annoyance  as  that  of 
Sarcoptes  scabiei. 

The  Trombidiidce  are  a  family  of  brown,  or  bright  scarlet  mites,  which  are 
in  the  habit  of  attaching  themselves  to  insects,  to  which  they  cling  so  tightly 
that  they  may  often  be  seen  in  numbers  attached  to  Museum  specimens. 
They  attack  flies,  sawflies,  and  other  insects,  but  are  most  conspicuous 
when  attached  to  the  wings  of  dragonflies  in  more  or  less  symmetrical 
rows.  Some  very  large  species,  measuring  nearly  half  an  inch  in  length,  are 
often  found  pinned  in  miscellaneous  collections  of  insects,  etc.,  from 
Africa  and  the  East  Indies.  ' 

The  Tetranychidce  are  allied  to  the  last  family,  but  are  plant-feeders.     The 
two  best  known  species  are  that  great  pest  in  hothouses,  the  "  Red  Spider" 
(Tetranychus  telarius,  Linn.),    which,    however,   is  not  a 
spider,  but  a  mite  ;  and  the  harvest  bug  (T.  autumnalis,       "Red  Spiders" 
Shaw),  which  burrows  into  the  skin,  causing  great  incon-       (Tetranychus). 
venience  ;  while  in  the  case  of  allied  tropical  species,  sup- 
puration and  ulceration  may  result  in  extreme  cases.     However,  most  of  the 
species  of  this  family  are  harmless,  living  on  plants,  or  under  stones,  and 
not  attacking  animals. 

The  last  family  we  have  to  notice,  the  Tyroglyphidce,  includes  several  of 
the  most  typical  mites,  such  as  the  cheese-mites  and  the  sugar-mite.  Tyro- 
ylyphus  siro  (Linn.),  the  commonest  of  the  former,  abounds 
in  cheese,  causing  a  kind  of  dry  rot ;  and  the  dust  from  such  Cheese-Mites,etc. 
a  cheese,  when  placed  under  the  microscope,  generally  proves  (Tyroglyphidw). 
to  be  full  of  mites.  They  are  harmless  when  swallowed,  nor 
do  they  attack  the  skin.  Other  mites,  belonging  to  the  genus  Cheyletus  (Latr.), 
with  large  claw-like  palpi,  feed  on  cheese-mites,  etc.  Yery  small  mites, 
belonging  to  the  genus  Tyroglyphus,  are  among  the  most  destructive  pests  in 
collections  of  insects.  The  sugar-mite  (T.  sacchari,  Cameron),  abounds  in 
unrefined  sugar,  and  is  sometimes  the  cause  of  a  complaint  known  as  "grocer's 
itch."  Now,  however,  almost  all  sugar  brought  into  the  market  is  more  or 
less  refined,  and  no  longer  liable  to  the  attacks  of  mites.  Most  of  the 
Tyroglyphidce  are  harmless,  some  feeding  on  dried  vegetable  or  animal  sub- 
stances, while  others  are  carnivorous,  feeding  on  insects  ;  and  others,  again, 
are,  or  may  accidentally  become,  parasitic.  Cases  of  dysentery  have  some- 
times been  attributed  to  the  presence  in  the  intestines  of  mites  belonging 
to  this  family,  which  had  been  accidentally  swallowed. 

ORDER  VIII.— TARDIGRADA. 

These  are  small  mites  found  among  moss  and  seaweed.  The  cephalothorax 
and  abdomen  are  fused  together  ;  the  body  is  broad,  with  four  indistinct 
rings  on  the  body.  The  sexes  are  not  separate.  The  position  of  this  group 
is  still  doubtful. 


548  MYRIOPODA. 


ORDER  IX. — LINGUATULIDA. 

These  are  worm-like  parasites,  with  jointed  bodies  and  separate  sexes. 
They  are  curiously  intermediate  between  parasitic  worms  and  Arthropoda, 
but  they  are  now  referred  to  the  Arachnids  as  an  aberrant  group.  In  their 
embryo  state,  they  have  two  pairs  of  short,  two-jointed  legs,  with  two  strong 
claws,  and  two  hooks  at  the  mouth.  In  their  sexually  mature  condition,  they 
have  four  hooks  at  the  mouth,  but  no  legs.  They  are  met  with  in  the  encysted 
larval  conditions  in  the  lungs  and  liver  of  the  horse,  dog,  wolf,  hare,  and 
rabbit,  as  well  as  in  snakes,  crocodiles,  and  fish  ;  and  occasionally  in  man.  In 
their  mature  form,  they  inhabit  the  frontal  sinuses  of  the  hare,  rabbit,  and 
horse. 


CLASS  III.— MYRIOPODA   (CENTIPEDES   AND 
MILLEPEDES). 

THIS  is  the  most  worm-like  class  of  the  sub-kingdom  Annulosa  in  the  perfect 
state  of  the  animals  included  under  it.  The  head  is  well  differentiated  from 
the  rest  of  the  body,  and  is  provided  with  one  pair  of 
antennae,  and  three  (more  rarely,  two)  pairs  of  jaws.  The 
thorax  and  abdomen  are  not  differentiated,  except  into 
segments.  They  undergo  a  reversed  and  very  imperfect 
metamorphosis  compared  to  that  of  insects,  for  whereas 
insects  begin  with  a  worm-like  body,  sometimes  provided 
with  as  many  as  twenty-two  legs,  and  end  with  only  six,  the 
Myriopoda  sometimes  begin  with  only  six  legs,  and  continue 
to  increase  both  in  number  of  joints  and  number  of  legs, 
till  they  have  reached  their  full  growth,  in  which  they  are 
generally  long  and  worm-like.  Hence  they  are  called  Myria- 
poda  or  Myriopoda  (either  form  of  the  word  being  equally 
correct) ;  and  they  are  sub-divided  into  two  principal  orders, 
tlie  Chttopoda  which  are  generally  called  centipedes  or 
at.  size.  hundred-feet ;  and  the  Chilognatha,  which  are  generally 
called  millepedes  or  thousand-feet. 


ORDER  CHILOPODA  (CENTIPEDES). 

The  centipedes  are  carnivorous,  and  are  provided  with  perforated  foot- 
jaws,  connected  with  a  poison-gland.  The  body  and  jaws  are  generally 
rather  flattened,  and  there  is  never  more  than  a  single  pair  of  legs  on  each 
segment.  The  head  is  divided  into  two  regions,  provided  with  two  pairs  of 
maxillae,  behind  which  spring  the  great  foot- jaws. 

The  tfcutigeridte  are  distinguished  from  the  other  families  of  CJiilopoda  by 
having  the  two  pairs  of  mandibles  united,  and  by  the  long  antennae, 
legs,  and  abdominal  appendages,  which  has  led  to  the  common  South  European 
species  being  called  Scutiyera  araneoides  (Pall.),  from  its  fancied  resemblance 
to  a  spider.  It  is  about  an  inch  long,  the  antennas  being  at  least  as  long  as 
the  body,  and  the  last  pair  of  legs  twice  as  long  ;  the  other  legs  are  compara- 


CENTIPEDES  AND  MILLEPEDES. 


549 


tively  short  in  front,  but  increase  rapidly  in  length  till  they  are  nearly  as 
long  as  the  body.  The  proportions  of  the  limbs,  etc.,  however,  vary  con- 
siderably in  different  species ;  the  legs  are  very  brittle.  These  centipedes 
feed  on  insects,  and  are  very  active.  Most  of  them  are  inhabitants  of  warm 
climates  (the  family  is  unrepresented  in  England),  and  the  colour  is  usually 
greenish  when  alive,  but  is  liable  to  change  rapidly  after  death.  They  have 
only  sixteen  joints,  and  are  provided  with  compound  eyes  instead  of  ocelli. 

The  Lithobiidce  are  represented  in  Britain  by  Lithobius  forficatus  (Linn.), 
which  has  two  clusters  of  ocelli,  fifteen  pairs  of  legs,  increasing  iri  length 
hindwards,  and  long  antennae,  with  more  than  forty  joints. 
It  is  a  repulsive-looking,  reddish-brown  creature  about  an 
inch  long,  with  a  comparatively  broad  body.  It  is  very 
active  in  its  movements,  and  feeds  chiefly  on  worms  ;  and 
is  often  unearthed  by  digging  in  garden-mould  or  in  a 
dung-heap.  (Fig.  21.) 

The  Scolopendridce  generally  have  four  simple  eyes  on  both 
sides,  antennae  with  about  twenty  joints,  and  usually  twenty- 
one  pairs  of  legs.  The  body  is  often  very  broad  and  flat- 
tened. The  family  is  represented  in  South  Europe, 
and  the  species  are  often  of  considerable  size,  sometimes 
measuring  more  than  a  foot  in  length.  Their  bite  is  as  pain- 
ful and  dangerous  as  that  of  a  scorpion,  though  they  are 
sometimes  used  as  an  article  of  food  by  the  natives  of  the 
countries  where  they  are  numerous.  They  are  generally  of  a 
brown  or  reddish  colour,  or  banded  with  green  and  yellow. 
In  Britain  we  have  only  one  small  blind  yellowish  species  of  the 
family,  Cryptops  hortensis  (Leach),  which  is  harmless. 

The   Geophilidce.  are  very  long  slender  centipedes,   with    (Linotcenia  eras- 
fourteen-jointed  antennae,  neither  compound  eyes  nor  ocelli,       s j£^fied  ^ 
and  from  thirty-one  to  one  hundred  and  seventy-three  leg- 
bearing  segments,  each  provided  with  a  pair  of  rather  short  legs.     They  are 
nocturnal  creatures,   of  a  whitish  or  yellowish  colour,  and  are  remarkable 
for  emitting  a   pale  phosphorescence  which  has  led  to   their  being  called 
electric  centipedes.      They  are    found   in  Britain   as  well   as  in  warmer 
countries. 


Fig.  22.— ELEC- 
TKIC  CENTIPEDE 


ORDER  CHILOGNATHA  (MILLEPEDES). 

The  millepedes  are  distinguished  from  the  centipedes  by  their  feeding  chiefly 
on  vegetable  matters  ;  and,  consequently,  they  have  imperf orate  foot-jaws,  and 
are  not  venomous.  Their  bodies  are  generally  convex  above,  and  more  or  less 
flattened  beneath  ;  and  while  the  first  three  segments  behind  the  head,  cor- 
responding to  the  thorax  in  insects,  bear  only  one  pair  of  legs  each,  the  remain- 
ing segments  bear  two  pairs.  The  head  of  the  millepede  is  composed  of  a 
single  segment  only.  They  vary  much  in  size  ;  and  dead  specimens  become 
extremely  brittle,  the  segments  separating  at  the  least  touch. 

The  Polyzoniidce  are  semi-cylindrical  creatures,  with  small  heads,  and  from 
30  to  100  or  more  joints,  and  capable  of  rolling  themselves  up  spirally.  The 
mouth-parts  are  modified  into  a  sucking  proboscis.  The  best  known  species, 
Polyzonium  germanicum,  (Brandt),  is  about  two-fifths  of  an  inch  long. 


550  PROTRACHEATA  AND  INSECT  A. 


The  most  familiar  representatives  of  the  millepedes  in  European  countries 
are  perhaps  the  Julidw.  They  have  a  large  head,  and  a  long,  cylindrical  body 

composed  of  upwards  of  30  segments,  which  can  be 
rolled  up  spirally.  They  are  either  eyeless,  or 
furnished  with  aggregations  of  ocelli.  They  are 
called  snake-millepedes,  and  are  very  injurious 
in  fields  and  gardens,  feeding  on  roots  and 
tubers,  like  wireworms.  Our  species  are  of 
small  size,  measuring  from  half  an  inch  to 
nearly  two  inches  in  length,  and  are  mostly  of 
a  dull  bluish-black  or  lead  colour.  In  tropical 
countries,  some  species  grow  to  the  length  of  a 
foot  or  more  ;  and  they  are  described  as  creep- 
Fig.  23.— MILLEPEBE  (Spirostrep-  ing  about  the  branches  of  the  trees  in  the  damp 
tuspyrocephalus,Koch.).  African  forests.  Unlike  the  centipedes,  the 

millepedes    are    very   sluggish    creatures,    and 

move  very  slowly,  notwithstanding  their  numerous  legs.  The  species  figured, 
Spirostreptus  pyrocephalus  (Koch),  inhabits  South  Africa.  It  is  black,  with 
a  bright  red  head,  and  is  about  four  inches  long. 

The  Polydesmidw  much  resemble  the  Jididce  in  habits,  but  are  more 
flattened,  and  the  three  single  pairs  of  legs  are  placed  on  the  second,  fourth, 
and  fifth  segments,  instead  of  on  the  second,  third,  and  fourth.  They  are 
very  hard,  but  very  brittle.  The  British  species  are  small  ;  but  some  of  the 
foreign  ones  attain  to  a  considerable  size.  They  are  composed  of  about  20 
segments.  Some  species  belonging  to  this  family  have  been  met  with 
in  tlie  great  caves  of  Moravia  and  Carint*hia.  All  are  blind. 

The  Polyxenidw  are  very  small,  whitish  millepedes,  not  exceeding  one-third 
of  an  inch  in  length  in  the  largest  species,  and  composed  of  only  9  or  10  seg- 
ments. The  head  is  well-marked,  and  they  are  provided  with  two  clusters  of 
ocelli.  They  are  found  under  fallen  leaves. 

The  Glomeridce  are  composed  of  from  10  to  13  segments  above,  but 
each  segment  composed  of  four  divisions  below,  an  arrangement  which 
enables  the  animal  to  roll  itself  up  like  a  ball.  They  are  short  and  broad, 
and  much  resemble  wood-lice  in  shape,  size,  and  appearance. 


CLASS  IV.—PEOTRACHEATA. 

THIS  class  includes  the  single  family  Peripatidce,  the  typical  genus  being  Peri- 
patus  (Guilding).  The  few  known  species  resemble  caterpillars  in  appearance ; 
but  have  two  rather  long  antennae,  and  soft,  cylindrical  bodies,  indistinctly 
divided  into  from  13  to  40  segments,  each  bearing  a  pair  of  imperfectly- 
jointed  feet,  armed  with  two  small  claws.  They  are  viviparous,  and  are 
found  under  leaves  and  among  rotten  wood.  The  body  is  capable  of  great 
extension  and  retraction.  When  first  discovered,  they  were  supposed  to  be 
Mollusca,  but  were  afterwards  found  to  have  more  resemblance  to  the 
Myriopoda.  There  is  a  well-developed  tracheal  system,  opening  by  incon- 
spicuous stigmata  placed  irregularly  over  the  body.  The  known  species  are 


MILLEPEDES  AND  INSECTS. 


551 


found  in  South  Africa,  and  in  various  parts  of  the  West  Indies  and  South 
America,  as  well  as  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand.  Peripatus  iuliformis 
(Guilding),  from  the  Island  of  St.  Vincent,  is  about  two  inches  long.  (See 
Fig.  24). 


Fig.  24.—  Peripatus  iuliformis  (Guild.). 


CLASS  V.—INSEGTA. 

INSECTS  are  by  far  the  most  numerous  class  of  animals  which  inhabit  the 
globe  at  the  present  time.     The  actual  number  of  species  on  our  lists  cannot 
be  much  less  than  300,000  ;  and  many  thousands  of  new  species  are  described 
every  year.     In  this  country  alone  we  have  between  12,000  and  13,000 
species,  although  our  fauna  is  exceedingly  poor,  not  only  as  compared  with  that 
of  tropical  countries,  but  even  in  comparison  to  that  of  Con- 
tinental Europe.     Only  a  few  families  and  orders  of  insects       Number  of 
are  at  all  adequately  known  at  present,  and  those  only  as          Species 
existing  in  the  best -explored  countries.     The  late  Professor        of  Insects. 
Riley  estimated  the  probable  number  of  existing  species  of 
insects  at  possibly  ten  millions  ;  and  such  estimates  are  generally  far  below 
the  mark.     The  alternative  estimate  of  two  millions,  which  is  put  forward 
by  some  entomologists,  seems  to  me  to  be  ridiculously  low,  when  we  consider 
that  the  world  has  been  so 'badly  explored  that  we  are  not  yet  acquainted 
with  a  dozen  species  of  Phasmidce,  or  stick-insects,  from  Madagascar,  an 
island  which  has  been  visited  by  many  collectors,  while  the  Phasmidce  are 
not  a  group  of  small  and  obscure  insects,  but  one  which  includes  many 
very  handsome  and  conspicuous  species,  and  to  which  belong  the  largest 
of  all  known  insects. 

To  take  another  illustration,  Mr.  E.  Ernest  Green  is  now  working  at  a 
monograph  of  the  Coccidce,  or  scale-insects,  of  Ceylon.  Very  few  species 
were  previously  known  from  that  island,  and  he  will  probably  be  easily  able 
to  multiply  them  at  least  by  ten. 

Nevertheless,  insects,  like  the  plants  on  which  they  feed,  are  becoming 


552  INSECTA— ORDER  COLEOPTERA. 


rapidly  exterminated  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world  by  cultivation,  clearing 

of  forests,  drainage,  etc.;  and  there  is  good  reason  to  he- 
Extermination  of  lieve  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  insects  now  existing  will 
Species.          become  extinct  before  they  ever  find  a  place  in  our  museums 

at  all.  The  extermination  of  small  animals  proceeds  pari 
passu  with  that  of  larger  ones  ;  but  is  rarely  noticed,  as  their  existence  is,  for 
the  most  part,  unknown  and  unsuspected. 

Insects  generally  pass  through  four  stages,  called  egg,  larva,  pupa,  and 
imago.     In  some  orders,  the  pupa  is  inactive,  and  the  insect  is  then  said  to 

have  a  perfect  metamorphosis.     In  other  orders,  the  pupa 

Metamorphoses    only  differs  from  the  larva  by  possessing  wing-cases,  and 

of  Insects.        continues  to  feed  as  before.     Then  the  metamorphoses  are 

said  to  be  incomplete.  The  egg  is  laid  by  the  parent  insect 
on  or  near  the  appropriate  food  of  its  progeny,  which,  in  insects  with  perfect 
metamorphoses,  is  nearly  always  very  different  from  that  of  the  perfect 
insect.  The  larva  is  frequently  called  a  grub,  maggot,  or  caterpillar,  and  is 
generally  more  or  less  worm-like.  It  may  be  legless,  or  may  possess  several 
pairs  of  legs,  as  well  as  the  six  pairs  analogous  to  those  of  the  perfect  insect. 
In  insects  with  imperfect  metamorphoses,  the  larva  and  pupa  much  resemble 
the  perfect  insect ;  and  their  food  is  frequently  nearly  similar.  When 
insects  reach  their  final  stage,  they  generally  acquire  wings,  and  become 
capable  of  perpetuating  their  species.  There  are,  however,  numerous  insects 
which  never  acquire  wings  ;  and  in  other  cases  the  wings  are  undeveloped  in 
one  sex,  generally  the  female. 

In  the  perfect  state,  an  insect  consists  of  a  number  of  rings,  called  seg- 
ments, or  somites,  agglutinated  into  three  masses,  called  the  head,  thorax, 

and  abdomen,  which  can  generally  be  well  distinguished. 
Head  of  Imago.  The  head  is  considered  to  consist  of  a  number  of  somites, 

jusfc  as  the  skull  of  vertebrate  animals  is  thought  to  con- 
sist of  a  number  of  modified  vertebrae.  The  head  contains  several  of  the 
most  important  organs  of  the  senses,  such  as  the  compound  facetted  eyes  on 
each  side  of  the  head ;  the  antennae,  two  long  jointed  organs,  often  feathered, 
or  knobbed  at  the  extremity,  which  are  generally  inserted  in  front  between 
the  eyes  ;  the  ocelli,  stemmata,  or  simple  eyes,  of  which  there  may  be  one, 
two,  or  three,  on  the  crown  of  the  head  ;  and  the  mouth,  which  is  either  fur- 
nished with  mandibles  for  biting,  or  a  proboscis  for  sucking.  There  are  also 
two  pairs  of  jointed  organs  projecting  in  front  of  the  mouth,  called  labial  and 
maxillary  palpi  ;  but  one  or  other  pair  is  frequently  wanting. 

The  three  segments  behind  the  head  are  called  the  thorax.     Each  of  these 
bears  one  pair  of  legs  beneath,  and  the  second  and  third  pairs  bear  the  wings 

at  the  sides  ;  for  most  insects  have  four  wings  and  six  legs 
Thorax.          in  the  perfect  state.     The  legs  are  composed  of  several  parts, 

called  the  coxse,  or  hips  ;  the  trochanters,  or  hinge-joints  ; 
the  femora,  or  thighs  ;  the  tibise,  or  shanks ;  and  the  tarsi,  or  feet.  The 
tarsus  is  composed  of  five  or  fewer  joints,  known  as  the  joints  of  the  tarsi. 
The  abdomen  is  composed  normally  of  nine  segments,  exclusive  of  some 
smaller  ones  at  the  extremity  in  connection  with  the  appendages  of  the 
generative  system  ;  but  there  are  often  fewer  visible.  Insects  breathe  by 
tracheae,  tubes  which  open  by  spiracles  on  the  sides  of  the  body.  Many  in- 
sects are  furnished  with  stridulating  organs  in  the  abdomen,  while  others 
stridulate  by  means  of  various  structures  on  their  legs  and  wings  ;  and  in 
some  insects  the  organs  of  hearing  are  situated  on  the  legs. 


BEETLES.  553 


The  wings  of  insects  are  furnished  with  a  ramifying  system  of  tubes,  called 
nervures.     When  the  insect  emerges  from  the  pupa  its  wings  are  small  and 
limp ;  but  first  fluid  and  then  air  is  pumped  through  these 
tubes,  and  the  wing  quickly  grows  to  its  proper  size  and  Wings, 

dries.  These  nervures  differ  much  in  arrangement  in  differ- 
ent insects,  and  are  very  useful  in  classification.  The  front  of  the  wing  is 
called  the  costa,  the  part  nearest  to  the  body  the  base,  the  part  opposite  to 
the  body  the  hind  margin  or  outer  margin,  and  the  part  opposite  the  costa 
the  inner  margin.  The  extremity  of  the  costa  is  called  the  tip,  and  that  of 
the  inner  margin  the  hinder,  or  in  the  hind- wings  the  anal,  angle.  But  these 
divisions  shade  imperceptibly  into  each  other  in  insects  with  rounded  wings. 
Between  the  bases  of  the  fore- wings  we  sometimes  find  a  triangular  plate  called 
the  scutellum.  The  hind- wings  are  often  smaller,  rounder,  and  of  a  different 
consistency  to  the  fore-wings,  but  when  the  fore-wings  play  the  part  of  wing- 
cases,  under  which  the  hind-wings  are  folded,  the  latter  are  often  much 
larger.  Many  insects  possess  the  power  of  leaping,  in  which  case  the  hind 
legs  are  often  very  long,  or  the  coxae  and  femora  are  much  thickened. 

Insects  are  divided  into  several  large  orders,  of  which  the  following  are 
the  principal  ones  : — 

I.  COLEOPTERA  (Beetles). — Insects  with  mandibles  ;  fore- wings  (called 
elytra)  horny  or  leathery;  wings  membranous,  folded  and  doubled 
beneath  them. 

II.    ORTHOPTERA    (Grasshoppers,    etc.).  —  Insects    with       Orders  of 
mandibles  ;   fore- wings   (called    tegmina)  leathery;        Insects, 
hind- wings  folded  fan-like  beneath  them. 

III.  NEUROPTERA  (Dragonflies,  etc.). — Insects  with   mandibles  (some- 

times very  imperfectly  developed  ;  wings  with  many  nervures  ; 
membranous  and  naked,  or  clothed  with  hairs. 

IV.  HYMEN OPTERA  (Bees,  Wasps,  Ants,  etc.).— Insects  with  mandibles, 

and  often  a  proboscis  ;  wings  membranous,  rather  small,  with 
few  nervures  ;  the  fore  and  hind-wings  often  connected  together 
by  a  series  of  little  hooks. 

V.  LEPIDOPTERA  (Butterflies  and  Moths). — Insects  with  a  sucking  pro- 
boscis, and  membranous  wings  clothed  with  scales. 

VI.  HEMIPTERA  (Bugs  and  Froghoppers). — Insects  with  a  sucking  pro- 
boscis, fore- wings  leathery  or  membranous  (or  membranous  only 
at  the  tips)  ;  hindwings  membranous. 

VII.  DIPTERA  (Flies). — Insects  with  a  sucking  proboscis,  and  only  one 
pair  of  membranous  wings. 

The  first  four  orders  are  sometimes  called  Insecta  Mandibulata,  and  the 
three  last  Insecta  Haustellata. 

Fuller  characters  for  these  orders  will  be  given  in  their  places.  There  are 
also  some  groups  of  insects  (chiefly  apterous)  which  will  not  fit  very  well 
into  any  of  these  orders,  and  which  will  be  noticed  separately. 


ORDER  COLEOPTERA  (BEETLES). 

The  Coleoptera  are  physically  among  the  most  highly  organised  insects, 
although  they  cannot  compare  with  the  ffymenoptera  in  intellectual  devel- 
opment. They  are  distinguished  by  having  four  wings,  the  first  pair  of 


554  INSECT  A— ORDER  COLEOPTERA. 


which,  called  elytra,  are  of  a  horny  or  leathery  consistency,  and  when  closed, 
form  covers  for  the  true  wings,  which  are  membranous,  and  are  folded  beneath 
them  like  a  fan,  but  with  the  end  doubled  back.  They  undergo  a  perfect 
metamorphosis,  the  pupa  being  what  is  called  necromorphous,  or  corpse-like, 
because,  although  inactive,  it  is  not  enclosed  in  a  single  tight-fitting  integu- 
ment, like  that  of  a  butterfly  or  moth,  but  is  furnished  with  separate 
though  immovable  sheaths  for  the  antennae,  legs,  etc.  The  mouth  of 
the  perfect  insect  is  mandibulate,  or  furnished  with  strong  jaws  or 
mandibles. 

Beetles  are  very  numerous.  We  are  probably  at  present  acquainted  with 
at  least  150,000  species ;  and  although  they  have  been  more  carefully  collected 
than  most  other  orders  of  insects,  there  are,  doubtless, 
Number  of  enormous  numbers  which  yet  remain  to  be  discovered.  In 
Species.  Britain  we  have  in  round  numbers  about  3,000  species. 

They  feed  on  all  kinds  of  animal  and  vegetable  substances 
on  land,  in  the  water,  and  on  the  seashore  ;  but  very  few  are  parasitic  on 
other  insects.  They  vary  in  size  from  an  almost  invisible  speck  to  six  inches 
in  length,  or  with  expanded  legs  and  antennae  much  more.  Many  of  the 
plant-feeding  beetles,  as  the  wire-worms,  the  chafers,  the  Colorado  potato- 
beetle,  the  turnip-fly,  etc.,  are  extremely  destructive  to  our  crops  ;  but  the 
carnivorous  beetles,  such  as  the  ground-beetles,  the  tortoise-beetles,  the 
lady-birds,  etc. ,  are  very  useful  in  destroying  other  injurious  insects;  and 
the  grubs  of  some  of  the  large  wood-feeding  beetles  are  esteemed  a  great 
delicacy  in  some  countries  ;  indeed,  it  is  far  more  probable  that  the  Cossus  of 
the  Romans  was  the  larva  of  some  large  Lamellicorn  or  Longicorn  beetle 
than  that  it  was  the  repulsive  foul-smelling  larva  of  the  goat-moth,  although 
Linne*  applied  the  name  to  the  latter  insect. 

In  the  classification  of  beetles,  the  structure  of  the  antennae,  wing-cases 

and  legs  is  of  primary  importance.     The  neuration  of  the  wings,  which  is 

important  in  some  orders  of  insects,  is  not  much  used  in 

Classification.  Coleoptera.  It  should,  perhaps,  be  noted  that  the  wings 
are  sometimes  wanting,  when  the  elytra  are  sometimes  free, 
and  sometimes  soldered  together  at  the  middle  line  where  they  meet,  which 
is  called  the  suture.  Sometimes  both  wings  and  elytra  are  absent,  either  in 
both  sexes,  or  in  the  female  only,  as  in  that  of  the  glow-worm.  In  some 
beetles  there  is  a  triangular  space,  let  in,  as  it  were,  between  the  bases  of  the 
elytra  ;  this  is  called  the  scutellum.  In  some  families  the  anal  appendages 
are  useful  in  classification,  while  in  others  the  structure  of  these  parts  is  so 
uniform  that  it  is  not  worth  noting  in  this  connection.  Ridges  on  the  body 
or  elytra  are  called  carinse,  and  circular  pits  (very  conspicuous  and  numerous 
in  some  species)  are  called  punctures. 

The  first  large  group  of  the  beetles  is  that  of  the  Geodephaya,  or  carnivorous 
ground -beetles,  which  are  divided  into  two  main  families,  the  Cicindelidce,  or 
tiger-beetles,  and  the  Carabidce,  or  ground-beetles  proper.  They  are  hard- 
shelled  oval  beetles,  with  long  slender  legs  and  antennae,  and  five-jointed 
tarsi  on  all  the  legs. 

The  tiger-beetles  have  a  small  moveable  hook  at  the  end  of  the  maxillae, 

large  heads,  with  very  prominent  eyes  and  strong  jaws,  and  very  long  and 

slender  legs  and  antennae.     The  front  tibiae  are  not  notched 

Tiger-Beetles,     on  the  inner  side.      We  have  but  one  British  genus,  of  which 

the  green  tiger-beetle,   Oicindela  campestris  (Linn.),   is   the 

commonest  species.     It  is  found  in  sandy  places,  where  its  larva  constructs  a 


GROUND-BEETLES  AND  WATER-BEETLES. 


555 


Fig.  25.— TIGER- 
BEETLE  (Cicindela, 
Chinensis,  Linn.). 


pitfall  for  other  insects,  very  much  resembling  that  formed  by  an  ant-lion. 
The  perfect  insect  is  bright  green,  with  white  mark- 
ings, and  coppery  legs  and  under-surface.  It  feeds  on 
other  insects,  and  runs  and  flies  in  the  sun  with  great 
activity.  Some  of  the  foreign  species  are  very  handsome. 
Some  genera  frequent  trees.  We  have  figured  a  large 
green  Chinese  species,  C.  C7miensis(Linn.),  with  black  and 
white  markings. 

In  the  Carabidce  the  legs  and  antennse  are  less  slender, 
the  front  tibise  being  sometimes  flattened,  and  often  fur- 
nished with  a  conspicuous  notch  on  each  side,  and  the 
head  is  smaller  and  eyes  less  prominent ;  the  maxillse 
have  no  moveable  hook  at  the  tip.  They  are  much  more 
nocturnal  in  their  habits  than  the  tiger-beetles,  though 
many  species  may  be  met  with  by  day.  The  species  of  the 
typical  genus  Carabus  (Linn.)  are  rather  large  beetles, 
many  of  them  measuring  an  inch  or  more  in  length.  The 
elytra  are  well  developed,  and  moveable,  but  the  wings 
are  absent.  They  are  long  beetles,  of  a  black  or  bronzy 
colour,  and  some  species  are  beautifully  metallic.  One  of  the  most  con- 
spicuous of  these  is  the  golden-green  Carabus  auratus  (Linn.),  a  common 
garden  insect  abroad,  but  rare  in  England,  though  it  is  not 
unfrequently  imported  with  vegetables.  Some  of  the  Ground-Beetles. 
smaller  species  of  this  group — genus  Bembidium,  (Latr.),  etc. 
— are  found  in  marshy  places,  though  they  are  not  quite  aquatic  in  their  habits. 
We  have  figured  Zabrus  gibbus,  a  blackish  insect  half  an  inch  long,  with  red  legs 
and  antennse  ;  which,  contrary  to  the  usual  habit  of  the  family, 
is  destructive  to  growing  corn,  attacking  the  ears  at  night.  The 
Bombardier  beetles,  belonging  to  the  genus  Brachinus  (Weber), 
are  reddish  beetles,  about  one-third  of  an  inch  long,  with  blue- 
black  elytra,  much  broader  than  the  thorax.  They  lurk  under 
stones,  and  when  alarmed,  discharge  an  acid  fluid  which 
volatilises  into  smoke  with  a  slight  explosion. 

Among  the  foreign  Carabidce  the  most  remarkable  is  the 
fiddler  beetle  Mormolyce phyllodes  (Hagenbach),  a  reddish-brown 
beetle,  about  two  inches  in  length,  with  very  broad  elytra.     The 
5US-  shape  of  the  beetle  is  really  something  like  that  of  a  fiddle.     It 
is  a  native  of  Java. 

The  npxt  group,  the  Hydradephaga,  or  water-beetles,  have  the  two  front 
pairs  of  legs  near  together,  and  the  hinder  pair  more  widely  separated,  and 
widened,  flattened,  and  fringed  with  hair,  so  as  to  form  a 
pair  of  oars.     They  are  divided  into  two  main  families,  the        Carnivorous 
Dytiscidce.  and  the   Gyrinidce.      The   species    of  Dytiscus      Water-Beetles. 
(Linn.)  are  large  smooth  or  furrowed  olive-brown  beetles, 
an  inch  in  length,  and  nearly  half  as  broad.     Their  larvse  are  long  white 
grubs,  with  very  strong  jaws,  and  both  the  larvse  and  the  beetles  are  very 
voracious,  destroying  great  numbers  of  water-animals,  and  are  even  very 
destructive  to  fish  fry.     The  beetles  quit  the  water  at  night  and  fly  about, 
returning  to  the  water  for  the  day.     Sometimes  they  will  dash  themselves 
against  a  pane  of  glass,  mistaking  it  for  water.     There  are  numerous  smaller 
species  of  this  family,  more  variegated,  in  their  colours  ;  but  the  Gyrinidce^ 
of  which  there  are  only  a  few  species  in  England,  are  more  likely  to  attract 


Fig.  26.— 


556  INSECTA— ORDER  COLEOPTERA. 


attention  by  their  habit  of  spinning  round  in  circles  on  the  surface  of  the 
water,  which  has  given  them  the  name  of  whirligig  beetles.  They  are  blue- 
black  beetles,  about  one-third  of  an  inch  long,  with  reddish  legs  and  antennae. 
They  have  four  eyes  (each  eye  being  divided  in  two,  an  upper  and  a  lower 
one),  and  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  upper  eyes  are  intended  for  use  in 
the  air,  and  the  lower  ones  for  use  below  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  front 
legs  are  long  and  slender,  but  the  two  hinder  pairs,  as  well  as  the  antenna, 
are  very  short  and  stout. 

The  Brachelytrcu  are  a  very  extensive  family  of  beetles,  distinguished  by 
the  very  short  square-cut  elytra,  which  do  not  nearly  reach  to  the  extremity 
of  the  abdomen,  but  which  cover  the  ample  wings,  which  are  folded  beneath 

them.      They  are  often  called  "Rove-Beetles,"  owing  to 
Rove-Beetles.       some  of  the  larger  species,    such  as  Ocypns  olens  (Linn.) 

being  found  running  about  in  search  of  dung  or  carrion. 
The  beetle  to  which  we  have  referred  is  a  black,  foul-  smelling  beetle  with 
strong  jaws,  which  lifts  up  its  head  and  tail  when  molested,  and  is  known  in 
many  parts  of  the  country  by  the  name  of  the  "  Devil's  Couch-Horse,"  In 


Fig.  tf.-D&l** 

margmalis.  ccesdreiis.  Necrophorus  vespillo. 

Ireland  it  is  regarded  as  a  diabolical  creature,  which  it  is  a  meritorious  action 
to  kill.  We  have  figured  Staphylinus  ccesareus  (Cederh.),  a  black  species  with 
red  legs  and  tegmina,  and  the  thorax  and  segments  of  the  abdomen  partly 
bordered  with  silky  yellow  or  golden  pubescence.  Most  of  the  species  of 
Brachelytra  are  much  smaller  than  either  of  those  just  mentioned.  Their 
habits  are  very  varied.  Many  species  may  be  found  among  moss  or  flowers, 
and  others  again  live  in  ants'  nests. 

The  next  group,  the  Necrophaga  or  Clavicornia,  is  tolerably  numerous  in 
species,  though  less  so  than  the  last,  and  is  chiefly  distinguished  by  the  con- 
spicuous knobs  at  the  end  of  the  antennae.  Most  of  the  species  feed  on 
decaying  animal  or  vegetable  substances  (carrion,  fungi,  etc.),  and  some  of  those 
belonging  to  the  genera  Dermestes  (Linn.),  Anthrenus (Geoffr.),  and  their  allies, 
are  very  destructive  to  hams,  dried  skins,  etc.  Dermestes  lardarius  (Linn. ) 
— the  "Bacon  Beetle") — is  black,  banded  with  grey,  and  spotted  with  black  ; 
it  is  about -a  third  of  an  inch  long.  The  beetle  and  its  hairy  larva  are  too 
familiar  objects  to  many  housekeepers. 

The  burying  beetles,  which  belong  to  this  section,  are  larger  insects,  half 


ROVE-BEETLES  AND  CHAFERS.  557 


an  inch  or  more  in  length,  and  are  black,  with  orange-red  bands  on  the 

elytra.     They  are  remarkable  for  their  habit  of  interring  the  bodies  of  small 

animals,  such  as  mice  or  birds,  which  they  may  find  lying 

about,  by  scooping  out  the  earth  underneath,  dragging  and  Burying-Beetles. 

stamping  them  down,  and  covering  them  up.      The  females 

are  buried  with  the  carcase,  on  which  they  deposit  their  eggs,  and  then  make 

their  way  back  to  the  surface.     We  have  figured  Necrophorus  vespillo  (Linn.), 

one  of  the  commonest  species. 

There  is  a  group  of  beetles  allied  to,  and  sometimes  included  in,  the  Necro- 
phaga,   called,   from   their   aquatic   habits,    the    Philhydrida.       The   largest 
species,  Hydrous  piceus  (Linn.),  is  a  shining  black  beetle, 
longer,  narrower,  and   more   convex   than   the   species  of        WatoMBteetie 
Dytiscus,  from  which  its  short-clubbed  antennae   and  much 
longer  hind  legs  will  at  once  distinguish  it.      It  is  sometimes  called  the 
great  water-beetle. 

The  Lamellicornes  or  chafers  form  a  very  interesting  and  important  group  of 
beetles,  but  are  not  very  numerous  in  Europe.     They  are  distinguished  by 
the    structure    of    their    antennae,    which    are    short,    and 
furnished  at  the  extremity  with  a  series  of  flat  plates,  which          Chafers, 
spread  out  like  a  fan.     They  feed  on  plants  or  dung,  and 
Borne  species  are  very  destructive.     They  are  stout,  round,  or  oblong  beetles 
of  considerable  size.      Many  of  the  species  are  black,  but  others  exhibit 
much  variety  of  colour.     There  are  many  large  species  among  them,  and 
they   are    frequently    furnished   with    great   horns,    largest    in    the    males, 
and  often  assuming  very  strange  shapes,  on  different  parts  of  the  head  and 
thorax. 

The  dung-beetles  or  Scarabceidw   (a  name  sometimes  applied  to  all  the 
Lamellicornes)  are  generally  black   and   shining,  though  sometimes  inclin- 
ing to  greenish  or  purple,  especially  beneath.     They  have 
strongly  toothed    and  flattened    legs   for  digging.      Some     Dung-Beetles. 
species,    like    the    Egyptian    sacred     beetle,   form  pellets 

of  dung  which  they  roll  to  a  suitable  place, 
and  in  this  deposit  their  eggs.  This  insect, 
Scarabceus  sacer(Linn.),  is  common  throughout  the 
Mediterranean  region,  and  is  black,  with  a  broad 
flat  head,  with  a  vertical  spine  in  the  middle,  and 
strongly  dentated  on  the  front  curve.  There  are  a 
number  of  species  of  more  or  less  similar  appear- 
ance and  habits,  several  of  which  are  represented 
on  Egyptian  monuments. 

Our  common  black  dung-beetles  belong  to  the 
genus  Geotrupes  (Fabr).,  and  have  a  much  smaller 
head  than  the  sacred  beetles.  They  fly  in  a 
straight  line  in  the  evening,  as  in  the  time  of 
Shakespeare,  who  speaks  of  the  "shardhorn  beetle 
with  his  drowsy  hum."  They  are  frequently  much 
il1lfested  Wit,h  7mifces-/  The  smaller  dung-beetles  of 
sacert  Linn.).  «"e  genus  Aphodius  (Illiger)  are  more  numerous  in 

species,  and  more  various  in  colour.  They  re- 
semble very  small  cock-chafers  in  appearance,  and  rnay  often  be  seen  flying 
about  dung  in  the  sunshine. 

The  Melolonthidce  include  the  true  cock-chafers,     Our  species,  Melolontha 


558  INSECTA— ORDER  COLEOPTERA. 


vulgaris  and  hippocastani  (Fabr.)  are  about  an  inch  long,  and  are  reddish' 
brown  above,  and  black  beneath,  more  or  less  clothed  with 
Cock -Chafers,     whitish  pubescence  ;  the  abdomen  ends  in  a  blunt  projec- 
tion.    They  are  vety  destructive  insects.     The  larva,  which 
is  called  the  white  grub,  lives  in  the  ground  for  three  years,  feeding  on  the 
roots  of  plants  ;  and  the  beetle  feeds  on  the  leaves  of  trees.     A  similar  but 
smaller  species,  Rhizotrogus  solstitialis  (Linn.),  is  common  in  many  places, 
flying  round  trees  in  the  evening. 

The  Dynastidce  include  the  largest  and  most  strangely-shaped  of  the 
Lamellicornes,  but  they  are  not  British,  though  one  or  two  species  are  found 
in  the  south  of  Europe.  The  larvae  feed,  like  those  of  the  stag-beetles,  in 
the  wood  of  trees.  The  largest  species  are  found  in  South  America,  the  males 

of  the  Her- 
cules beetle, 
T)ynastes  her- 
cules  (Linn.), 
and  one  or  two 
other  species, 
having  a  huge 
horn,  nearly 
as  long  as  the 

Fig.  31.—  HERCULES  BEETLE  (Dynastes  hercules).  rest    of     the 

body,  project- 
ing from  the  front  of  the  thorax,  and  curving  downwards  to  meet  a  similar 
horn  which  projects  from  the  front  of  the  head,  and  curves  upwards.  It  is 
black,  with  greenish-grey  elytra,  and  is  represented  of  half  the  natural  size 
in  the  accompanying  illustration. 

To  the  Cetoniidce  belong  the  great  Goliath  beetles  of  Africa,  probably  the 
bulkiest,   but  not  the   largest  of  all  beetles.     They  are  black,  brown,   or 
reddish,  with  longitudinal  white  bands  on  the  thorax.     Our 
Rose-Chafers,     most  familiar  representative  of  this  family  is  the  rose-chafer, 
Cetonia  aurata  (Linn.),  the  beautiful,  round,  green,  white- 
spotted  beetle  which  we  so  often  find  nestling  in  roses  and  other  flowers. 

The  stag-beetle,  Lucanus  cervus  (Linn.),  is  the  typical  representative  of  the 
important  family  of  the  Lucanidce.     It  is  black,  with  reddish-brown  elytra, 
and  the  large  males  are  often  two  inches  long,  having  very 
Stag-Beetles.      large  branching  mandibles  ;   in  the  females  the  mandibles 
are  comparatively  small.     The  mandibles  of  the  male  of  this 
and  other  species  of  Lucanidce  vary  very  much  in  size  and  in  development, 
but  conform  to  certain  recognised  patterns,  commencing  with  small  males  in 
which  the  mandibles  are  scarcely  more  developed  than  in  the  female,  and 
proceeding  to  the  largest  males,  in  which  the  mandibles  are  very  large  and 
branched.     However,  our  common  stag-beetle  never  attains  the  great  de- 
velopment of  mandibles  which  is  noticed  in  some  allied  East  Indian  species. 
As  already  mentioned,  the  larvae  feed  in  the  wood  of  trees. 

The  Serricornes  are  another  group  of  plant-feeding  beetles,  comprising 
(besides  others)  the  two  important  families  of  Buprestidce.  and  Elatcridw. 
These  are  long  and  narrow  beetles  with  hard  integuments,  and  generally  with 
more  or  less  pectinated  antennae.  The  BupresticUe  have  no  power  of  leaping, 
but  many  of  the  foreign  species  are  remarkable  for  their  brilliant  golden- 
green  colour  ;  and  as  they  often  measure  nearly  two  inches  in  length  they 
form  very  conspicuous  objects  in  collections  of  foreign  insects.  The  British 


STAG-BEETLES,  FIRE-FLIES,  AND  GLOW-WORMS. 


559 


Fig.  32.— THE  FIRE -FLY 
(Pyrophorus  noctilucus,  Linn). 


species  are  not  remarkable,  but  the  larvae  of  the  next  family, 
the  Materidce,  or  click- beetles,  are  too  well  known  to  all  Click-Beetles  and 
agriculturists  as  wire-worms.     The  beetles  are  often  found     Wire-Worms, 
in  corn,  flowers,  etc. ;  they  are  about  half  an  inch  long,  and 
of  various  subdued  colours.     The  hinder  angles  of  the  thorax  are  rather 
pointed,  and  on  the  under-surface  there  is  a  strong  spine  pointing  backwards 
and  fixed  in  a  groove.     If  the  insect  is  placed  on 
its  back  it  bends  its  body,  and  uses  this  apparatus 
to  enable  it  to  leap  up  with  a  clicking  sound. 

Some  of  the  larger  foreign  species  of  ElateridcB 
rival  the  Bupresiidce  in  size  ;  but  though  some^ 
times  green,   rarely   exhibit  the 
same  brilliant  metallic  colouring.        Fire-Flies. 
However,    some    of    the    larger 
species  are  luminous,  the  species  of  Pyrophorus, 
(111.),  being  the  well-known  tire-flies  of  Mexico 
and  the  West  Indies.     Some  of  these  emit  two 
different-coloured  lights    from    different  parts  of 
their  body.      Their  body-colours  are  not  con- 
spicuous ;  the  species  figured,  Pyrophorus  noctilu- 
cus (Linn. ),  is  brown. 

The  Malacodermi  are  another  group,  in  which 
the  form  is  generally  long  and  narrow,  the  integu- 
ments unusually  soft,  the  elytra  being  leathery 
rather  than  horny,  and  the  thorax  often  rounded 
above.     They  are  active  insects,  and  of  carnivorous  habits.     The  most  in- 
teresting beetles  of  this  section  are  the  glow-worms,  in  which 
the  females  are  apterous.     In  our  common  yellowish  green     Glow- Worms, 
glow-worm,  Lampyris  noctiluca  (Linn.),  both  sexes  of  which 
are  here  figured,  the  female,  which  is  apterous,  is  most  luminous ;  and  is 
frequently  noticed  shining  like  a  spark  on  a  grassy  bank 
or  under  a  hedge.     An  allied  species  is  common  on  the 
Continent,  and  may  be  seen  flying  about  in  the  evening 
like  little  sparks  ;  but  the  Italian  fire-fly,  which  is  also 
a  Lampyris,  and  which  is  not  found  north  of  the  Alps, 
is  far  more  brilliant. 

In  almost  all  the  beetles,  which  we  have  hitherto  been 
considering,  the  tarsi  are  five- jointed  on  all  the  legs; 
but  we  now  come  to  the  large  group  of  ffeteromera,  in 
which  the  two  front  pairs  of  legs  have  five- jointed  tarsi, 
but  there  are  only  five  joints  to  the  hind  tarsi.  An- 
other peculiarity  of  this  group  is  that  the  antennae  are  generally  moniliform  ; 
that  is,  consisting  of  a  series  of  rounded  joints  looking  like  a  string  of  beads. 
They  are  generally  of  a  black  colour,  and  many  of  the  species  have  much 
resemblance  to  the  Carabidw,  from  which  either  of  the  characters  mentioned 
will  at  once  distinguish  them. 

The  Heteromera,  though  rather  numerous,  need  not  detain  us  very  long, 
but  we  may  mention  three  or  four  of  the  more  interesting  species.     The 
cellar-beetles,  which  belong  to  the  genus  Blaps,  are  hard, 
wingless  beetles  nearly  an  inch  long,  with  the  body  ending     Cellar-Beetles, 
in  a  point,  and  of  the  colour  of  an  unpolished  boot.     Black 
as  they  are,  they  are  not  the  * '  black-beetles "  of  our  housekeepers,  this 


Fig.  33.         Fig.  34.— 

GLOW-WORMS 

(Lampi/ris  noctiluca, 

Linn.). 


560  INSECTA— ORDER  COLEOPTERA. 


scientific  term  being  reserved  for  the  reddish-brown  cockroaches,  which  do 
not  agree  with  either  the  adjective  or  the  noun. 

Another  beetle  common  in  houses  is  Tenebrio  molitor  (Linn.),  a  narrow,  dark 

brown  beetle  about  half  an  inch  in  length,  which  is  better  known  in  its  larval 

state  as  the  meal-worm.     Out  of  doors  the  oil-beetles,  of  the 

Meal  Worms  and  genus  Meloe  (Linn.),  are  familiar  objects,  and  can  hardly  be 

Oil-Beetles.       mistaken  for  anything  else.     They  are  large,  soft,  sluggish, 

blue-black  beetles,   with  short,   soft,   and  perfectly  useless 

elytra,  and  are  found  clinging  to  blades  of  grass.     Their  transformations  are 

extremely  remarkable,  for  they  pass  their  early  stages  in  bees'  nests,  and 

undergo  two  or  three  transformations  into  larvae  and  pupae  before  assuming 

the  perfect  state,  which  even  then  is  sufficiently  incomplete,  as  they  never 

develop  wings,  except  in  the  rudimentary  form  above  described. 

The  blister-beetle,  Cantharis  vesicatoria  (Linn.),  is  too  well-known  to  need 

description.     It  is  found  in  the  south  of  England,  but  is  too  rare  with  us  to 

be  of  any  commercial  value  ;  the  chief  supply  comes  from 

Blister-Beetles.    Southern  Europe.     An  ash  tree  loaded  with  these  beautiful 

metallic  green  beetles  is  a  splendid  sight  in  the  sunshine. 

Mylabris  (Fabr.)  is  a  rather  large  genus  of  Heteromera,  the  species  of  which 

are  used  for  blistering  purposes  in  some  countries,  but  it  is  not  represented 

in  Britain.     They  are  black  beetles,  with  yellow  or  tawny  spots  and  bands. 

The  Rhynchophvra,  or  weevils,  are  a  very  large  group  of  beetles,  which 

may  easily  be    distinguished  by  the   apparently  four- jointed   tarsi  on   all 

the  legs  ;  by  their  very  hard  integuments,  and  by  the  struc- 

WeevUs.          ture  of  their  head  and  antennae.      The  head  is  produced 

into  a  long  snout,  towards  the  end  of  which 
the  short,  angulated,  and  generally  clubbed  antennas  project 
on   each   side.      Most  of   our   British   species  are    of  small          \ 
size  ;   but  among  the  foreign   beetles  we  find  the  large  and 
'  beautiful  metallic  green  diamond-beetles,  and 
Diamond-        the  palm-weevil  of  the  West  Indies,  a  large 
Beetles.          reddish-brown   beetle    an    inch    and    a    half 
long,  the  wood-feeding  grub  of  which  is  con- 
sidered a  great  delicacy.     The  nut-weevil,  Balaninus  nucum 
(Linn.),  is  a  small  brown  beetle,  with  the  elytra  varied  with 
grey.     It  is  about  §  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  is  represented 
somewhat  above  natural  size  in  the  accompanying  wood-cut. 
It  exhibits  the  peculiar  structure  of  the  rostrum  and  antennas     nucum,  Linn.), 
very  typically.     The  Scolytidce  have  the  head  less  prolonged 
than  usual  among  the  weevils,  and  are  extremely  destructive  to  trees,  eating 
galleries  through  the  wood  in  all  directions. 

The  Longicornes,  or  long-horned  beetles,  are  an  extensive  group,  with  ap- 
parently four- jointed  tarsi,  long  slender  antennas,  often  as  long  and  sometimes 
many  times  longer  than  the  body  ;  not  clubbed  at  the  ex- 
Long-Horned      tremity,  but  with  along  and  thick  basal  joint.     The  eyes  are 
Beetles.          generally  more  or  less  constricted  in  the  middle,  at  least  011 
one  side,  and  are  sometimes  completely  divided,  as  in  the 
Gyrinidce.      They  are  generally  insects  of  large  size  with  long  bodies,  and 
their  larvas  feed  in  the  wood  of  trees.     They  are  very  numerous  in  warm 
climates;  but  most  of  our  British  species  are  either  of  small  size,  or  are  scarce. 
Others,  which  are  not  considered  indigenous,  are  frequently  imported  into 
England  with  timber.     One  of  the  commonest  and  most  beautiful  of  our 


LONG-HORNED  AND  PLANT-FEEDING  BEETLES. 


561 


larger  species  is  the  musk-beetle  Aromia  moschata  (Linn.),  which  is  common 
in  most  parts  of  the  country,  and  is  often  found  resting  on  the  trunks  of 
willows,  in  which  the  larvse  feed,  in  the  daytime.  It  exhales  a  strong  but 
agreeable  odour,  contrary  to  the  habit  of  most  other  beetles,  many  of  which 
discharge  an  extremely  offensive  liquid  when  touched.  It  is  of  a  bright 
green  colour,  and  often  exceeds  an  inch  in  length. 

This  species  belongs  to  the  Cerambycidce,  the  typical  family  of  the  Longi- 
cornes ;  but  the  largest  and  bulkiest  species  belong  to  the  Prionidce,  which 

are  brown  or  reddish-brown  beetles  fre- 
quently three  inches  long.  Our  single 
native  species,  Prionus  coriarius  (Linn.),  is 
rather  scarce.  It  is  about  the  length  of  the 
musk-beetle,  but  much  stouter,  and  of  a 
brown  colour.  We  have  figured  both  sexes 
of  Acanthocinus  cedilis  (Linn.),  which  has 
longer  antennae  in  the  .male  than  any  other 
British  species.  It  is  rather  scarce  with  us, 
being  found  chiefly  at  Rannoch,  in  Scotland, 
in  the  pine  forests.  It  is  reddish-brown  with 
grey  pubescence,  and  four  yellowish  spots  on 
the  thorax.  It  belongs  to  the  family  of  the 
Lamiidw,  which  is  distinguished  by  the  large 
head,  and  almost  vertical  face. 

The  last  group  of  the  beetles  with  appar- 
ently four  joints  to  the  tarsi  is  that  of  the 
Phytophaga,  or  plant-feed- 
ing beetles  par  excellence.      Plant-Feeding 
They  are    round    or    oval          Beetles, 
beetles,  of  small  or  moder- 
ate size,  and  of  various  colours,  many  being 
of  a  brilliant  green.     The  antennae  are  gen- 
erally rather  short,  and  not  elbowed,  or  set 
on  a  rostrum,  and  this  alone  will  generally 
distinguish  them  from  the  beetles  of  the  two  preceding  groups. 

This  group    includes    several    very  injurious    species,  among  others   the 
Colorado   potato-beetle,    and   the    turnip-beetles.       The    Colorado  Potato- 
beetle,  Leptinotarsa   decemlineata  (Say),  is  a  native  of  the 
Western  States  of  America.     It  is  about  half  an  inch  long,          Colorado 
and  of  a  yellowish  colour,  with  eighteen  black  spots  on  the     Potato-Beetle. 
thorax,  and  ten  black  stripes  on  the  wing-cases  ;  the  larva  is 
red,  spotted  with  black.     Our  figure  is  somewhat  above  natural  size.     Some 
years  ago  this  beetle  began  to  spread  eastwards  from  its 
haunts  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  where  it  used  to  feed  on 
a  wild  species  of  potato  ;  and  to   attack   the  cultivated 
plant.     It  soon  spread  over  the  whole  of  the  United  States, 
and  there  is  no  efficient  way  of  arresting  its  ravages  but 
by  the  free  use  of  ' '  Paris  Green, "  a  dangerous  compound 
of  arsenic.       Great  fears  were    expressed  lest  it  should 
spread  to  Europe,  and  special  measures  were  taken  by  all 
the  principal  Governments  to  guard  against  its  invasion. 
Nevertheless,  in  addition  to  a  few  isolated  instances  of  its 
occurrence  in  various  countries,  a  whole  colony  was  dis- 
37 


Figs.  36,  37. — Acanthocinus  cedilis, 
Linn. 


Fifj.  38. — COLORADO 

B  E  ETL  ^(Leptinotarsa, 

decemlineata,  Say). 


562        INSECT  A— ORDERS  COLEOPTERA  AND  ORTHOPTERA. 


covered  many  miles  from  the  sea-coast  in  some  potato  fields  at  Miilheim-on- 
Rhine,  nearly  opposite  Cologne.  The  fields  were  at  once  ploughed  up,  drenched 
with  petroleum  and  burned  over;  and  the  pest  was  fortunately  stamped  out. 
The  scare  has  now  subsided,  but  it  is  all  the  more  necessary  for  us  to  be  pre- 
pared to  take  equally  prompt  and  energetic  measures  if  the  Colorado  beetle 
should  happen  to  make  its  appearance  among  us,  as  is  always  possible 
enough,  perhaps  at  some  out-of-the-way  place  where  it  is  least  expected. 

Among  the  largest  and  most  conspicuous  of  the  foreign  species  of  this 
group  are  the  species  of  the  genus  Sagra  (Fabr.),  which  are  found  in  the  East 

Indies  and  Africa.  They  are  long,  smooth 
Turnip-Beetles,  beetles,  of  a  brilliant  green  colour,  sometimes 
varied  with  coppery  red,  or  purple,  and  the 
hind  femora  are  of  very  large  size,  being  constructed  for 
leaping.  These  beetles  are  an  inch  long,  but  the  destruc- 
tive turnip-beetles,  belonging. to  the  genus  Phyllotreta  (Latr.^, 
have  also  thickened  hind  femora,  and  skip  about  like  fleas. 
They  are  oval,  and  less  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length. 
The  elytra  are  bronzy  black,  and  marked  with  a  yellow  stripe.  yj'J:  ®>.—Phyi 
They  are  often  called  "Turnip  Flies,"  but  turnip  flea- 
beetles  would  be  a  more  appropriate  term.  Our  figure 
of  Phyllotreta  nemorum  (Linn.)  is  somewhat  above  natural  size. 

The  last  of  the  great  group  of  beetles  are  the  Pseudotrimera,  which  are 

small  species,  distinguished  by  having  only  three  visible  joints  to  the  tarsi. 

The  best  known  of  these  are  the  lady-birds  (Coccinellidcz). 

Lady-Birds.  of  which  there  are  a  considerable  number 
in  England.  They  are  small  round  beetles, 
and  the  elytra  are  mostly  red  with  black  spots,  or  black 
with  red  or  yellow  spots.  The  head  and  thorax  are  black 
with  white  markings.  They  are  very  useful  insects,  for 
they  are  carnivorous,  and  destroy  large  numbers  of  Aphides, 
or  plant-lice. 

We  have  figured  the  typical  form  of  one  of  the  commonest 
species,  Coccinella  bipunctata  (Linn.),  slightly  magnified.     It 
is  very  variable,  and  the  elytra  are  sometimes  almost  black,      ~  ^bipunctata). 
instead  of  being  red,  with  a  black  spot  on  each,  as  in  our  figure. 

Other  families  of  this  group  are  the  Trichopterygidce,  the  smallest  of  all 
beetles,  and  if  we  except  some  of  the  egg-parasites  among  the  Hymenoptera, 
almost  the  smallest  insects  known.  They  are  little  black  beetles,  with 
long,  slender,  clubbed  antennae,  and  are  found  among  decaying  vegetable 
refuse. 

Other  species  belonging  to  the  Pseudotrimera  are  found  in  fungi,  and 
others,  again,  inhabit  ants'  nests,  where,  it  has  been  suggested,  they  may  be 
preserved  as  pets. 


ORDER  ORTHOPTERA  (CRICKETS,  LOCUSTS,  ETC.). 

The  Order  Orkhoptera,  or  straight- winged  insects,  includes  the  earwigs,  cock- 
roaches, crickets,  grasshoppers,  locusts,  etc.  These  are  all  insects  with 
strong  jaws,  instead  of  a  proboscis,  and  differ  from  the  other  mandibulate 
orders  by  the  fore-wings  (which  are  called  in  Orthoptera  not  elytra,  but 
tegmina)  being  generally  of  a  different  consistency  to  the  others  throughout, 


TURNIP-BEETLES,  LADYBIRDS,  AND  EARWIGS.  563 


and  leathery,  rather  than  horny,  as  in  the  Coleoptera.  They  also  differ  from 
the  Coleoptera  in  the  hind-wings  being  folded  lengthwise,  and  not  doubled 
back  at  the  tips,  except  in  the  earwigs  and  cockroaches,  which  some  authors 
consider  to  form  two  separate  orders,  distinct  from  the  Orthoptera. 

In  the  Orthoptera  the  metamorphosis  is  incomplete,  there  being  no  inactive 
pupa-state.  The  larva  resembles  the  perfect  insect,  except  in  size,  and  in 
the  absence  of  wings.  During  the  period  which  elapses  be- 
tween the  last  two  moults,  the  insect  possesses  short  wing  Metamorphoses, 
cases  which  enclose  the  undeveloped  wings,  and  this  stage  is 
considered  to  correspond  to  the  pupa-state  of  insects  with  complete  metamor- 
phoses. The  insect  is,  however,  as  active  and  voracious  as  in  the  larva  state, 
and  is  frequently  termed  a  "  nymph  "  by  those  who  restrict  the  term  "  pupa  " 
to  insects  with  complete  metamorphoses.  In  the  perfect  insect  the  antennae 
are  usually  slender,  with  well-marked  joints,  and  are  sometimes  of  great 
length. 

The  bulk  of  the  Orthoptera  are  plant-feeding  insects,  but  the  Mantidfe,  or 
praying  insects,  are  carnivorous,  and  the  earwigs  and  cockroaches  will  eat 
decaying   animal    as   well    as   vegetable    substances.      This 
order  contains  no  parasitic  insects,  and  scarcely  any  which          Habits, 
are   directly  harmful   to  man,  but  the  economic  injury  oc- 
casionally caused  by  locusts  in   many  countries  probably  far  exceeds  that 
due   to  the  ravages  of  all  other  insects   put   together.      These  insects  are 
generally  voracious  in  all  their  stages  after  leaving  the  egg. 

The  Orthoptera  are  one  of  the  least  numerous  orders  of  insects  in  species, 
though  most  abundant  in  individuals,  and  are  very  poorly  represented 
in  cold  countries.  In  England  we  have  only  about  sixty  species,  including 
casual  visitors,  and  introduced  species. 

The  Forficididce,  or  earwigs,  much  resemb±e  the  Staphylinidce  among  the 
Coleoptera,  and  were  actually  included  in  the  Coleoptera  by  Linnaeus.     Their 
tegmina   are  very  short,  and  the   large   transparent  wings 
are   folded  beneath  them,  so  as  to  be  quite  invisible  when         Earwigs 
closed,  except  the  projecting  tips  of  the  opaque  part  of  the     (ForficulidcK). 
costa,  which  are  of  about  the  same  colour  and  consistency  as 
the  tegmina.     At  the  end  of  the  body  there  is  always  a  peculiar  appendage 
like  a  forceps,  which  is  more  developed  in  the  male  than  in  the  female,  and 
which  is  said  to  be  used  for  folding  and  unfolding  the  wings.     Many  species, 
however,  are  apterous,  and  others,  though  provided  with  ample  wings,  are 
never  seen  to  fly,  though  they  may  possibly  use  them  only  in 
the    darkness    of    night  ;    others,    however    (chiefly    small 
species)   fly   about    by  day.     They  are  fond   of    concealing 
themselves  in  any  sort  of   crevice,  and  some  -flowers,  such 
as   dahlias   and   sunflowers,    are   greatly  infested  by  them. 
They  have  sometimes  been  known  to  creep  into  the  human 
ear,   and  there  is  no  doubt  that   their  popular   name  has 
originated  in  this  manner.     They  are  generally  dull  reddish - 
brown,  unattractive-looking  insects,  though  one  or  two  East 
Indian  species  are  of  a  rich  purple.     They  measure  from  half 
an  inch  to  rather  over  an  inch  in  length  ;  the  antennae  are         (Anisoiabi 
generally  of  moderate  length,  and  the  legs  are  short.     We         maritima). 
have  figured  a  brown,  apterous  species,  which  has  been  in- 
troduced into  most  parts  of  the  world,  and  is  occasionally  found  in  England. 

The  Blattidoe,  or  cockroaches,  are  another  very  isolated  group.     These  are 


564 


INSECT  A— ORDER  ORTHOPTERA. 


oval  insects,  generally  more  or  less  flat,  with  a  round  or  oval  thorax,  under 
which  the  small  head  is  often  quite  hidden.  The  antennae 
Cockroaches  are  slender,  and  moderately  long,  and  the  legs  are 
(Blattidai).  very  spiny.  Many  species  are  apterous,  at  least  in  the 
females  ;  but  the  majority  are  winged,  the  wing-cases  being 
of  a  parchment-like  consistency,  and  generally  more  or  less  overlapping ; 
the  wings  are  transparent.  They  are  nocturnal  insects,  feeding  chiefly  on 
decaying  vegetable  matter  ;  but  many  are  carnivorous,  our  domestic  species 
being  particularly  fond  of  bed-bugs.  The  eggs  are  deposited  in  a  capsule, 
and  the  female  may  often  be  seen  running  about  with  the  capsule  pro- 
jecting from  her  body.  They  are  nearly  always  of  dull  colours,  such  as 
grey,  reddish-brown,  or  black.  Three  species  commonly  infest  our  houses, 
all  of  which  appear  to  have  been  imported  insects,  like  most  of  our  house- 
hold pests.  The  first  and  smallest  of  these  is  Phyllodromia  germanica 
(Linn.),  a  pale  brown,  winged  insect,  about  half  an  inch  long.  It  is  sometimes 
found  in  bakeries.  The  female  is  said  to  open  the  egg-case  to  allow  of  the 
escape  of  the  young.  In  America,  where  it  is  much  commoner  than  with  us, 
it  is  called  the  croton  bug,  and  is  said  to  frequent  the  neighbourhood  of 
water-pipes.  Our  common  cockroach,  Blatta  orientalis  (Linn.),  a  reddish- 
brown  insect,  with  fully  developed  wings  in  the  male,  but  only  rudimentary 
wings  in  the  female,  is  generally  called  "the  black  beetle,"  though  it  is 

neither  black  nor  a  beetle.  An- 
other species,  Periplaneta  ameri- 
cana  (Fabr.),  which  is  winged  in 
both  sexes,  is  redder  ;  the  thorax 
is  yellowish-grey,  with  a  large  black 
mark  in  the  centre  ;  it  expands 
nearly  two  inches  across  the  wings, 
and  is  not  uncommon  in  ware- 
houses. Cockroaches  of  various 
species  abound  on  board  ship  ;  and 
apart  from  one  or  two  small  in- 
digenous species  (found  not  in 
houses,  but  in  woods  and  fields), 
many  others,  besides  those  which 
we  have  mentioned,  may  be  met 
with  in  the  docks,  and  elsewhere, 
some  of  which  may  perhaps  succeed 
in  establishing  themselves  in  this 
country.  Even  specimens  belong- 
ing to  the  genus  Blaberus  (Serville), 
which  includes  the  great  broad- 
winged  species  called  "drummers" 
in  the  West  Indies,  have  been 
met  with  occasionally.  These  are 
yellowish -grey,  with  a  large  black 
mark  on  the  middle  of  the  thorax, 
and  measure  at  least  three  inches 

across  the  win^s  :  but  the  largest 

Fig.  42.— DRUMMER  COCKROACH  (Blaberus  f    „  .,  ,  u       v,  i  *v,<* 

giganteus,  Linn.).  of  all  the  cockroaches  belong  to  the 

genus  Megaloblatta  (Dohrn),  found 
in  Mexico  and  South  America.     They  have  longer  and  narrower  wings  in 


CO  CKROA  CUES  AND  PR  A  YING.  INSECTS.  565 


proportion  than  Blaberus,  measuring  fully  six  inches  in  expanse,  and  are 
of  a  dark  reddish-brown  colour. 

The  late  Mr.  H.  N.   Moseley,   in  his   "Notes   of  a  Naturalist  on  the 
Challenger ''  (pp.  592,  593),  gives  the  following  amusing  account  of  the  cock- 
roaches on  board  ship  : — '*  The  first  cockroaches  apparently 
came  on  board  at  St.  Vincent,  Cape  Verdes,  for  a  large  one    Cockroaches  on 
of  these  insects  was  caught  by  one  of  the  lieutenants  on  his    the  Challenger. 
bed  soon  after  we  left  that  port.     Cockroaches  soon  became 
plentiful  on  board,  and  showed  themselves  whenever  the  ship  was  in  a  warm 
climate.     A  special  haunt  of  a  swarm  of  them  was  behind  the  books  in  the 
chemical  laboratory,  from  which  Mr.  Buchanan  in  vain  attempted  to  evict 
them.     At  one  period  of  the  voyage,  a  number  of  these  insects  established 
themselves  in  my  cabin,  and  devoured  parts  of  my  boots,  nibbling  off  all  the 
margins  of  leather  projecting  beyond  the  seams  on  the  upper  leather.     One 
huge  winged  cockroach  baffled  me  in  my  attempts  to  get  rid  of  him  for  a  long 
tpne.     I  could  not  discover  his  retreat.     At  night  he  came  out  and  rested  on 
my  book-shelf  at  the  foot  of  my  bed,  swaying  his  antennae  to  and  fro,  and 
watching  me  closely.     If  I  reached  out  my  hand  from  bed  to  get  a  stick,  or 
raised  my  book  to  throw  it  at  him,  he  dropped  at  once  on  the  deck,  and  was 
forthwith  out  of  harm's  way.     He  bothered  me  much,  because,  when  my 
light  was  out,'  he  had  a  familiar 
habit  of  coming  to  sip  the  moisture 
from  my  face  and  lips,  which  was 
decidedly  unpleasant,   and   awoke 
me  often  from  a  doze.     I  believe 
it  was   with   this   object   that   he 
watched  me  before  I  went  to  sleep. 
I  often  had  a  shot  at  him  with  a 
book  or  other  missile  as  he  sat  on 
the    book-shelf ;    but    he    always 
dodged  and  escaped.     His  quick- 
ness and   agility  astonished    me. 
At  last  I  triumphed,  by  adopting  **•  ^.-Mantis  religiosa. 

the  advice  of  Captain  Maclean,  and 

shooting  him  with  a  pellet  of  paper  from  my  air-gun,  a  mode  of  attack  for 
which  he  was  evidently  unprepared  ;  but  I  was  taken  to  task  for  discharging 
the  air-gun  in  my  cabin,  because  it  made  a  noise  just  like  the  sharp  crack 
of  a  spar  when  broken  by  the  force  of  the  breeze,  and  created  some  excite- 
ment on  the  upper  deck,  where  the  sound  was  plainly  heard." 

Turning  now  to  the  more  typical  Orthoptera,  we  commence  with  the  Mantidce. 
or  praying  insects,  which  are  not  British,  though  one  or  two  species  are 
common  in  Southern  Europe.     They  are  generally  green, 
yellow,  or  brown  (very  rarely  blue),  with  ample  wings,  which    Praying  Insects 
are  generally  transparent;  the  tegmina  are  likewise  broad,        (Mantidce). 
and  are  opaque,  at  least  along  the  costa.     They  are  usually 
insects  with  long  slender  bodies  and  slender  legs  ;  the  front  pair  of  legs, 
however,  is  large  and  strong,  and  the  lower  surface  of  the  tibia  is  furnished 
with  a  row  of  very  strong  curved  spines,  which  close  against  the  femora, 
which  are  also  sometimes  denticulated  or  knobbed.     They  are  carnivorous 
and  very  predatory  insects,  and  usually  sit  with  the  forepart  of  the  body  and 
the  fore-legs  raised  on  the  watch  for  prey.     This  position  has  caused  them 
to  be  looked  upon  with  superstitious  reverence  ;  and  it  was  said  that  if 


566 


INSECTA— ORDER  ORTHOPTERA. 


(Phasmidw). 


children  had  lost  their  way  they  had  only  to  ask  a  Mantis,  which  would  im- 
mediately extend  one  of  its  front  legs  in  the  desired  direction.  Some  idea 
of  their  real  propensities,  however,  may  be  gathered  from  the  following  anec- 
dote :  A  male  and  female  Mantis  were  once  observed  courting,  when  the 
female  suddenly  chopped  off  the  head  of  her  mate  and  devoured  it.  This 
incident  was  followed  by  their  union,  after  which  the  female  devoured  the 
body  of  her  unfortunate  partner.  But  it  should  be  mentioned  that  in  most 
insects  (subject,  however,  to  exceptions)  the  female  is  much  larger  and,  as  a 
rule,  less  brightly  coloured  than  the  male.  We  have  figured  a  green 
European  species  of  Mantis.  (Fig.  43.) 

The  Phasmidce  are  another  group  of  Orthoptera,  which  are  wholly  unre- 
presented in  England,  though  a  few  small  species  belonging  to  the  typical 
genus  Pheuma  (Illiger)  are  found  on  the  northern  shores  of 
Stick  Insects      the  Mediterranean.     These  are  apterous  insects,  about  two 
or  three  inches  long,  and  with  short  antennae,  though  the 
generic  name  is  frequently  misapplied  to  a  South  American 
genus  with  long  antennae,  and  large,  brightly-coloured  wings.    The  PhasmicUe, 
or  stick  insects,  have  long  slender  legs  and  bodies,  and  are  exclusively  vege- 
table feeders.     Although  the  legs  are  spiny  in  many  species,  they  are  not 
raptorial,  as  in  the  Mautidw.     A  great  number  of  species  are  apterous,  and 
of  a  brown  or  yellowish  colour,  perfectly  resembling 
pieces  of  dead  stick  in  appearance.     The  largest 
insect  known  is  a  species  from  Borneo,  Phrygan- 
istria,  serratipes  (Gray),  the  female  of  which  mea- 
sures more  than  a  foot  in  length.     Other  apterous 
species,  about  nine  inches  long,  and  half  an  inch 
broad,  are  flattened  rather  than  rounded,  and  are 
of  a  green  colour,  perfectly  resembling  shoots  of 
bamboo.     In  the  winged  Phasmidce  the  tegmina 
are  always  very  short,  and  frequently  scale-like; 
but   the   wings  are   often   very  ample,    and  are 
thickened    along   the    costal    area,    which    really 
answers  the  purpose  of  tegmina  in  protecting  the 
delicate  fan-like  wings.     Many  of  the  Australian 
Phasmidce  measure   six  or   seven    inches   in  ex- 
panse, and  are  most  beautiful  insects,  with  large 
pink,  blue,  or  green  wings.     There  is  a  smaller 
green  species  in  the    Pacific   Islands,  Lopaphus 
cocophages(N&wp.\  about  five  inches  long,  which 
is  extremely  destructive    to   the  cocoanut  trees. 
It  has  odd  little  rudimentary  red  wings  not  more 
than  an  inch  long  ;  and  shares  with  other  species 
of  Phasmidke  the  habit  of  ejecting  a  disagreeable 
fluid  when  alarmed.     This  particular  insect  is  said 
to  be  able  to  shoot  it  a  distance  of  five  feet,  and 
the  fluid  is  so  acrid  that  it  is  liable  to  cause  blindness  if  it  reaches  the  eyes. 

The  next  family,   the  Gryllidce,   or  crickets,   agrees  with  the   remaining 

groups  in  having  the  hind  femora  much  thickened,  and  adapted  for  leaping. 

The  antennae  are  long  and  slender,  the  tegmina  rest  flat  on 

Crickets          the  back,  and  are  frequently  curved  downwards  at  the  sides, 

(Cryllidai).        but  are  never  roof  -like,  and  the  head  is  large  and  vertical, 

with  prominent  eyes.     The  legs  are  generally  strongly  spined, 


Fig.  44.— STICK  INSECT 

Lopaphus  cocophayes).     ^  Nat. 

size. 


STICK-INSECTS,  CRICKETS,  AND  GRASSHOPPERS.  567 


and  the  ovipositor  of  the  female  is  short  and  straight.  In  the  male  the 
tegmina  are  differently  formed  from  the  female,  exhibiting  a  bare  space 
covered  by  strong  veins,  which  are  roughened  beneath  like  a  file,  so  as  to 
produce  a  chirping  sound  when  the  tegmina  are  rubbed  over  one  another. 
The  females  are  mute,  as  in  most  other  Orthopterous  insects. 

We  have  tlwee  conspicuous  kinds  of  crickets  in  this  country,  of  which  the 
best  known  is  the  pale  brown  house-cricket,  Gryllus  domesticus  (Linn. ).     It 
is  very  similar  in  its  habits  to  the  cockroach,  but  is  a  much  less  disgusting 
insect,  both  in  appearance,  and  because  it  does  not  possess  the  foul  odour  of 
the  cockroach.     It  is,  however,  a  destructive  insect,  and  is  very  fond  of  mois- 
ture;   and  this  is  the  reason  why  it  sometimes  eats  holes  in   wet  clothes 
left  hanging  at  the  fire  to  dry  during   the  night; 
though  1  have  sometimes  heard  that  "  it  was  out  of 
spite  against  the  maid,  who  was  in  the  habit  of  killing 
them."     Many  persons  have  a  superstitious  dislike 
to  injure  crickets  ;  and  I  lately  heard  of  an  attack  of 
toothache  being  attributed  to  the  murder  of  a  cricket. 
The  field-cricket,  Acheta  campestris  (Linn.),  is  rather 
larger  and  stouter  than  the  house-cricket,  and  is  of 
a  nearly  black  colour,  except  the  tegmina,  which  are 
brown.     It  is  a  very  destructive  insect,  feeding  on 
the  roots  of  plants;  but  has  become  exterminated  by 
cultivation,  and  is  now  very  rare  in  England,  though 
it  and  several  other  closely-allied  species  are  abundant 
in  most  parts  of  the  world.   The  mole-cricket,  Ctirtilla 
gryllotalpa  (Linn.),  is  a  brown  insect  two  inches  long, 
which  represents  a  small  section  of  crickets  in  which 
the  front  legs  are  very  broad  and  flat,  resembling       Fi    ^  —FIELD-CRICKET 
those  of  a  mole,  and  are  used  for  burrowing  in  a          (Acheta  campestris). 
similar  manner.     It  does  much  mischief  by  destroy- 
ing the  roots  of  plants,  and  is  a  common  insect,  though  seldom  seen  above 
ground. 

The  Phasgonuridce,    or    long  -  horned   grasshoppers,    are    a  large    group 
divided  into  numerous  sub-families,  which  resemble  the  crickets  in  many 
respects,  having  large  heads  which  frequently  slope  inwards 
and   downwards,    and   long   or  very  long    antennae.      The      Long-Horned 
tegmina,  however,  are  generally  roof -like,  and  the  colour  is     Grasshoppers 
most  frequently  green,  though  sometimes  brown.     The  ovi-  (Phasgonuridce.) 
positor  of  the  female  is  long,  compressed,  and  curved  up- 
wards at  the  end.     The  legs  are  generally  less  strongly  spined  than  in  the 
crickets.     The  typical  species  of  this  family  is  known  as  the  Great  Green 
Grasshopper,  arid  is  not  uncommon  in  the  south  of  England,  where  it  can 
easily  be  recognised   by  its  large  size  (three  inches  or  more  in  expanse  of 
wing),  bright  green  colour,  very  long  antennae,  and  in  the  female  its  long 
ovipositor.     Some  of  the  North  American  species  of  this  family  are  called 
"Katydids."  their  chirping  having  been  read  into  the  words,   "Katy  did, 
Katy  did,  Katy  didn't,  she  did,  she  didn't,"  and  sojon. 

Some  insects  belonging  to  foreign  sub-families  of  this  group  are  of  very 
large  size,  measuring  six  or  eight  inches  in  expanse  ;  and  some  are  remarkable 
for  their  broad  flattened  thorax,  or  for  their  disproportionately  long  hind 
legs.  Others,  which  are  found  in  the  deserts  of  Africa,  are  bulky  apterous 
insects,  on  the  large  fore  -  legs  of  which  the  curious  auditory  organs 


568       INSECT  A— ORDERS  ORTHOPTERA  AND  NEUROPTERA. 


Locusts  and 
Grasshoppers 

(Locustidce). 


which  many  Orthopterous  insects   possess   in  this  odd   situation   are   very 
conspicuous,  opening  either  in  a  large  oval  depression,  or  in  a  mere  slit. 
The  last  family  of  the  Orthoptera,  the  Locustidce,  which  comprises  the  true 
locusts  and  grasshoppers,  may  be  distinguished  at  once  by  the  short  antennae. 
The  ovipositor  is  inconspicuous,  and  the  hind  legs  are  long 
and  slender,  the  hind  tibiae  being  generally  fucnished  with  a 
double  row  of  spines  above.     Our  common  grasshoppers  leap 
rather  than  fly,  but  the  locusts,  some  of  which  visit  us  occa- 
sionally, though  they  probably  never  breed  here,  are  very 
strong  on  the  wing.     The  body  and  tegmina  are  generally  brown,  but  the  wings 
are  often  red,  blue  or  green.     The  most  destructive  species  in  Asia  and  Africa 
are  about  five  or  six  inches  in  expanse  ;  but  the  largest  South  American 

locusts  measure  nearly  a  foot  across 
the  tegmina.  In  some  of  the  earlier 
sub-families,  the  antennae  are  very 
broad  and  flattened,  but  in  the  more 
typical  species  they  are  cylindrical. 
These  chiefly  inhabit  the  warmer  parts 
of  Asia  and  Africa.  Destructive  lo- 
custs are  not  always  large ;  for  in- 
stance, those  which  ravage  Cyprus  and 
the  United  States  are  small  species, 
not  expanding  "more  than  a  couple  of 
inches  across  the  wings.  Species  of 
about  the  same  size,  with  blue  and 
red  wings,  are  common  on  the  Conti- 
nent, in  pine  forests,  and  vineyards, 
etc. ;  and  the  blue-winged  grasshopper, 
(Edlpoda  ccerulescens  (Linn.),  is  said  to  be  sometimes  found  in  England. 

Locusts  are  equally  destructive  in  all  their  stages  after  quitting  the  egg,  for 
the  young  locusts  can  leap,  though  not  fly,  and  they  advance  across  the  country 
in  vast  hordes  in  this  manner,  before  they  acquire  their  wings,  and  they  have  no 
quiescent  pupa  stage.  No  one  can  form  any  conception  of  the  meaning  of  an 
invasion  of  locusts  who  has  not  actually  seen  one  ;  and  at  present,  schemes 
are  in  progress  for  checking  their  ravages  in  Natal  by  the  use  of  specially 
constructed  guns  and  mortars,  in  addition  to  other  means.  In  America  and 
Australia  the  term  "locust"  is  frequently  but  improperly  applied  to  the  Cka- 
didce,  which  belong  to  quite  a  different  order  of  insects. 


Fig.  46.— BLUE-WINGED  GRASSHOPPER 
(CEdipoda  ccerulescens). 


ORDER  NEUROPTERA  (LACE-WINGED  INSECTS). 

Linnaeus  applied  the  term  Neuroplera,  or  Nerve-wings,  to  an  Order  in- 
cluding a  number  of  conspicuous  insects  of  rather  large  size.  They  have  strong 
jaws,  four  wings,  similar  in  texture,  and  generally  covered  with  a  network 
of  very  numerous  nervures ;  incomplete  metamorphoses,  and  carnivorous 
habits. 

Several  very  discordant  groups  are  included  under  the  term  Neuroptera  ; 
and  although  we  have  treated  of  the  Trichoptera,  Mallophaga,  Thysanura^ 


GRASSHOPPERS,  LOCUSTS,  AND  DRAGONFLIES. 


569 


and  Collembola  separately,  many  groups  besides  these  are  regarded  by  some 
authors  as  forming  distinct  orders. 

Although  the  size  and  importance  of  the  dragonflies  indicate  them  as  the 
true  types  of  the  Linnean  Neuroptera,  yet  they  have  sometimes  been  united 
with  the  Orthoptera  under  the  absurd  term  Pseudo-ncurop- 
tera.     But  the  dissimilarity  of  their  wings  is  quite  sufficient       Dragonflies 
to  preclude  their  being  classed  in  the  same  order  as  the        (Odonata). 
Orthoptera  ;   while  if  they  were,  the  name  Orthoptera  would 
have  to  be  abolished,  being  of  post-Linnean  date,  and  its  contents  transferred 
to  the  Neuroptera.     The  dragonflies  are  frequently  called  Odonata. 

They  are  generally  slender-bodied  insects,  with  long,   moderately  broad 
wings,  and  a  large  head,  the  greater  part  of  which,  however,  is  occupied  by 
the  two  large  compound  eyes.     Their  wings  are  generally 
colourless,  but  in  some  species  are  very  brightly  coloured,  in  Metamorphoses, 
whole,  or  in  part,  with  iridescent  purple,  blue,  green,  or 
scarlet.     The  commonest  pattern,  where  any  exists,  and  which  reappears  in 
several  distinct  families,  is  a  broad  purplish- brown  band  across  the  middle  of 
both  pairs  of  wings.     They  are  predaceous  insects  in  all  their  stages.     The 
larva  and  pupa  are  brown,  and  live  in  fresh  water  ;  the  pupae  can  be.  dis- 
tinguished by  their  conspicuous  wing-cases.     When  the  pupa  is  matured,  it 
leaves  the  water,  climbing  up  a  reed,  or  some  other  convenient  support,  and 
then    splits    down    the   back,   to  allow  of   the   emergence   of  the   perfect 
insect. 

The  neuration  in  some  of  these  insects  is  often  very  complicated,  the  net- 
work forming  many  thousands  of  cells  in  each  wing  in  some  species,  while 
others  exhibit  comparatively  few  nervures.     They  are  divided 
into  several  families  and  sub-families,  of  which  we  will  notice  Family 

two  or  three.     In  the  Libellulidce,  the  triangular  (or  more       Libellulidce. 
rarely,  quadrilateral)  space  near  the  base  of  the/wing,  from  . 
which  several  of  the  principal  longitudinal  nervures  of  the  wings  start,  is 
differently  shaped  in  the  fore  and  hind  wings,  and  the  eyes  are  contiguous, 

but  rarely  united  by 
a  long  suture.  This 
family  takes  in  the 
greater  part  of  the 
moderate-sized  dra- 
gonflies with  rather 
stout  bodies,  the  com- 
monest of  which, 
Libellula  depressa 
(Linn.),  which  may 
often  be  seen  flying 
over  water,  has  trans- 
parent wings  three 
inches  in  expanse,  and 
a  flattened  and  rather 
short  and  broad  body, 
which  is  blue  in  the 

Fig.  47.— DRAGONFLY  (Trithemis  umbratd).    Nat.  size/  male,   and    yellow    in 

the  female.     We  have 

figured  a  common  South  American  species  of  this  family,  Triihemis  umbrata, 
(Linn.).     The  Gomphidcv  resembles  the  Libellulidce,  but  the  eyes  are  distinctly 


570  INSECT  A— ORDER  NEUROPTERA. 


separated.     The  ^Eschnidce,  which  perhaps  attract  more  notice  than  any  other 

dragonflies,  measure  three  or  four  inches  in  length,  and  also 

Family  across  the  wings,  and  have  a  long  narrow  triangle,  crossed 

jEschnidai.  by  several  nervures,  on  each  wing,  shaped  nearly  alike  on  all 
the  wings,  and  very  large  eyes, which  are  contiguous,  being  only 
separated  by  a  small  suture  on  the  top  of  the  head.  The  wings  are  transpar- 
ent, tinged  with  brown  in  one  species  ;  and  the  bodies  are  elegantly  marked 
with  blue,  green,  and  yellow,  on  a  brown  or  black  ground  ;  but  these  colours 
generally  fade  in  a  short  time  after  death. 

The  Agrionidce  have  slender  bodies,  small  and  inconspicuous  triangles  on 

the  wings,  and  wide  heads,  with  the  eyes  far  apart;  in  fact  their  heads  are 

something  like  those  of  the  hammer-headed  shark  on  a  small 

Family  scale.     Some  of  the  larger  European  species,  measuring  up- 

Agrionidce.  wards  of  two  inches  across,  have  beautifully  coloured  wings, 
and  frequently  blue  or  green  bodies.  Two  species  are  com- 
mon in  England,  one  with  purplish  wings,  and  the  other  with  a  purplish 
band,  resembling  our  figure  47,but  with  a  longer  and  more  slender  body  Some 
of  the  foreign  species  are  far  more  brilliantly  coloured,  the  common  Indian 
Neurobasis  chinensis  (Linn. )  having  bright  green  or  blue  hind  wings  Several 
of  the  American  species  of  Hetcerina  (De  Selys),  and  allied  genera,  are  trans- 
parent, with  a  bright  scarlet  patch  at  the  base  of  the  wings,  which  are  other- 
wise transparent.  Our  two  British  species  of  Agrion,  already  mentioned, 
are  fond  of  flying  over  ponds  or  slowly-flowing  streams.  These  coloured 
species  belong  to  the  family  Agrioninm,  and  have  more  cross-nervures  on  the 
costa  before  the  middle  of  the  wing  than  the  other  sub-family  Cwnagrioniiuv, 
in  which  there  are  only  two.  The  latter  sub-family  includes  a  considerable 
variety  of  species,  all  slender,  but  among  them  are  the  largest  and  the  smallest 
dragonflies  known.  The  largest  are  South  American  species,  six  or  seven 
inches  in  length  and  expanse,  with  long  transparent  wings,  tipped  with  black 
or  yellow  ;  the  smallest  are  the  little  slender-bodied,  transparent- winged 
dragonflies  which  are  so  abundant  among  reeds  and  rushes.  The  type  of  this, 
sub-family  is  Ccenagrion  puella  (Linn.),  which  has  a  long  body  prettily  marked 
with  blue  and  black.  It  measures  rather  more  than  an  inch  in  length,  and  in 
the  expanse  of  its  transparent  wings. 

In  all  the  true  dragonflies  the  antennae  are  very  short,  filiform,  and  in- 
conspicuous, and  are  generally  only 
three-jointed ;  but  in  the  Planipennia, 
we  meet  with  insects 
Ant-Lions  in  which  the  antennae 
(Myrmeleonidce).  are  of  ten  of  consider- 
able length,  and  fre- 
quently cl  ubbed .  Th  e  an  t-lions ,  wh  ich 
belong  to  the  family  Myrmeleonidce, 
much  resemble  dragonflies  by  their 
long,  narrow,  and  generally  transpar- 
ent wings,  but  their  bodies  are  much 
shorter,  the  neuration  of  the  wings 
is  dissimilar,  and  the  antennae  are 
short  and  clubbed.  The  ant-lions  are 
not  British,  though  several  species  are  ^  ^—^scalaphus  Kolyvanensis,  Laxm. 
found  in  Southern  Europe ;  their 
larvae  have  strong  jaws,  and  hide  themselves  at  the  bottom  of  pitfalls, 


DRAGONFLIES,  MAYFLIES, 


571 


which  they  dig   in  sandy  soil,    to   entrap  the   ants  and    other   insects   on 
which  they  feed.      The   Ascalaphidce  are   another  family  not   represented 
in  Britain,  but  which   has  also  several   representatives  in 
Southern   Europe.       It  is   distinguished   by  its  very  long,  Family- 

clubbed  antennae.     In  the  typical  genus  Asccdaphus  (Fabr.),      Ascalaphidce. 
the  wings  are  black  and  yellow,  and  broader  and  shorter 
than  in  the  Myrmeleonidce ;    but   in   many   of  the    allied   tropical  genera, 
the  wings  are  longer,  narrower,   and  mostly  transparent.      A   third  allied 
family,  the  Nemopteridce,  not  British,  and  not  extending  so  far  south  as  the 
others,    being   confined   in   Europe    to   the   shores   of    the 
Mediterranean,  has  rather  short  and  slender  antennae,  broad,  Family 

oval,  black  and  yellow  fore-wings,  and  very  long  and  narrow     Nemopteridce. 
hind-wings,  looking,  when  the  insect  is  held  head  upwards, 
almost  like  a  pair  of  stilts.     The  fore-wings  measure  about  an  inch  and  a  half 
in  expanse,  but  the  curious  narrow  hind- wings  are  nearly  two  inches  long. 
The  most  interesting  British  species  of  Planipennia  belong 
to  the  Chrysopidce,  or  lace-winged  flies,  which  have  bright      Lace-winged 
green  bodies,  long  slender  antennae,  golden  eyes,  and  trans-  Flies 

parent,   delicately   reticulated   wings,    rarely   exceeding  an    (Chrysopidcn). 
inch  in  expanse.     Their  larvae  are  very  useful  in  gardens  by 
destroying  the  Aphides,  or  plant-lice. 

The  Ephemeridce,  which  are  generally  called  May-flies,  or  Day-flies,  fly  over 
streams  in  summer.      They   have   long,   slender  antennae,   slender   bodies, 
ending  in  two  or  three  long  fila- 
ments, broad  fore-wings,   about        May-Flies 
an  inch  and  a  half  in   expanse,     (Ephemeridcb). 
and  very  small,  or  undeveloped 
hind-wings.     Their  larvae  are  aquatic,  and  take 
several  months  to  arrive  at  maturity  ;  but  the 
perfect  insects  live  a  very  short  time.     They  are 
insects   of    dull   colours,    brown,   greenish,   dull 
grey,  or  whitish  ;  and  on  the  Continent  there  are 
several   white   species   which   emerge  from   the 
water  after  sunset,  and   perish  before  sunrise. 
In  the  evening  they  swarm  in  at  the  open  windows 
of  waterside  houses  to  the  lights  in  great  numbers. 
In   the    morning    the    ground   near    the   rivers 
where  they   breed   is   covered  with   their   dead 
bodies,  lying  in  heaps. 

The    Perlidce    is    another    family    of     brown 
Neuroptera,    with    well-developed     hind-wings, 
large  heads,  and  two  long  fila- 
ments at  the  end  of  the  body.        Stone  Flies 
Their  larvae  likewise  are  aquatic.         (Ptrlidce). 

The  TermitidcK,  or  white  ants, 
are  fortunately   not   British,    and    it   is    to    be 
hoped  that  they  will  never  succeed  in  getting 
a  footing    in    this    country.      The    males    and 
females  have  long  and   rather  narrow  wings,  and  short,  stout 
bodies  ;    the    workers    are    wingless,   and   have   very   large       White  Ants 
heads,  and  powerful  jnws.     They  are  very  similar  to  ants  in      (Termetidce). 
their   habits,   and  shun    the  light,  always  living  either  in 


Fig.  49.— MAY  FLY  (Ephemera 
vulgata,  Linn.). 


572 


IN  SECT  A- ORDERS  NEUROPTERA,   ETC. 


large  nests,  or  forming  galleries  in  wood,  which  they  eat  away  from  the 
inside. 

Some  of  the  remaining  families  of  Neuroptera  contain  very  small  species. 
Among  the  Psocidce,  some  are  winged,  and  others  are  apterous.     The  species 
most  often  seen  is  Atropos  pulsatoria,  a  small  white  apterous 
Family  Psocidce.  insect,  which  is  frequently  met  with  in  neglected  collections 
of  insects,  and  is   often   called  a  mite.     It  is  active,  and 
sufficiently  large  to  be  seen  running  about.     It  has  been  stated  on  good  au- 
thority to  produce  a  ticking  sound,  but  this  appears 
almost  impossible  in  the  case  of  so  small  and  soft  a 
creature. 

The  Thripidce  are  very   small  insects,  which  are 

sometimes  placed  in  a  distinct  order,  under  the  name 

of  Thysanoptera.     They  have  rather 

Family          long  narro\v*  wings,   with  very  long 

Thripidce.        fringes,  and   sometimes   cause  much  fig.  so.—Thrips  cerealium? 

injury  to  plants,  especially  in  green-  Magnified, 

houses,  where  the  most  troublesome  species  have  re- 
ceived the  name  of  the  "black  fly."     Tobacco  smoke  is  recommended  for 
their  destruction.     The  species  figured,  Thrips  cerealium  (Hal.),  infests  the 
ears  of  wheat. 


ORDER  TRICHOPTERA. 

The  Trichoptera,  or  hairy-winged  insects,  include  the  Caddis  Flies,  which 
were  formerly  placed  with  the  Neuroptera,  from  which  they  differ  in  many 
important  particulars.     The  insects  have  four  wings,  similar 
Caddis  Flies      in  texture.     The  mouth  parts  are  imperfectly  developed,  the 
(Trichoptera).     antennae  and  legs  are  long  and  slender,  and  the  latter  spined, 
and  the  metamorphoses  are  complete,  and  aquatic.    The  Trich- 
optera, especially  some  of  the  smaller  species,  have  much  resemblance  to  some 
of  thePyralidce,  and  Tineidce  among  the  Lepidoptera,  in  shape,  neuration,  and  in 

the  structure  of  their  legs  and 
antennae,  but  the  wings  are 
clothed  with  hair  instead  of 
scales.  The  pupse  are  necro- 
morphous,  as  in  the  Coleoptera 
and  Hymenoptera. 

The  Caddis  Flies  are  very 
dull-coloured  insects,  of  small 
or  moderate  size.  They  are 
nearly  always  of  a  brown,  grey 
or  buff  colour,  and  very  few, 
even  among  the  foreign  species, 
are  varied  with  white,  purplish, 
oryellow.  The  largest  British 
species,  Phrygane  a  grandis, 
(Linn.) measures  about  an  inch 
and  a  half  across  the  wings. 
Some  of  the  smaller  species  have  very  long  antennas,  several  times  as  long  as 
the  body.  These  insects  are  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  habits  of  the  larvse. 


Fig.  51 — CADDIS  FLY  (Phryganea  grandis).    Nat.  size. 


CADDIS  FLIES  AND  SPRING-TAILS.  573 


The  caddis  worms,  as  they  are  called,  live  in  ponds  and  ditches,  and  make 
themselves  cases  of  stick,  or  small  stones  and  shells,  bound  together,  and 
lined  with  silk,  and  in  these  they,  live,  and  undergo  their  metamorphoses. 

Wingless  Insects,  allied  to  Neuroptera. 

There  are  three  groups  of  wingless  insects,  which  are  sometimes  classed 
with  the  Neuroptera,  and  are  sometimes  treated  separately.  They  are  as 
follows  : — 

The  Mallophaga  are  placed  by  some  authors  with  the  Anoplura,  or  true  lice, 
as  an  aberrant  family  of  Hemiptera,  but  others  place  them  with  the  Neur- 
optera, and   others  again   treat  them  as  a  distinct   order. 
They  much  resemble  the  lice,  but  differ  from  them  in  pos-    Bird  Lice  (Mal- 
sessing  well-developed   mandibles.      They   have   large   flat-         iophaga). 
tened   bodies,    large   heads,    and   rather  short   legs.     They 
infest  different  species  of  birds,  feeding  on  the  soft  part  of  the  feathers  near 
the  quills.     Most  of  them  are  of  rather  small  size  ;  the  largest,  which  are 
nearly  half  an  inch  in  length,  infest  the  eagles,  vultures,  and  albatrosses. 

The   Thysanura   and   Collembola   are  two  small   orders  or  sub-orders  of 
wingless  insects,  which  have  long,  jointed  antennae,  and  six  legs,  but  under- 
go no  metamorphoses.     The  Thysanura  have  an  apparatus 

Spring  Tails       for  leaping  at  the  end  of  the  body,  and  are  frequently  called 
( Thysanura).      spring  tails.     The  best  known,  however,  is 

the  silver  fish,  Lepisma  saceharina  (Linn.),  a        Silver  Fish, 
silvery-grey  insect,  about  half  an  inch  long,  often  found  in 
crevices  in  dark  corners  in  houses,  where  it  darts  about  with  great  activity 
when  disturbed. 


ORDER  HYMENOPTERA  (BEES,  WASPS,  ANTS,  ETC.). 

In  this  Order  we  find  insects  with  four  wings,  which  are  generally  long  and 
narrow,   and   frequently  clothed   with   short  hairs,  only  visible   under  the 
microscope.     The  fore  and  hind  wings  are  often  linked  to- 
gether by  a  row  of  small  links,  which  has   suggested   the     Structure  and 
name  of  the  order.     The  veins  of  the  wings  are  never  very    Metamorphoses, 
numerous,  nor    is   the    neuration    complicated.      In    many 
families,  however,  the  females  and  sometimes  both  sexes  are  wingless,  and 
in  others  there  is  a  race  of  imperfectly  developed  females,  called  neuters 
or  workers,  which  are  frequently  wingless.     The  ovipositor  of  the  female  is 
modified  either  into  a  sting,  or  into  a  boring  apparatus,  which,  in  the  latter 
case,  is  sometimes  of  great  length.     There  are  usually  three  ocelli,  or  simple 
eyes  on  the  vertex  in  addition  to  the  two  large  lateral  compound  eyes.     The 
metamorphoses  are  complete,  and  the  pupa  is  inactive,  and  necromorphous, 
as  in  Coleoptera,  the  limbs  being  encased  in  separate  immovable  sheaths. 
The  pupa  is  usually  enclosed  in  a  cocoon. 

The  Hymenoptera  include  a  large  number  of  insects,  which,  though  very 
diversified  in  form  and  habits,  have  still  such  a  strong  family  likeness  that 
they  cannot  easily  be  mistaken  for  insects  of  any  other  order.  Some  are 
vegetable-feeders,  like  the  saw-flies,  the  larvae  of  which  so  much  resemble 
caterpillars  that  they  have  been  not  inaptly  termed  "  false  caterpillars  "  ;  the 
larvae  of  the  wood-wasps  burrow  in  the  wood  of  trees  ;  the  gall-flies  form 


574  INSECTA— ORDER  HYMENOPTERA. 


excrescences  called  galls  on  various  plants,  especially  on  the  oak  and  rose, 

though  many  of  the  smaller  species  are  parasitic  ;  the  groups 

Habits.  generally  classed  together  roughly  as  ichneumons,   though 

they  really  include  several  very  distinct  families,  are  parasitic 

on   other  insects  ;    the  burrowing  and  solitary  wasps  are  carnivorous,  the 

social  wasps  and  the  ants  are  omnivorous,  and  the  bees  feed  on  the  pollen 

and  honey  of  flowers. 

The  ants,  bees,  and  wasps,  and  the  termites,  or  white  ants,  which  greatly 
resemble  them,  but  which  belong  to  the  order  Neuroptera,  far  surpass  all 
other  animals  in  intelligence,  and  are  the  only  creatures  known  to  scientific 
men  which  have  developed  any  phases  of  social  life  and  civilisation  at  all 
resembling  our  own,  and  this  is  especially  true  of  the  ants. 

The  Hymenoptera  are  probably  the  most  numerous  of  all  insects  in  number 

of  species,  for  although  only  36,000  species  have  yet  been  described,  a  much 

smaller  number  than  either  the  Coleoptera  or  Lepidoptera,  yet 

Number  of        we  have  considerably  more  than  3,000  species  in  England,  a 

Species.          greater  number  than  is  known  of  any  other  order,  and  fully 

half  of  these  belong  to  the  parasitic  groups,  which  only  one 

or  two  entomologists  have  taken  the  trouble  to  study  at  all,  and  many  of 

which  are  of  very  small  size,   some,  indeed,  being  the  most  minute  of  all 

known  insects,   and  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  their  being  proportionately 

as  numerous  in  other  countries  as  in  our  own. 

The  Hymenoptera  are  divided  into  two  principal  sections  :  the  Terebrantia, 

or  Boring  Hymenoptera,  in  which  the  ovipositor  is  modified  into  a  boring 

apparatus;  and  the  Aculeata,  or  Stinging  Hymenoptera,  in 

Boring  Hymen-    which  ifc  ig  modified  into  a  sting.     In  the  Terebrantia  the 

(rr  °Pter*  trochanter,  or  small  hinge-joint  which  separates  the  coxa,  or 

/ia)'     hip,  from  the  femur,  or  thigh,  is  generally  double,  while  in 

the  Aculeata  it  is  generally  single  ;  but  this  is  not  an  invariable  character. 

The  first  division  of  the  Terebrantia  consists  of  the  Serrifera,  including 
the  families  Tenthredinidcv  and  Siricidce,  or  saw-flies  and  wood- wasps. 

The  Tenthredinidce  are  divided  into  several  sub -families,  in  some  of  which 
the  antennae  are  short,  and  strongly  clubbed  at  the  end,  like  those  of  a 
butterfly.      The  commonest  of  these  species  in  England  is 
Saw-Flies          Trichiosoma   lucorum    (Linn.),    which   is    a   blackish   hairy 
(Ttnthredinidce).  insect,    measuring   rather  more   than  an   inch   in   expanse, 
with  transparent  wings  bordered  with  brown.     The  twenty- 
two-legged   larva  feeds   on  hawthorn,   and  constructs  a   very   solid   brown 
egg-shaped  cocoon.     It  belongs  to  the  sub-family  Cimbicinw.     Another  very 
interesting  sub-family  is  that  of  the  Pergince, 
which  are  found  in  Australia,    and    have 
short,    club-shaped   antennae ;    the   species 
are  mostly  black  and  yellow,  and  smaller 
than  Trichiosoma,  though  some  of  them  are 
greenish,  and  about  the  same  size.      Their 
black  larvae  have   only  six   true   legs,   no 
prolegs   being    developed,    and    they  feed 
gregariously  on   gum-trees 
Habits  of  Perga.  (Eucalyptus).        In      some 
species,  the  female  is  said 
to   tend    the    young   larva,  after  they  are 
hatched,  an  unusual  habit,  except   in  the 
case  of  social  insects.     The  number  of  joints  of  the  antennae  varies  in  the 


SA  W-FLIES  AND  WOOD-  WASPS. 


575 


Saw-Flies 
injurious  to 
fruit  trees. 


Tenthredinidce,  but  is  most  frequently  nine,  especially  in  the  more  typical 

sub-families,  in  which  the  joints  are  long,  cylindrical,  and 

well-marked.     In  one  sub-family,  however,  the  short,  thick  Antenna  of  Saw 

antennae  are  composed  of  only  three  well-separated  joints  ;  Flies. 

the  scape,  a  short  joint,  and  a  long  terminal  one  composed  of 

several  fused  together.     Sometimes  this  third  joint  is  bifid,  each  antenna 

being  thus  double  nearly  to  the  base. 

Our  fruit-trees  often  suffer  severely  from  the  attacks  of  the  larvae  of  various 
saw-flies.  Those  best  known  to  ordinary  observers  are  probably  the  small 
greenish  or  yellowish  black-dotted  larvae  which  frequently 
strip  our  gooseberry  and  currant  bushes  of  all  their  leaves, 
and  which  develop  into  small  black  and  yellow  four-winged 
flies  about  half-an-inch  in  expanse,  belonging  to  various  species 
of  the  great  genus  Nematu  (Panzer. ).  But  these  bushes  are  li- 
able to  the  attacks  of  the  larvae  of  saw-flies  belonging  to  other  sub-families  than 
the  Nematince,  and  also  by  the  larvae  of  various  Lepidoptera  and  other  insects. 
The  Siricidce,  or  wood-wasps,  burrow  in  the  larva  state  in  timber,  with  which 
they  are  frequently  imported  into  this  country.  The  commonest  and  most 

conspicuous    species    is 
Sirex  gigas  (Linn.),  a  very      Wood-Wasps 
formidable  -  looking    in-         (Siricidce). 
sect,  the  large  females  of 
which  sometimes    measure    nearly    two 
inches  across  the   wings,    though   many 
specimens  are  much  smaller  ;  for  wood- 
feeding    insects,   as  a   rule,   vary    very 
much,  both  in  size,  and  in  the  length  of 
time  which  they  require  to  reach  matu- 
rity.    It  is   black  and  yellow,  and  the 

Fig.  53.-Sirex  gigas.    Male.   Nat.  size.        £emalej  has  a  stout  ovipositor  projecting 

behind  the  body  for  about  one-third  of 

its  length.  The  abdomen  of  the  male,  on  the  other  hand,  terminates  in  a 
rectangle.  These  insects 
will  sometimes  emerge  from 
planks  of  deal  or  pine, 
which  have  been  built  into 
the  floors  or  fittings  of  a 
house,  and  make  a  loud 
buzzing,  which  has  some- 
times led  to  their  beingmis- 
taken  for  hornets,  but  they 
are  really  quite  harmless. 

The  (jrollicolce,,  or  gall- 
flies, are  far  better  known 
by  the  galls  which  grow 
upon  the  leaf  or  stalk  in 
which  they  have  deposited 
their  eggs  than  by  the  flies 
themselves,  which  are  gen- 
erally small  shining  black 
or  reddish  insects,  with 
long  antennae  and  trans- 
parent wings,  with  the  very  Fig.  54.— Sires  gigas.  Female.  Nat.  sh 


576 


INSECTA— ORDER  HYMENOPTERA. 


Fig.  55.— GALL-FLY 

(Cynips  kollari,  Hart.). 

Slightly  magnified. 


few  nervures  visible  on  the  fore-wings  forming  one  large  cell  near  the  centre. 

The  abdomen  is  short,  slightly  compressed,  and  much  elevated.     A  common 

British  species  is  figured.     It  is  hardly  necessary  to  remind 

Gall-Flies        our  readers  that  the  principal  ingredient  in  ink  is  obtained 

(GallicolcK).       from  the  galls  of  a  Levantine  species  of  Cynips.     Some  of  our 

own  galls  are  not  unlike  a  cherry,  or 
other  fruit  ;  and  there  are  foreign  galls  which  are  much 
larger  and  more  tempting  in  appearance  ;  some  of  these 
are  called  "  Apples  of  Sodom." 

Many  of  the  gall-flies  appear  at  different  seasons  of 
the  year  in  two  different  forms,  one  in  which  the  sexes 
are  separate,  while  the  other  consists  exclusively  of 
females,  or  rather  of  individuals  capable  of  self-repro- 
duction.     Sometimes    one    form   is   winged,  and  the 
other  apterous  and  subterranean.     It  is  needless  to 
say  that  until  their  habits  were   discovered,  the  two 
broods  were  regarded  as  belonging  not  only  to  different 
species,  but  to  distinct  genera.     Another  noteworthy  circumstance  relative 
to  galls  is  their  extreme  liability  to  attacks  of  parasites.     You  may  collect  a 
very  large  quantity  of  some  kinds  of  galls,  and  breed  hun- 
Gall- Parasites,     dreds  of  specimens  of  different  species  of  insects  from  them, 
and  yet  never  obtain  a  specimen  of  the  original  gall-maker ;  all 
will  be  parasites,  and  not  a  few  will  be  a  small  parasitic  species  of  Cynipidce. 

The  Entomophaga,  or  truly  parasitic  groups  of  Hymenoptera,  include  the 
families  Chalcididce,  Proctotrypidce,  Braconidce,  Ichneumonidce  and  Evaniidce. 
The  female  usually  pierces  the  body  of  the  caterpillars,  or 
Parasitic         other  victims  which  she  attacks,  with  her  ovipositor,  and 
HymeAoptera     lodges  an  egg  in  each  wound.     In  other  cases,  the  eggs  are 
(Entomophaga).    deposited  on  the  eggs  or  larvae  of  their  victims.     Eggs  thus 
attacked    never  hatch ;   but  ichneumoned   larvae  generally 
attain  their  full  growth,  and  then  die,  when  the  larvae  of  the  parasite,  which 
have  been  feeding  on  it   all    the    time,   often   emerge  from   it,   and  form 
their  own  cocoons  round  the  dead  body  of  the  caterpillar.     In  other  cases, 
the  larva  assumes  the  pupa-state,  and  the  parasites  pupate  within  it,  emerg- 
ing from  the  pupa-skin  instead  of  the  butterfly. 

The  Chalcididce  are  a  very  extensive  family,  divided  into  many  sub-families. 
The  antennae  are  generally  13-jointed,  consisting  of  a  long  basal  joint  and  a 

series  of  short  ones.      The  females 
Family  are  generally  provided  with  a  long 

Chcdcididce.  or  short  ovipositor,  which,  in  the 
genus  Leucospis  (Fabr.),  is  curved 
over  the  back.  These  are  among  the  largest 
species  of  the  family,  and  though  not  British, 
several  species  are  found  in  Southern  Europe. 
They  are  black,  with  yellow  markings,  and  re- 
semble small  wasps,  but  may  at  once  be  distin- 
guished from  them  by  the  very  rudimentary  and 
incomplete  neuration  of  the  wings.  Leucospis  and 
several  other  genera  among  the  larger  Chalcididce 
have  very  thick  hind  femora,  toothed  on  the  under-surface. 

The  genus  Callimome  (Spin.),  to  which  many  species  which  are  parasitic  in 
galls,  belong,  are  considerably  smaller,  rarely  measuring  more  than  about 


Fig.  56.— Leucospis 
grandis.    Nat.  size. 


ICHNEUMONS, 


577 


Fig.  57.— FAIRY  FLY 

(Mymar  pulchellus,  Curt.). 

Magnified. 


half  an  inch  across  the  wings.  They  are,  however,  by  no  means  inconspicu- 
ous insects,  being  of  a  bright  metallic  green,  or  cupreous ;  and  the  female 
has  a  long  straight  ovipositor. 

The  pupae  of  the  Chalcididce  are  naked,  but  those  of  the  next  family,  the 
Proctotrypidce,  are  enclosed  in  cocoons.     The  body,  which  is  usually  stout  in 

the  Chalcididce,  is  slender  in  the 
Proctotrypidce,    and  the    wings          Family 
are    almost    destitute    of    any    Proctotrypidce . 
trace   of   neuration.      Most   of 
them  are  egg-parasites,  and  some  are  among  the 
smallest  of  known  insects,  being  barely  visible 
even  to  the    most  practised  eye,   except  as  a 
mere  speck  on  a  window-pane.      The  smallest 
of  all  belong  to  the  sub-family  Mymarince,  and 
Mr.  F.  Enock,  who  has  paid  special  attention 
to  them,  calls  them  "fairy  flies."      They  have 
very  narrow  oval  or  battledore-shaped  wings, 
fringed  round  with  long  hairs  ;  and  one  or  two 
of  them  are  aquatic  in  their  habits,  probably  attacking  the  eggs  of  some 
water-insect. 

The  Braconidce  and  Ichneumonidce  include  the  greater  part  of  the  remain- 
ing parasitic  rfymenoptera.      The  neuration,  though  still  not  very  compli- 
cated, extends  over  the  greater  part  of  the  forewings  ;  and 
the  antennas  are  generally  long  and  slender.      In  the  Bra-          Family 
conidce  there  is  one   small  joint   beyond  the   scape  of  the      Braconida. 
antennae,  but  in  the  Ichneumonidce  there  are  always  two. 
In  the  Ichneumonidce  we  often  find  an  open  space  towards  the  middle  of  the 
forewings,  in  which  the  principal  nervures  of  the  wing  centre  ;  this  is  called 
the  areolet.     In  some  genera  of  these  two 
families,   the    ovipositor    is  concealed ;          Family 
but  in.  some  of  the  larger  Ichneumonidce    Ichneumonidce. 
belonging  to  the  sub-family  Pimplince, 
the  ovipositor,  which  is  usually  composed  of  three  sepa- 
rate filaments,  is  of  great  length,  being  intended  to  reach 
the  larvae   of  wood-boring  insects.     Rhyssa  persuasoria 
(Linn.),  which  attacks  the  larva  of  Sirex  gigas  in  its  wooden 
galleries,  is  black  with  yellow  markings,  and  is  one  of 
the  largest    of   the    British    Ichneumonidce,   measuring 
nearly  two  inches  across  the  wings,  and  nearly  three 
inches  from  the  head  to  the  extremity  of  the  ovipositor, 
which  is  nearly  twice  as  long  as  the  rest  of  the  body.     But 
in  some  of  the  allied  foreign  species,  the  ovipositor  is  much 
longer,  not  measuring  less  than  six  or  eight  inches  in 
length. 

The  Evaniinw  are  a  small  family  of  parasitic  insects,  re- 
-markable   for   their  peculiar   forms.      The   abdomen  is 
attached  to  the  upper  part  of  the  metathorax,    which 
gives  the  whole  insect  a  very  peculiar  appearance.     The  species  of  the  genus 
Evania  (Fabr.)  are   parasitic  on  the  egg-capsules  of  cock- 
roaches, and  are  found  all  over  the  world,  though  for  some          Family 
reason  or  other  they  are  extremely  rare  in  England.     They       Evaniidce. 
are  small  black  insects,  measuring  about  three-quarters  of 
38 


Fig.  58. — ICHNEUMON 
FLY  (Rhyssa  persua- 
soria). %  Nat.  size. 


578 


INSECT  A— ORDER  HYMENOPTERA. 


Fig.  5Q.—Pelccinus 

politurator,  Linn. 

Reduced. 


an  inch  across  the  expanded  transparent  wings,  with  a  very  small  petiolated 

abdomen,  so  small  that  it  hardly  appears  to  belong  to  the  insect ;  and  long 

sprawling  legs,  with  very  long  black  or  red  hind  femora,  much  longer  and 

thicker  than  the  abdomen  of  the  insect.      Another  genus  of  this  family, 

Pdecinus  (Latr.),  is  of  a  very  different  size  and  shape,  but  is 

not  less  remarkable.     The  species  are  black  and  shining, 

and  measure  an  inch  and  a  half  across  the  rather  long 

wings.       The   whole   insect,    however,    is   tfiree  inches  in 

length,  on  account  of  the  great  length  of  the  joints  of  the 

abdomen,  which    looks   like  a  telescope,    except   that   the 

joints  are  of  equal  thickness.      Such  is  the  female.     The 

male,  which  is  very  rarely  seen,  is  much  smaller,  and  has 

the  abdomen  very  differently  formed  ;  it  is  slender  at  the 

base,  and  gradually  thickened  into  an  oval  club  at  the  end. 

Here  we  see  that  instead  of  the  ovipositor  being  lengthened 

in  the  female,  the  whole  abdomen  has  been  inordinately 

lengthened   instead.      This  genus   is   not   British,    but  is 

common  in  North  America,  and  other  parts  of  the  world. 

We  now  come  to  the  important  section  of  the  Hymenop- 
tera     Aculeata,     which     are    not     only    more     familiar 

insects    than   the    Terebrantia,  but  have  been   much   more 
Stinging  Hymen-  sfcu<iied  by  entomologists,  though  not  to  anything  like  the 
optera  same  extent  as  the  two  favourite  orders  of  Coleoptera  and 

(Aculeata).        Lepidoptera. 

The  first  section,  the  Tubidifera,  includes  only  one  family,  the  Chrysididce, 
or  ruby-tailed  wasps,  which  hold  an  intermediate  place  between  the  two  great 
sections   of    the   Hymenoptera,   being  armed  with  a  rudi- 
Ruby-Tails       mentary  sting.     They  are  small  insects,  generally  expanding 
(Chrysididce).      less  than  an  inch  across  the  transparent  wings.    Their  bodies 
are    very  hard,   and  very   strongly   punctured,    and    when 
alarmed,  they  double  their  bodies  together,  and  sometimes  roll  themselves 
up  into  a  ball.    Most  of  the  species  are  of  a  brilliant 
metallic  green  (more  rarely  blue),  with  the  abdomen, 
which  is  more  or  less  smooth,  at  least  towards  the 
tip,  often  purple  or  fiery-red  towards  the  end.     The 
abdomen  is  usually  composed  of  only  three  or  four 
segments  visible  above,  and  is  more  or  less  retractile 
under  the  first,  which  is  usually  very  much  longer 
than  the  others  ;  the  last  dorsal  segment  terminates 
in  a  row  of  strong  teeth,  varying  in  size,  form,  and 
number  according  to  the  species.      The  larvae  are 
parasitic  in  the  nests  of  other  Hymenoptera.     We 
have  figured  Stilbum  amethystinum  (Fabr.),  a  large  species  found  in  Asia  and 
Africa,  which  is  sometimes  blue  and  sometimes  green. 

The  first  section  of  the  true  Hymenoptera  Aculeata  is  that  of  the  Heter- 
ogyna,  or  ants.     They  are  social  insects,  and  consist  of  limited  numbers  of 
winged  males  and  females,  and  of  numerous  wingless  and  imper- 
fectly developed    females,  called  workers,  or  neuters.     In 
all  Hymenoptera  the  female  is  the  predominant  sex,  but 
this  is  pre-eminently  the  case  in  the  social  species.      When 
the  ants  swarm,  the  males  and  females  fly  away  and  pair, 
after  which  the  great  bulk  of  them  perish.     The  females  shed  their  wings, 


Fig.  60.— RUBY-TAIL 

(Stilbum  amethystinum). 

Nat.  size. 


Ants 
(Heterogyna). 


ANTS  AND  SAND  WASPS.  579 


and  those  which  are  sufficiently  fortunate  to  return  to  a  nest  of  their  own 
species,  become  the  future  mothers  of  the  community,  and  devote  all  their 
energies  to  egg-laying.  The  wings  of  ants  are  rather  long  and  large,  and  the 
two  principal  nervures  generally  cross  obliquely  about  the  middle  of  the  fore- 
wings,  and  beyond  this,  a  large,  closed  cell  is  formed  in  some  genera.  Ants 
are  divided  into  three  principal  families.  The  Formicidce  bite,  but  do  not 
sting,  and  have  only  one  node  on  the  petiole  of  the  abdomen.  In  the 
Poneridce,  the  node  is  formed  by  the  first  segment  of  the  abdomen,  which  is 
frequently  nearly  as  large  as  the  others,  but  is  completely  detached  from 
them  ;  and  in  the  Myrmicidce  there  are  two  small  nodes  forming  the  petiole 
of  the  abdomen.  Both  these  last  families  sting  as  well  as  bite.  The  most 
familiar  examples  of  the  first  and  last  families  are  the  wood  ant,  Formica 
rufa  (Linn.),  a  large,  smooth,  reddish  ant,  which  forms  large  mound-nests  in 
woods  ;  the  much  smaller  red  ants  of  the  genus  Myrmica  (Latr.),  which 
infest  our  gardens  ;  and  the  minute  yellow  house- 
ant,  which  is  so  troublesome  and  difficult  to  get  rid 
of  wherever  it  effects  a  lodgment.  Our  British 
representatives  of  the  Poneridw,  or  "wicked  ones,'' 
are  small  and  insignificant  ;  but  to  this  family  be- 
long some  of  the  largest  known  ants,  such  as  the 
great  black  Dinoponera  grandis  (Guer.)  of  Brazil, 
which  measures  upwards  of  an  inch  in  length.  In 
some  of  the  larger  species  of  Myrmicidce,  belonging 
to  the  genera  Odontomachus  (Latr. ),Mi/rmecm(Fabr.), 
etc.,  the  jaws  are  very  long,  and  armed  with 
formidable  teeth.  We  have  figured  a  large  red  Fig  6;._ 
and  black  Australian  ant,  Myrmecia  forjicata  forjicata).  Nat.  size. 
(Fabr.). 

We  have  no  space  here  to  discuss  the  habits  of  ants,  but  those  of  our 
readers  who  are  interested  in  their  wars,  slave-raids,  agriculture,  cattle  and 
pets,  will  find  ample  information  in  the  works  of  Huber,  Kirby  and  Spence, 
Moggridge,  Lubbock,  M'Cook,  and  others. 

The  Fossores,  or  sand  wasps,  are  a  large  group  of  insects  consisting  of 
winged  males,  and  winged  or  apterous  females,  which  are  solitary  in  their 
habits,  and  generally  dig  holes  in  the  ground,  which  they  fill 
with  insects  or  spiders  which  they  have  paralysed  but  not       Sand  Wasps 
killed  with  their  sting,  and  which  remain  as  a  store  of  fresh        (Fossores). 
provision  for  the  larvse  of  the  wasps.      The  wings  of  the 
burrowing  wasps  are  not  folded  longitudinally  when  at  rest ;  the  abdomen  is 
often  petiolated  ;    the  legs  are  usually  very  spiny  or  hairy,  and  the  pro- 
thorax  is  transverse,  the  sides  not  being  arched  backwards  to  the  base  of 
the  wings,  as  in  the  true  wasps.     We  notice  here  some  of  the  principal 
families  only. 

The  Mutillidce  have  winged  males,  and  very  hairy  apterous  females,  and 
are  sometimes  improperly  called  "  solitary  ants."     They  are  very  numerous 
in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  world,  and  we  have  two  or  three 
species  in  Britain,  though  they  are  not  very  common.     The       Families  of 
Thynnidce  are    another  family  with   apterous,   but   nearly          Fossores. 
naked  females  ;  they  are  almost  confined  to  Australia  and 
South  America.     In  both  the  above  families  the  legs  are  very  hairy.     The 
Pompilidce  have  long  spiny  legs,  and  the  abdomen   is  shortly  petiolated. 
Among  them  we  find  the  largest  Hymenopterous  insects  known,   some  of 


58o    INSECTA— ORDERS  HYMENOPTERA  AND  LEP1DOPTERA. 


which  measure  upwards  of  three  inches  across  the  wings.  Some  of  the 
species  of  Myynimia  (Smith)  are  conspicuous  by 
their  beautiful  green  or  purple  iridescent  wings. 
The  last  family  we  can  notice  is  the  Sphegidw, 
which  are  remarkable  for  the  long  petiolated 
abdomen,  and  for  the  brilliant  metallic  green  of 
some  of  the  Indian  and  African  species  of  Chl&rion 
(Latr.),  etc.  In  these,  however,  the  wings  are 
generally  transparent,  or  are  at  most  only 
bordered  with  brown.  Pelopceus  spirifex  (Linn.) 
is  a  black  and  yellow  species,  common  in  the 
warmer  parts  of  the  Old  World. 

The  Diploptera,  or  true  wasps,  may  be  distin- 

*<*    b/  .the    'ow-wing.    bei"g    longitadin- 

ally  folded    in    repose,   and    by  the    prothorax 
being  arched  backwards  to  the  base  of  the  wings.     The  species  are  soli- 
tary or   social ;    and  the  former  generally  construct  small 
Wasps  nests  or  cells,  which  they  provision  with  insects.     The  social 

(Diploptera).      wasps,  belonging  to  the  typical  genus  Vespa,  are  too  well 
known  to  need  description  ;  they  construct  large  nests  in  the 
ground  or  in  trees,  but  their  habits  are  less  interesting  than  those  of  the  ants 
and  bees.     The  nest  is,  however,  always  commenced  by  one  queen,  which 

has  survived  the  winter  ;  and  its 
extension  is  afterwards  carried  on 
by  her  progeny.  The  bulk  of 
the  inhabitants  consist  of  neuters, 
though  males  and  females  are  also 
produced ;  the  latter  assist  the 
mother  in  carrying  on  the  work 
of  the  nest,  for,  unlike  bees,  more 
than  one  perfect  female  is  allowed 
to  live  in  a  wasp's  nest  at  the  same 
time.  At  the  end  of  the  season, 
the  whole  community  dies  off,  ex- 
cept a  few  queens,  which  perpetuate 
the  brood  next  year  ;  and  hence 
every  wasp  destroyed  in  spring 
means  the  destruction  of  a  possible 
nest.  We  have  six  species  of  Vespa 
in  England,  all  very  similar,  except 
the  hornet,  which  is  twice  as  large  as  the  others,  but  lives  in  smaller  com- 
munities. It  is  much  scarcer,  too,  and  rarely  stings  except  under  provoca- 
tion. The  largest  known  species  of  Vespa  are  found  in  India,  China,  and 
Japan. 

The  last  family  of  the  Hymenoptera  is  that  of  the  Anthophila,  or  bees. 

They  are  generally  short,   hairy  insects,   though  some  genera  are   almost 

naked,  such  as  the  curious  wasp -like  parasitic  bees  of  the 

Bees  genus  Nomada  (Fabr.),  which  are  mostly  black  and  red,  in 

(Anthophila).      various  proportions,  with  yellow  markings. 

Many  of  the  solitary  bees  of  the  large  genus  Andrena  (Fabr.) 
appear  in  spring,  sometimes  as  early  as  January  or  February,  and  make 
nests  in  the  ground.  Some  are  very  peculiar  in  their  habits,  such  as 


.  Fig.  63. — HORNET  (Vespa  crdbro).    Nat.  size. 


WASPS,  BEES,  AND  BUTTERFLIES.  581 


the  leaf -cutter  bees,  Megachile  (Latr.),  and  the  carpenter  bees,  Xylocopa  (Latr. ), 
which  are  common  abroad,  but  are  not  known  in  England,  and  have  deep 
violet-coloured  wings ;  while  there  are  other  bees  which  form  their  nests  in 
old  walls.  The  humble-bees,  Bombus  (Fabr.);  make  their  nests  in  the  ground, 


Fig.  65.— HIVE-BEE 

Fig.  64.— CAKPENTER  BEE  (Xylocopa  violzcea,  Linn.).  (Apis  mellifica). 

Nat.  size.  Nat.  size. 

and  live  in  small  communities,  consisting,  like  the  hive  bee,  of  males,  females 
and  workers,  all  winged. 

Apis  mellifica  (Linn.),  the  hive-bee,  closes  our  list  of  the  Hymenoptera. 
The  genus  Apis  occupies  a  rather  isolated  position  among  the  bees,  and  may 
be  recognised  at  once  by  the  very  long  narrow  costal  cell,  which  extends 
almost  to  the  tip  of  the  fore-wings.  The  species  of  Apis  are  not  numerous  ; 
but  apart  from  the  common  hive-bee,  ten  or  twelve  others  are  met  with  in 
different  parts  of  the  world. 


ORDER  LEPIDOPTERA  (BUTTERFLIES  AND  MOTHS). 

The  Lepidoptera,  or  scale-winged  insects,  have  four  wings,  clothed  with 
scales,  which  look  like  fine  powder,  and  easily  rub  off,  but  which  exhibit  a  great 
variety  of  form  under  the  microscope.     The  colour  of  the 
insects  is  due  partly  to  pigment,  and  partly  to  refraction          General 
from  the  edges  of  the  scales,  which  sometimes  produces  the    Characteristics, 
most  brilliant  iridescent  changes,  as  in  some  of  the  blue  Mor- 
phos  of  Tropical  America,  and  in  the  widely-dispersed  genus  Apatura  (Fabr.), 
to  which  our  own  Purple  Emperor  belongs.     The  antennae  are  long  and  many- 
jointed,  and  one  pair  of  palpi,  at  least,  is  more  or  less  conspicuous.     There 
is  also  a  long  proboscis  for  imbibing  the  nectar  of  flowers,  or  moisture  from 
trees  or  the  ground.     In  some  of  the  hawk  moths  this  is  of  immense  length, 
nearly  reaching  a  foot  in  the  largest  South  American  species  ;  but  in  some 
groups  of  moths,  as  in  many  of  those  classed  under  the  heading  of  Bombyces, 
it  is  often  so  slightly  developed  as  to  be  practically  obsolete. 

In  Lepidoptera  the  metamorphoses  are  complete,  the  insects  passing  through 
four  stages.     The  female  lays  her  eggs  on  a  plant  suitable  for  the  nourish- 
ment of  her  brood.     These  are  laid  singly  or  in  clusters,  and 
are  frequently  covered  with  a  kind  of  cement,  or  else  with  Eggs, 

down  from  the  body  of  the  mother.     They  are  of  various 
shapes  and  sizes,  and  are  often  ribbed  or  fluted. 

From  the  eggs  emerge  the  larvae,  or  caterpillars,  which  are  usually  provided 


582  INSECTA— ORDER  LEPIDOPTERA. 


with  sixteen  legs  :  six  horny  legs,  corresponding  to  the  true  legs  of  the  perfect 

insect ;   eight   ileshy  legs,   called  prolegs  ;   and  a  terminal 

pair,  called  claspers.     In  the  larvae  of  the  Geometridw,  and 

Larva,or         JR  t|ie  earjy  stages  of  those  of  many  other  moths,  the  first 

a  erp    ar.       three  pairs  of  prolegs  are  obsolete,  and  the  larvae  arch  the 

back  at  every  movement,  and  are  then  called   "loopers." 

Caterpillars  are  very  voracious,  and  generally  moult,  not  only  their  skins, 

but  the  lining  of  part  of  the  internal  respiratory  and  digestive  apparatus  as 

well,  more  than  once  before  arriving  at  their  full  growth. 

The  next  stage  is  that  of  the  pupa  or  chrysalis,  which  is  almost  motionless, 
being  encased  in  a  tight-fitting  integument,  011  the  upper  half  of  which  the 
outlines  of  the  perfect  insect  may  be  observed.     These  are 
Pupa,  or          not,  however,   enclosed  in  separate  sheaths,  except  in  the 
Chrysalis.         case  of  some  hawk- moths,  which  have  the  proboscis  enclosed 
in  a  sheath  which  is  detached  from  the  main  body  of  the 
pupa.     The  pupa  takes  no  nourishment,  and  it  is  either  attached  by  threads 
to  a  leaf,1  etc,  as  in  the  case  of  most  butterflies,  or  enclosed  in  a  cocoon, 
formed  of  silk  in  those  species  in  which  it  is  constructed  on  or  above  the 
ground,  and  of  agglutinated  earth  in  most  instances  in  which  it  is  subterranean. 
In  due  time  the  perfect  butterfly  or  moth  quits  the  pupa-case  ;  its  wings, 
which  are  at  first  soft  and  limp,  soon  expand  to  their  full  size  ;  the  limbs  of 
the  insect  dry  in  the  sun  and  air,  and  it  flies  away  to  join  its  comrades,  and 
to  reproduce  its  kind.     Most  species,  on  emerging  from  the  chrysalis,  dis- 
charge a  fluid,  which  in  former  times,  when  they  happened  to  be  particularly 
numerous,  and  when  everything  unusual  was  attributed  to  miraculous  causes, 
sometimes  gave  rise  to  the  notion  that  a  rain  of  blood  had  fallen. 

Entomologists  in  England  have  generally  agreed  to  call  the  first  few 
families  of  Lepidoptera  butterflies,  and  the  remainder  moths  ;  but  there  is 
110  such  distinction  on  the  Continent,  where  they  are 
Rhopalocera,  or  generally  called  by  words  corresponding  to  day-butterflies 
Butterflies.  and  night-butterflies.  Butterflies  are  broad-winged  insects, 
often  adorned  with  bright  colours,  and  with  comparatively 
slender  bodies.  The  antennae  are  almost  invariably  thickened  into  a  knob  at 
the  extremity,  a  peculiarity  which  is  not  very  common  in  other  insects, 
though  we  meet  with  it  in  some  saw-flies,  flies,  the  ant-lions,  and  other  allied 
families  of  Neuroptera,  and  in  many  beetles,  etc.  Hence  the  butterflies  are 
often  called  Rhopalocera,  or  club-horns.  They  fly  by  day,  and  seldom,  unless 
disturbed,  at  dusk  or  at  nighfc,  though  some  Tropical  genera  are  twilight-fliers, 
or  frequent  the  deep  gloom  of  thick  forests.  Moths,  on  the  other  hand,  have 
the  antennae  of  various  shapes,  sometimes  thickened  in  the  middle,  or  before 
the  end,  but  almost  never  clubbed  at  the  extremity,  and  generally  thread- 
like or  comb-like.  Most  moths  fly  at  night,  or,  at  least,  not  before  dusk, 
though  a  few  are  day-fliers,  and  may  be  seen  frequenting  flowers,  among 
butterflies.  Many  of  them  have  stout  bodies,  and  are  of  dull  or  subdued 
colours.  Butterflies  often  rest  with  the  wings  raised  over  the  back,  an  attitude 
rarely  assumed  by  moths.  The  latter,  however,  more  frequently  rest  with 
all  their  wings  spread  out  flat,  while  in  the  stout-bodied  moths  the  fore-wings 
often  more  or  less  cover  the  hind- wings  when  at  rest,  and  are  sometimes 


1  In  the  Nymphalidce  the  pupa  is  suspended  freely  by  the  tail ;  in  the  other  families 
'  butterflies  (except  in  the   "  7^  "  --          —«--"—»-*  •- *-  *~«    ~~i  ^-~ 

girth  round  the  body  as  well. 


of  butterflies  (except  in  the  Hcsperiidce)  it  is  generally  attached  by  the  tail,  and  by  a 
jody 


BUTTERFLIES  AND  MOTHS.  583 


sloped  roof -like,  the  hind- wings  frequently  folding  together  like  a  fan,  which 
is  never  the  case  in  butterflies. 

Moths  are  much  more  numerous  in  proportion  than  butterflies,  especially 
in  temperate  climates.     Tropical  America  produces  more  than  half  of  all  the 
known  butterflies  ;  in  the  tropics  of  the  Old  World  they  are 
much  less  numerous.     England  is  poor  in  butterflies,  pro-  Moths, 

ducing  only  60  or  70  species  out  of  the  300  European  species, 
as  against  2,000  British  moths.  The  richest  countries  in  Europe  for  butter- 
flies are  those  lying  round  the  central  ranges  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the 
Balkans  ;  but  the  numbers  rapidly  dimmish,  both  north  and  south.  Sweden 
produces  about  twice  as  many  species  of  butterflies  as  Britain  ;  but  Andalusia 
is  not  richer  than  Sweden,  and  North  Africa  is  much  poorer.  Nevertheless, 
both  butterflies  and  moths  are  to  be  met  with  (though,  of  course,  their 
number  is  but  few),  not  only  in  Lapland,  but  everywhere  in  Greenland 
where  any  vegetation  will  grow.  Iceland,  though  producing  many  moths,  is 
the  only  important  country  in  which  it  is  believed  that  no  butterflies  are  to 
be  met  with. 

In  the  wings  of  butterflies,  the  front  edge  is  called  the  costa,  the  outer 
edge  the  hind  margin,  the  hinder  edge  (which,  in  the  hind- wings,  is  parallel 
to  the  abdomen)  the  inner  margin,  and  the  side  nearest  to  the  body  of  the 
insect  the  base.  The  nervures  of  the  wings  are  useful  in  classification.  The 
principal  nervures  which  run  from  the  base  are  the  costal,  subcostal,  median, 
subrnedian,  and  internal  nervures.  The  nervures  which  do  not  starD  from  the 
base  are  called  uervules.  A  wide  space,  which  extends  from  the  base  towards  the 
middle  of  the  wing,  between  the  subcostal  and  median  nervures,  is  called  the 
discoidal  cell.  The  subcostal  nervure  divides  into  two  branches  on  the  hind- 
wings,  and  generally  into  from  three  to  five  on  the  fore-wings  ;  and  the 
median  nervure  always  divides  into  three.  These  branches  are  either  called 
branches  of  the  subcostal  and  median  respectively,  or  subcostal  and  median 
nervules.  The  discoidal  cell  is  closed  at  the  extremity  by  short  nervules, 
called  discocellular  nervules  ;  and  from  the  end  of  the  cell  one  or  two 
nervules  (called  discoidal  nervules)  run  to  the  extremity  of  the  wing.  In 
some  butterflies  one  of  the  discocellular  nervules  is  absent  or  imperfectly 
formed,  leaving  the  wing  open  from  the  base  to  the  hind  margin.  In  such  a 
case  the  discoidal  cell  is  said  to  be  open  ;  but  otherwise  it  is  called  closed. 
The  internal  nervure  is  absent  in  some  families  of  butterflies. 

The  first  family  of  butterflies,  the  NymphaUdcB,  includes  about  half  the 
entire  number  of  species,  and  may  be  known  by  the  first  pair  of  legs  being 
always  more  or  less  imperfect,  especially  in  the  males.     The 
pupa,  when  attached  to  anything  (for  in  exceptional  cases  Family 

among  the  Satyrince  it  is  placed  on  the  ground),  is  suspended     Nymphalidce. 
freely  by  the  tail.    The  larvae  are  cylindrical,  and  are  generally 
furnished  with  bristles,  spines,  or  long  filaments,  or  are  naked,  Avith  a  bifid 
tail.     Sometimes  they  have  horny  projections  on  the  head. 

The  Nymphalidce,  are  divided  into  several  sub-families      The  Danaince  are 
chiefly  an  Old  World  group,  and  the  best-known  species  is  Limnas  chrysippus 
(Linn.),  a  tawny  butterfly,  about  three  or  four  inches  across 
the  wings,  with  an  oblique  white  bar  across  the  tip  of  the  fore-     —Sub-Family 
wings,  and  a  curved  row  of  small  black  spots  on  the  middle        Danaince. 
of  the  hind-wings.     It  is  common  throughout  Africa  and 
Southern  Asia,  and  extends  into  South-Eastern  Europe.     Another  section  of 
this  family  is  represented  by  the  East  Indian  genus  Euplwa  (Fabr.),  and 


INSECTA— ORDER  LEPIDOPTERA. 


its  allies.  Many  of  these  are  butterflies  of  a  rich  velvety  black  or  brown, 
with  bluish-white  spots  towards  the  extremity  of  the  long,  broad,  rounded 
wings,  and  also  in  the  middle.  They  are  often  flushed  with  rich  purple. 
The  Danaince  are  butterflies  with  very  tough  integuments,  and  exhale  an 
odour  which  is  supposed  to  render  them  distasteful  to  birds. 

Many  other  butterflies  and  moths  resemble  them  externall}7,  and  are  be- 
lieved  to   share   in   their   immunity  from   persecution.     This  phenomenon 
is  called  "mimicry,"  and  is  exhibited  in  the  greatest  per- 
Mimicry  in       feetion  by  Limnas  chrysippus,  the   pattern  and  colours  of 
Butterflies.        which  are  more  or  less  accurately  reproduced  in  at  least  a 
dozen  butterflies  and  moths,  belonging  to  different  families; 
but  in  several  instances  in  the  female  only,  the  male  exhibiting  the  normally 
and  frequently  very  different  colouring  of  its  proper  genus.     The  larvre  of  the 
DatiaincB  are  usually  provided  with  several  pairs  of  long  fleshy  filaments,  and 
feed  on  Aristolochice. 

Of  the  remaining  sub-families,  several  are  entirely  exotic,  and  two,  the  Itho- 
and  Heliconince,  are  American  butterflies  with  long  rounded  wings  and 
slender  bodies,  which  have  sometimes  been  com  pared  to  dragon- 
flies.     They  are  butterflies  generally  measuring  from  two  to 
four  inches  across  the  wings,  which  are  often  black,  with  red  or 
yellow  markings,  or  yellow  with  black  markings.     The  typical 
species  of  the  Ithomiince,  however,  often  have  transparent 
wings,  with  only  brown  borders,  and  a  brown  band  at  the  end  of  the  discoidal 
cell. 

The   AcrceituK  are  another  long-winged  sub-family  of  butterflies,   chiefly 

found  in  Africa  and  America.     The  African  and  the  few  Eastern  species  are 

generally  red  or  tawny,  with  black  spots,  and  sometimes 

Sub-Family       partly  transparent  ;   but  the  American  group    usually  has 

Acrceince.         black  markings  on  a  tawny 

ground,   or  radiated   tawny 

markings  on  a   dark   ground,  especially  on 

the  hind-wings. 

Two  more  sub-families  of  large  butterflies 
are  chiefly  South  American.     These  are  the 
Morphince    and    Brassolinw. 
Sub-Families      The  typical  species  of  Mor- 
Morphince,  and  pho    (Fabr.)  measure    from 
Brassolince.       three  to  eight  inches  across 
the  wings,  and  many  of  them 


Sub-Families 

Ithomiince  and 

Heliconince. 


black,  with  a  broad  blue  band.  through  the 

wings  ;  while  others,  including  some  of  the 

largest  and  longest-winged  species,  are  brown 

or  orange.     These  are  all    American  ;    but 

there  is  a  greater  variety  of  genera,  though 

much  smaller,  and  more  varied  in  colour,  in 

the  East  Indies.     On  the  under-surface  they 

are  always  marked  with  large  eye-spots,  as 

in  the  Satyrvncz.     The  Brassolince  are  large 

brown  or  tawny  butterflies  (rarely  dull  blue), 

which  are  entirely  confined  to  Tropical  America.     They  have  generally  one 

large  eye-spot  on  the  under-side  of  the  wings,  and  traces  of  one  or  two  more  ; 


GaUgo  teucer. 
Reduced. 


BUTTERFLIES. 


585 


and,  like  some  of  the  Tropical  Satyrince,  they  are  twilight-fliers,  although 
true  butterflies.  The  accompanying  figure  represents  the  under-surface  of 
the  wings  of  Caligo  teucer  (Linn.),  a  common  South  American  species  belong- 
ing to  the  sub-family  Brassolince.  The  expanded  wings  of  this  butterfly 
measure  five  or  six  inches  from  tip  to  tip. 

The    two    remaining    sub-families,    the   Satyrince   and   the  Nymphalince, 
contain    many   of    our    commonest   and    most  familiar  British   butterflies. 
The    Satyrince    are   brown    or    tawny   butterflies,    such    as    the    meadow 
brown,   of  moderate  or  rather  small  size,  and   are   nearly  always  adorned 
with     eye-spots,    at    least     on    the    under-surface     of     the    wings.       The 
wings    are     rounded,     and     there     is     usually      at    least 
one      eye-spot     towards     the     tip     of      the     fore-wings,        Sub-Family 
arid    two    or    three    towards     the     borders    of    the     hind-        Satyrin<x. 
wings. 

The  typical  Nymphalince  may  be  known  from  the  foregoing  sub-families, 
except  the  Morphince,  by  the  open  wing-cells,  and  often  by  the  more  or  less 
dentated  wings.     This   is   a    very   large  group  of  large  or 
moderate -sized  butterflies,  and  includes  the  tortoise-shells,        Sub-Family 
peacock,  red  admiral,  fritillaries,  purple  emperor,  and  white     Nymphalinw. 
admiral,  among  our  British  butterflies,  which  are  described 
in  full  in  every  book  on  the  subject, 

We  have  figured  Kallima  inachis  (Boisduval),  a  butterfly  found  in  North 
India,  which  is  remarkable  for  its  resemblance  to  a  dead  leaf.  It  measures 
three  inches  across  the  wings,  which  are  dull  blue  above,  with  a  broad  orange 

band  with  a  transparent  spot 
in  the  middle,  on  the  fore- 
wings.  The  under-surface  is 
brown,  with  a  dark  line  run- 
ning from  the  tip  of  the  fore- 
wings  to  the  end  of  the  lobe  on 
the  hind-wings.  This  line  re- 
presents the  midrib  of  the  leaf, 
and  the  butterfly  is  shaped  and 
lined  and  mottled  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  increase  the  de- 
ception. There  is  a  case  of 
such  butterflies  mounted,  with 
leaves,  in  the  hall  of  the 
Natural  History  Museum  at 
South  Kensington  ;  and  the 
butterflies  and  leaves  can  hardly 
be  distinguished  from  one 
another.  Our  figure  shows  a 
butterfly  on  one  side  of  a  twig, 
and  a  leaf  on  the  other. 

The  Lemoniidce  are  a  large 
family   of  small,    brightly-col- 
oured  butter- 
flies, which  are          Family 
most   numer-     Lemoniidce. 

ous  in  South  America,  and  least  so  in  Europe  and  Africa. 
The  females  have  perfect  legs,  but  the  fore-legs  of  the  male  are  imperfectly 


Fig.  67. — DEAD-LEAF  BUTTERFLY  (Kallima  inachis). 
Reduced. 


586 


INSECTA— ORDER  LEPIDOPTERA. 


Family 

LibytheidcR. 


Family 

Lyccenidce. 


Fig.  6B.—Libythea  celtis. 
Nat.  size. 


developed.  The  only  European  species  is  Nemeobius  luciua  (Linn.),  the  Duke 
of  Burgundy  Fritillary,  a  brown  butterfly  about  an  inch  in  expanse,  with  rows 
of  tawny  spots  on  the  wings. 

The  LibytheidcK,  which  some  entomologists  consider  to  be  a  sub-family  of 
the  LemoiiiidcK,  are  distinguished  by  their  very  long  palpi  (much  longer  than 
in  any  other  butter- 
flies, except  one  or 
two  Nymphalince), 
and  by  their  brown, 
dentated,  tawny-spotted  wings,  winch 
gives  them  a  superficial  resemblance 
to  some  small  species  allied  to 
Vanessa.  The  only  European  species 
is  here  figured. 

The  Lyccenidce  are  a  large  family 
of  small  or  moderate-sized  butterflies, 
differing  little  struc- 
turally from  the  Le- 
moniidce.     They  are, 

however,  more  of  an  Old  World  group,  although  many  are 
found  in  America,  too.     Our  species  are  known  as  hairstreaks,  blues,  and 
coppers.     The  hairstreaks  are  brown  or  blue  butterflies,  with  white  lines  on 
the  under-side  of  the  wings,  and  a  short  tail.     The  green  hairstreak,  however, 
Callophrys  rubi  (Linn.),  is  tailless,  and  the  under-side  of  the  wings  is  green. 
There  are  a  large  number  of  brown  or  blue  species 
allied  to  the  hairstreaks  in  Tropical  America,  some 
measuring  as  much  as  two  inches  across  the  wings. 
The  blues,  which  belong  to  the  genus  Polyommahis 
and  its  allies,  are  small  butterflies,  usually  without 
tails,  and  generally  with  rows  of  ocellated  spots 
on  the  under-side  of  the  wings.    Towards  the  hind- 
margins  we  often  find  a  row  of  red  spots  above  or 
below.     The  females  of  the  blues  are  often  brown, 
and  in  some  species  of  the  group  both  sexes  are 
brown.     They  generally  measure  a  little  more  than 
an  inch  in  expanse.    One  species,  Lampides  bwticus 
(Linn.),  has  a  short  tail  and  a 

streaked  under-side;  but  in  England  it  is  only  occasion- 
ally met  with  on  the  south  coast.  The  coppers  are  a  very 
handsome  group  of  butterflies,  distinguished  by  the 
brilliant  coppery  red  of  many  of  the  species,  several 
of  which  formerly  inhabited  England ;  bat  they  are 
all  now  believed  to  be  extinct  with  us  except  the  small 
copper,  an  insect  with  the  coppery  wings  bordered 
and  spotted  with  black.  Some  of  the  other  species 
are  shot  with  purple. 

The    Pieridce    are   a   large    group    of    middle-sized 

butterflies,  most  of   which  are  white  or  yellow.     All 

the  legs  are  fully  developed  in  both 

Family  sexes  ;  and  they  can  most  readily  be 

Pieridce.         distinguished  from  the  next  family  by 

possessing  an  internal  nervure  to  the 


Fig.  69.— GBEEN  HAIRSTREAK 
(Callophrys  rubi).    Nat.  size. 


Fig.  70.— ORANGE  TIP 

(Euchloe  cardamines). 

Nat.  size. 


BUTTERFLIES. 


587 


hind-wings.  To  the  Pieridw  belong  our  garden  whites,  clouded  yellows, 
orange  tip,  and  brimstone  butterflies,  etc.  The  largest  butterflies  of  this 
family  are  the  great  East  Indian  orange  tips  of  the  genus  Hebomoia,  Hiibner. 
They  measure  live  or  six  inches  across  the  wings,  which  are  much  shorter  and 
broader  in  proportion  than  in  our  common  orange  tip,  Euchloe  cardamines 
(Linn.),  which  is  one  of  the  prettiest  and  most  admired  of  our  vernal  insects. 
The  Equitidw,  or  swallow-tails,  are  a  family  of  very  handsome  butterflies, 
many  of  which  possess  the  long  tails  to  the  hind-wings  from  whence  they 
derive  their  English  name.  Our  only  British  species  is  the  well-known  swallow- 
tail butterfly  Eques  ma- 
c/iaon(Linn.  ),at  present 
almost  confined,  with 
us,  to  the  fen  districts 
of  Norfolk,  though 
formerly  much  more 
abundant.  It  is  black 
and  yellow,  with  a  large 
red  spot  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  hind- wings, 
and  measures  about 
four  inches  in  expanse. 
The  green  caterpillar, 
with  black  spots  and 
bands,  and  a  retractile 
fork  on  the  neck,  feeds 
on  fennel,  carrot,  and 
other  umbelliferous 
plants.  We  have  fig- 
ured an  allied  species, 
Equesalexanor(EspQr.\ 
distinguished  by  the 
continuous  black  band  near  the  base  of  the  wings,  which  is  found  in  the 
mountains  of  South  Europe.  To  this  family  belong  the  great  bird- winged 
butterflies,  Ornithoptera  (Boisd.),  of  the  East  Indies  and  the  Eastern  Archi- 
pelago. They  share,  with  the  Morphiuce,  the  distinction  of  being  among  the 
largest  butterflies  in  the  world,  measuring  from  three  to  nine  or  ten  inches 
in  expanse  ;  but  usually  about  six  or  seven.  They  are  long-winged  butter- 
flies, with  black  fore-wings  and  yellow  hind- wings  ;  or  with  large  green,  blue, 
or  orange  longitudinal  bands  on  the  dark  fore-wings,  and  the  hind-wings 
mostly  of  the  colour  of  the  bands.  The  larvae  are  covered  with  rather  long 
and  thick  fleshy  spines,  but  have  always  the  retractile  fork  on  the  neck,  which 
is  one  of  the  most  characteristic  marks  of  the  Equitidce.  Another  interest- 
ing genus  is  Parnassius  (Latr.).  These  are  satiny- white  butterflies,  slightly 
transparent  towards  the  edges,  with  black  spots,  and  generally  also  round 
red  spots,  more  or  less  centred  with  white,  on  the  hind-wings,  at  least.  They 
are  mountain  butterflies,  and  are  most  numerous  in  Central  Asia  ;  though 
three  species  inhabit  the  Swiss  Alps,  the  commonest  being  Parnassius  apollo 
(Linn.),  which  must  be  well  known  to  everyone  who  has  ever  collected  butter- 
flies in  Switzerland.  These  might  easily  be  mistaken  for  Pieridcz,  but  that  the 
inner  margin  of  the  hind-wings  is  not  gutter-shaped,  as  it  generally  is  in  the 
Pieridre,  and  the  internal  nervure,  which  is  very  conspicuous  in  the  Pieridce, 
is  wholly  absent  in  all  the  Equitidce. 


Fig.  71.— SWALLOW-TAIL  (Eques  alexanor).    Nat.  size. 


588 


INSECTA-^ORDER  LEPIDOPTERA. 


The  last  family  of  butterflies,  the  Hesperiidce,   has   six   perfect   legs    in 
both  sexes,  but  differs  very  much  from  any  of  the  preceding  groups.    The 
head  is  broad,  the  antennae  are  set  widely  apart,  and  are 
Family  generally  hooked  at  the  tips,  the  body  is  rather  stout,  and 

Hesperiidce       the  flight  is  short  and  jerky.     Our  species  have  somewhat 
(Skippers).        triangular    fore-wings,   and    rounded  hind-wings,    and   are 
brown  and  tawny  ;  black,  tesselated  with  square  white  spots; 
or  brown,  with  dull  greyish  and  rather  indistinct  spots. 
The  Hesperiidce,  are  very  numerous  in  South  America, 
but  less  so  in  the  Old  World.      They  are  mostly  of 
small  size,  the  largest  being  a  dull  blue  West  African 
species,  Ehopalocampta  ipliis  (Dru.),  which  measures 
about  four  inches  across  the  wings.      They  form  a 
transition  to  the  moths  ;  many  species  sit  with  the 
wings  expanded,  instead  of  raising  them  over  their   Fig  72._GRIZZLED  SKIPPEB 
backs ;  and  they  often  make  a  rough  sort  of  cocoon  in  (Hesperia  malvce).     Nat.  size. 
a  leaf.  The  Grizzled  Skipper,  Hesperia  malvce  (Linn. ), 

here  figured  is  a  small  black  and  white  butterfly  not  uncommon  in  England. 
The  Heterocera,  or  moths,  are  divided  into  a  great  number  of  families, 
which  are  loosely  classed  together  under  various  headings  ;  but  the  classifica- 
tion of  moths  is  still  in  an  unsatisfactory  state,  and  though 
Heterocera,  or     many  groups  of    families,  large  and   small,    are    perfectly 
Moths.  natural,  others  are  ill-defined  and  unsatisfactory.     The  old 

group  Sphinges  is  now  quite  given  up,  including,  as  it  did, 
three  totally  distinct  sections,  the  hawk-moths,  clear-wings,  and  burnets. 
The  Bombyces  include  a  number  of  very  discordant  families,  for  which  no 
definite  collective  characters  can  be  found,  such  as  the  tigers,  footmen,  eggars, 
emperor  moths,  swifts,  etc.  Tho  Noctuce,  or  night-flying  moths  proper,  are 
more  compact,  though  even  here  there  is  a  difficulty  in  determining  whether 
many  genera  belong  to  this  group,  or  to  the  Bombyces.  The  Geometrce  are  a 
compact  group,  and  so  to  some  extent  are  the  remaining  groups.  We  will 
now  consider  the  moths  more  in  detail. 

Of  the  families  classed  under  Sphinges  arid  Bombyces,  most  of  the  species 
have  short,  stout,  and  often  tufted  bodies,  large  wings,  and  pectinated,  or 
sometimes  fusiform  antennae.  The  larvae  have  sixteen  legs,  and  generally  spin 
cocoons,  though  some  pupate  in  the  ground.  Many  beautiful  day-flying 
moths  belong  here,  some  of  which  were  formerly  classed  as  butter- 
flies. Among  these  are  the  bright  green  black-striped  Uraniidce  of  South 

America,  three  inches  in  expanse,  with 
long  tails  on  the  hind-wings  like  swallow- 
tail butterflies.  More  familiar  to  us 
are  the  burnets  (Zygcnnida'\  moths  with 
long  fore- wings  about  an  inch  and  a  half 
across,  with  long  pubescent  bodies,  and 
blackish  bronzy  fore- wings,  with  five  or 
six  crimson  spots,  and  red  hind-wings. 
They  are  found  in  meadows,  flying  heavily 
from  flower  to  flower  in  the  daytime.  The 
ti^er  moths  (Arctiidce)  are  larger,  and  very 
brightly  coloured  moths, and  more  nocturnal 
in  their  habits  as  a  rule.  The  commonest, 
Hypercompa,  caia  (Linn).,  has  brown  fore- 


Fig.  73. — CINNA.BA.B  MOTH 
(Hiposritajacobcea).    Nat.  size. 


SKIPPERS  AND  MOTHS.  589 


wings,  with  interlacing  white  markings,  and  red  hindwings  with  large 
bluish  black  spots.  Its  caterpillar,  which  is  often  called  the  woolly  bear, 
is  common  in  gardens,  and  is  covered  with  long  reddish-brown  hair,  partly 
tipped  with  white.  It  feeds  on  all  sorts  of  low  plants,  and  when  disturbed, 
rolls  itself  up  into  a  ball,  and  drops  among  the  herbage.  Bred  specimens 
of  the  moth  are  paculiarly  liable  to  vary,  some  of  the  specimens  being  quite 
black ;  but  those  reared  in  a  state  of  nature  are  much  less  variable. 

The  Liparidce  are  {mother  family  of  stout-bodied  Bombyces.  Many  of  the 
species  are  white,  like  the  gold-tail  and  brown-tail  moths,  which  are  common 
on  hedges,  and  receive  their  names  from  the  tuft  of  wool  at  the  end  of  the 
body,  which  the  female  uses  to  cover  her  eggs.  They  measure  rather  more 
than  an  inch  across  the  wings,  and  the  larvae  are  gregarious,  and  are  often 
very  destructive. 

Some  of  the  families  of  moths  classed  as  Bombyces  have  slender  bodies 
and  long  wings.  The  Lithosiidce  are  a  group  well  represented  in  Europe. 
They  generally  have  oblong  greyish  fore-wings,  with  a  yellowish  streak  on 
the  costa,  and  slate-coloured  hind- wings  :  they  measure  about  an  inch  and  a 
half  in  expanse,  and  their  larvae  feed  on  lichens.  The  cinnabar  moth, 
Hipocrita  jacobcece  (Linn.),  is  more  brightly  coloured,  being  black  and  red, 
like  the  burnet  moths,  though  the  antennae  and  the  pattern  of  the  wings 
are  quite  different.  It  is  not  rare  in  Britain.  The  South  American  family 
Dioptidce  includes  larger  moths,  with  more  rounded  wings,  and  more  varied  in 
their  colours.  Some  of  them  are  partially  transparent ;  and  many,  except 
in  their  simple  or  slightly  pectinated  antennae,  resemble  butterflies  of  the 
sub-family  Ithomiince. 

The  Cyllopodidce  are  another  South  American  family  of  rather  small  moths, 
rarely  measuring  more  than  an  inch  and  a  half  across  the  wings,  which  are 
remarkable  for  their  strongly  contrasted  black  and  yellow  colour. 

The  Psychidce  are  a  family  of  small  grey  or,  more  frequently,  smoky-black 
moths,   remarkable  for  their  thick,   hairy  bodies,   and   strongly-pectinated 
antennae.       They  rarely   reach  an  inch  in  expanse,  and 
are  found  flying  among  long  grass  in  the  daytime.     The 
larvae  construct  a  case   of  bits  of   vegetable  matter,   in 
the  same  way  as  the  larvae  of   the  caddis-flies,  and   the 
females  are  wingless,  and  in  some  instances,  legless  also, 
in  which  latter  cas3  they  never  quit  the  dwelling  which         p.        — 
they  have   inhabited  as  larvae  and  pupae.      The  species       furva.  'Nat.  size, 
figured,  Chalia  furva  (Borkhausen),  is   rather  scarce   in 
England. 

Among  the  largest  moths  are  the  Saturniidce,  to  which  our  emperor  moth, 
Saturnia  pavonia-minor  (Linn.),  belongs.  The  emperor  moth  measures  two 
and  a  half  to  three  inches  across  the  wings,  which  are  light  brown,  varied 
with  orange  in  the  male,  and  of  a  soft  grey  in  the  female  ;  in  the  middle  of 
each  wing  is  a  large  round  eye-spot.  The  green,  red-spotted  larva  feeds  on 
heath,  and  makes  a  flask-like  cocoon. 

All  the  moths  of  this  family  have  stout  and  often  short  bodies,  pectinated 
antennae,  and  ample  wings,  with  a  more  or  less  developed  eye-spot  or  trans- 
parent mark  in  the  middle  of  each.  Some  are  green  or  brown,  with  long 
tails  on  the  hind-wings  ;  but  the  largest  of  all,  the  Indian  Atlas  Moth,  which 
sometimes  measures  a  foot  in  expanse,  has  tawny  brown  fore-wings,  with 
festooned  black  and  white  lines,  between  which  is  a  large  talc-like  spot  on 
each  wing,  of  very  irregular  shape. 


590 


INSECTA— ORDER  LEPIDOPTERA. 


Most  of  the  silk-producing  moths  of  any  commercial  value  belong  either  to 
the  SaturniidcK  or  the  Bombycidce.  The  common  mulberry  silk-worm  moth, 
Bombyx  mori  (Linn.),  the  type  of  the  Bombyces,  is  too  well  known  to  need 
description  here. 

The  Lasiocampidce  are  stout-bodied  moths  with  strongly  pectinated  an- 
tennae, and  hairy  caterpillars.  They  are  generally  of  a  brown  or  yellowish 

colour,  and  the  wings  are  sometimes 
dentated,  but  never  tailed.  It  includes 
the  oak-eggar,  drinker  moth,  lappet, 
lackey  moth,  and  other  familiar  British 
species.  The  lackey  moth,  Clisiocampa 
ncit.stria  (Linn.),  is  remarkable  for  the 
habit  of  the  female  in  laying  her  eggs 
in  a  ring  round  a  slender  twig.  All  the 
larvae  of  this  family  are  very  hairy. 

Three  families  of  Bombyces  are  remark- 
able for  their  larvae  feeding  in  the  trunks 
of  trees,  or  on  the  roots  of  grasses  ;  as  well  as  for  the  abnormal  neuration  of 
the  perfect  insects.  The  goat-moth,  Trypanns  cossus  (Linn.),  belonging  to 
the  family  Zeuzeridce,  is  a  broad-winged  greyish-brown  coarsely-scaled  moth, 
in  which  the  discoidal  cell  of  the  wings  is  divided  by  additional  nervures, 
which  are  obsolete  in  most  Lepidoptera.  Its  dark  red,  foul-smelling,  naked 
larva  is  very  destructive  to  old  willows,  and  takes  three  years  to  arrive  at 
maturity. 

The  Castniidce  are  a  South  American  group  of  stout-bodied  moths,  with 
rather  short  and  broad  wings,  measuring  from  two  to  six  or  seven  inches  in 


Fig.  75.— LACKEY  MOTH  (Clisiocampa 
neustriu).     Nat.  size. 


Fig.  76.—  Castnia  syphax. 

expanse.  The  antennas  are  very  thick,  and  rather  tapering  at  the  ends 
They  are  brightly-coloured  insects,  and  fly  by  day.  They  somewhat  resemble 
large  Hesperiidce,  and  were  classed  as  butterflies  by  all  the  older  writers. 
The  cells  of  their  wings  are  sub-divided,  as  in  the  Zeuzeridw,  and  hence  we 
notice  them  now,  though  their  natural  position  is  near  the  beginning  of  the 
moths.  The  species  figured,  Castnia  syphax  (Fabr.),  is  black,  with  white 
markings  on  the  fore-wings  and  a  red  border  to  the  hind-wings. 


MOTHS. 


Fig.  77.— GHOST  MOTH  (female)  (Hepialus  humuli). 
Nat.  size. 


Our  swiffc  moths  (Hepialidcz)  have  rather  long  wings  and  very  short 
antennae.  They  exhibit  many  remarkable  peculiarities  ;  the  wings  are  separ- 
ated at  the  base,  the  connecting  link  between  them  being  not  by  a  bristle, 
as  in  many  moths,  but  by  a  long  lobe.  The  fore  and  hind-wings  have 
similar  neuration,  and  the  hind-legs  of  the  males  are  more  or  less  aborted  in 
some  of  the  species.  The 
ghost  moth,  Hepicdus  hu- 
muli (Linn. ),  is  common  in 
every  meadow,  where^  the 
male,  which  is  white  on  the 
upper  -  side  of  the  wings, 
and  brown  below,  flies  at 
dusk  with  a  peculiar  hover- 
ing motion.  The  female 
has  yellow  fore  -  wings 
blotched  with  red,  and  the 
hind  -  wings  and  under- 
surface  are  brown.  The 
European  swifts  feed  on  the  roots  of  plants,  but  there  are  some  splendid 
green  Australian  species,  measuring  four  or  five  inches  across  the  wings,  the 
larvae  of  which  feed  on  the  wood  of  trees.  Owing  to  the  unusual  neuration 
and  mode  of  connection  of  the  wings  in  the  Hepialidce,  Professor  Comstock 
has  recently  proposed  to  associate  this  family  with  the  Micropterygidce,  a 
family  which  used  to  be  placed  among  the  Tinece,  and  to  treat  them  as  form- 
ing a  primary  division  (in  fact,  a  sub-order)  of  the  order  Lepidoptera.  In 
this  innovation  he  has  since  been  followed  by  other  authors. 

The  Noctuce,  are  a  large  group  of  stout-bodied  moths.  To  it  belong  many 
of  the  moths  which  we  see  flying  over  flowers,  or  about  a  candle  in  the  even- 
ing. Most  of  our  species  measure  from  one  to  two  inches  in  expanse,  and 

many  are  of  dull  colours.  Some  have 
metallic  spots,  or  letter-like  markings, 
like  the  burnished  brass  moth,  Plusia 
chrysitis  (Linn.),  which  has  large  bronzy- 
green  markings  on  its  brown  fore-wings  ; 
or  the  violet-grey  gamma  moth,  Plusia 
gf«mma(Linn.),  a  very  common  day-flying 
species,  with  a  white  mark  resembling  the 
Greek  letter  y  on  each  of  its  fore-wings. 
Others  are  brown,  with  black  streaks  and 
dashes  on  the  wings,  like  the  heart-and- 
dart  moth,  Agrotis  exclamationis  (Linn.). 
The  larvae  of  the  dart  moths  are  often  very  destructive,  as  they  live  just  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  where  they  eat  through  the  roots  of  plants. 
There  are  many  closely-allied  species,  and  the  Americans  call  them  * '  cut- 
worms." 

If  we  toss  about  a  heap  of  hay,  or  disturb  the  leaves  of  a  strawberry-bed, 
we  are  very  likely  to  start  a  specimen  of  one  of  the  common  yellow  under- 
wing  moths,  Triphcena  (Hiibn.),  which,  after  a  short  headlong  flight,  will 
settle  again,  and  soon  disappear.  In  these  moths  the  fore-wings  are  brown, 
and  comparatively  long  and  narrow,  and  the  hind-wings  are  very  broad,  and 
of  a  bright  yellow,  with  a  black  border.  In  tropical  countries  other  yellow 
underwinged  butterflies  are  found,  Ophideres  (Boisd.),  measuring  three  inches 


Fig.  78. — BURNISHED  BRASS  Morn 
(Plusia  chrysitis).  Nat.  size. 


592 


INSECTA— ORDER  LEPIDOPTERA. 


across  the  wings.  They  are  remarkable  for  having  the  proboscis  modified 
into  a  kind  of  boring  instrument,  with  which  they  pierce  the  skin  of  oranges, 
and  suck  out  the  contents. 

We  now  come  to  the  Geometrce,  or  land-measurers,  which  may  always  be 
distinguished  (if  the  transformations  are  known)  by  the  larvae  only  possessing 
ten  legs,   the  first  three  pairs   of  prolegs   being  obsolete. 
Geometrsa.        When  they  walk  they  fix  themselves  by  the  last  pair  of  pro- 
legs  and  the  claspers,  stretch  out  their  bodies,  fix  themselves 
firmly  by  their  true  legs,  and  then  draw  up  the  four  hinder  legs,  and  repeat 
the  process.     Thus,  the  body  of  the  caterpillar  is  archeH  into  a  loop  at  every 
step,  and  these  caterpillars  are  often  called  "  loopers"  on  that  account.    This 
performance,  though  it  takes  a  long  time  to  describe,  is  nevertheless  com- 
paratively rapid,  and  the  larvae  are  able  to  make  as  good  progress  as  other 
caterpillars  with  the  full  complement  of  legs.     These  curious  larvae  often  fix 
themselves,  as  described,  by  the  claspers  and  hind  pair  of  prolegs,  and  stretch 
their  bodies  straight  out,  when  they  look  for  all  the  world  like  little  bits  of 
green  or  dried  twigs. 

Most  of  these  moths  have  slender  bodies  and  broad  wings.  They  are 
frequently  adorned  with  bright  colours,  and  the  fore  and  hind-wings  are, 
more  or  less  similar  in  markings  ;  some  species,  however,  have  short,  thick, 
hairy  bodies,  and  resemble  Bombyces,  except  in  their  larvae.  In  several 

brown  species,  which  appear  during  tho 
winter,  the  females  have  only  rudi- 
mentary wings.  One  of  the  commonest 
of  the  Geometrce  is  the  magpie  moth, 
Abraxas  grossulariata  (Linn.),  which 
is  found  among  gooseberry  and  currant 
bushes,  on  the  leaves  of  which  tho 
larvae  feed.  It  measures  an  inch  and  a 
half  across  the  wings,  which  are  white, 
with  black  and  yellowish  spots. 

The  next  group  of  moths,  the  Pyrales, 
have  long  slender  legs  and  antennae, 
slender  bodies,  and  large  wings,  the 
fore-wings  being  generally  triangular,  and  the  hind-wings  rounded.  They 
are  of  rather  small  size,  rarely  much  exceeding  an  inch  in  expanse,  and  are 
often  white,  grey  or  yellow.  Two  of  the  best 
known  species,  the  small  magpie,  Botys  urticata 
(Linn.),  which  is  white,  marked  with  large  black 
spots ;  and  the  mother-of-pearl,  B.  verticalis 
(Linn.),  are  common  among  nettles.  Some  of 
the  smaller  white  and  brown  species  are  found 
among  reeds,  the  larvae  feeding  on  water  plants ; 
other  small  species  of  this  family,  which  fre- 
quent hill-sides  and  mountains,  are  black,  with 
or  without  white  lines  or  spots  ;  or  are  beauti- 
fully marked  with  purple  and  gold. 

The  foregoing  butterflies  and  moths  mostly  include  species  of  comparatively 
large  size,  and  are  therefore  often  called  Macro-Lepidoptera.  The  succeeding 
families  mostly  include  small  moths.  The  first  group  of  these  is  the  Crambi, 
which  were  frequently  included  in  the  Pyrales  by  the  older  entomologists. 
They  are  small  moths,  generally  not  much  exceeding  an  inch  in  expanse, 


Fig.  79. — MAGPIE  MOTH  (Abraxas 
grossulariata).      Nat.  size. 


Fig.  80.— SMALL  MAGPIE  MOTH 
(Botys  urticata).    Nat.  size. 


MOTHS. 


593 


Fig.  81.— GRASS  MOTH 
(Crambusericellus).  Nat.  size. 


Fir,.  82.- 

GREEN  OAK  TORTRIX 

(Tortrix  viridana). 

Nat.  size. 


•with  long  narrow  fore- wings,  and  broad  hind- wings.  The  best  known  repre- 
sentatives of  this  group  are  the  grass  moths,  belong- 
ing to  the  genus  Crambus  (Fabr.),  which  have  long 
palpi,  like  a  snout,  yellowish  white-streaked  fore- 
wings,  and  broad  brown  hind-wings.  In  some 
species,  as  in  G.  ericellus  (Hiibner),  this  white  streak 
is  very  conspicuous.  In  walking  through  long  grass, 
we  often  disturb  these  moths,  which  fly  a  short 
distance  and  then  settle  again  on  a  stalk,  head 
downwards,  with  their  wings  folded  round,  them 
in  almost  a  tubular  form. 

The  Tortrices,  or  bell  moths,  generally  have  broad,  short  fore-wings,  cut  off 
straight  at  the  ends,  and  rounded  hind-wings.  They  sit  with  their  fore-wings 
flat,  meeting  over  their  backs,  and  covering  the  hind-wings,  and  in  this 
position  somewhat  resemble  a  bell  in  shape,  whence  their  popular  name. 
There  are  about  300  British  species  of  this  group,  some  of  which  are  very 
destructive.  One  of  the  best  known  and  most  easily 
recognised  is  the  green  oak  tortrix,  Tortrix  viridana 
(Linn.),  which  has  green  fore-wings  with  a  yellow  costa, 
and  brown  hind-wings.  If  an  oak-branch  is  struck  or 
shaken,  we  may  often  see  a  whole  shower  of  these 
conspicuous  little  green  moths  come  fluttering  down. 
They  measure  rather  less  than  an  inch  in  expanse. 
The  larvae  are  also  green,  with  a  brown  head  ;  they  live 
between  rolled-up  leaves  of  the  oak,  and  if  alarmed, 
drop  themselves  a  little  way  down  by  a  thread,  and  climb  back  as  soon  as 
the  danger  appears  to  be  over. 

Other  Tortrices  feed,  in  the  larva  state,  in  flower-heads,  and  others,  again, 
in  fruits.  Different  species  of  the  genus  Carpocapsa  (Treitschke)  feed  in 
acorns,  beech-nuts,  plums,  etc.  ;  but  perhaps  the  most  injurious  of  all  is 
the  codling  moth,  G.  pomonella  (Linn.),  the  pink  larva  of  which  feeds  in 
apples  and  pears.  The  moth  is  grey,  with  darker  lines,  and  some  coppery 
markings  towards  the  tip.  It  measures  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in 
expanse.  It  has  been  introduced  into  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  is  every- 
where as  destructive  as  in  England. 

The  Tinece  are  a  very  large  group  of  small  moths,  numbering  in  Britain 
alone  upwards  of  600  species.  Very  few  exceed  an  inch  in  expanse,  and  the 
greater  number  are  much  smaller.  They  are  divided  into  a  great  number  of 
families,  which  differ  very  much  in  structure  and  habits,  but  they  may 
generally  be  easily  recognised  by  their  small  size  and  long  narrow  wings, 
with  very  long  fringes.  Some  of  them  feed  in  cases  or  galleries,  like  many 
species  of  Tinece  (Linn.),  to  which  genus  the  true  clothes-moths,  the  corn-inoth, 
and  other  highly  destructive  insects  belong.  Others  feed  on 
fungi,  like  Tinea  fulvimitrella  (Sodoffsky),  a  purplish-brown 
moth  with  white  spots,  which  is  a  woodland  insect,  and 
not  found  in  houses.  Some  have  very  long  antennae,  like  the 
beautiful  delicate  bronzy  moths  of  the  genus  Adela  (Latr.), 
which  we  find  flying  about  bushes  in  spring.  The  small 
ermine  moths  of  the  genus  Hyponomeuta  (Latr.)  are  white 
or  lead-coloured  moths,  with  rows  of  black  spots  on  the 
fore- wings  ;  and  their  larvae  web  over  and  devour  our 
hedges  and  apple-trees,  for  they  are  gregarious,  and  often  very  destructive. 
39 


Fig.  83.— Tinea 

fulvimitt'ella. 

Nat.  size. 


594        INSECTA— ORDERS  LEPIDOPTERA  AND  HEMIPTERA. 


Many  entomologists  regard  the  Pyponomcutidce,  as  more  closely  allied  to 
the  Bombyces  than  to  the  Tinem.  Many  Tinew  mine  the  leaves  of  grasses,  and 
this  habit  is  characteristic  of  the  Elachistidce.  Others,  like  the  Nepticulidce, 
a  family  which  includes  the  smallest  moths  known,  make  long  galleries  or 
mines,  as  they  are  called,  between  the  membranes  of  a  leaf.  These  may  often 
be  found  on  leaves  of  bramble,  nut,  etc.  ;  but  such  mines  are  not  always  due 
to  the  larvae  of  Tineas, ;  for  this  habit  is  shared  by  other  insects.  Thus  there 
is  a  very  common  mine  on  holly  leaves  which  is  produced  by  the  larva  of  a 
two-winged  fly.  Some  larvae  which  feed  in  a  similar  manner  produce  a  blotch 
on  the  leaf,  and  not  a  mine.  One  of  the  commonest  of  these  blotches  is  that 
formed  by  the  larva  of  the  beautiful  delicate  little  Gracilaria  syringella 
(Linn.)  on  the  leaves  of  the  lilac. 

The  Pterophoridce,  or  plume  moths,  are  now  considered  by  most  authors 
to  be  allied  to  the  Pyrales.  They  are  very  delicate  insects,  with  long, 
slender  bodies  and  legs,  and  long  wings,  measuring  an 
inch  or  less  in  expanse,  and  cleft  almost  to  the  base 
into  separate  feathers,  two  on  the  fore-wings,  and 
three  on  the  hind-wings.  The  largest,  commonest,  and 
most  conspicuous  among  them  is  the  white  plume 
moth,  Pterophorus  pentadactylus  (Linn.).  Its  larva 
feeds  on  Convolvulus,  and  it  may  often  be  seen  floating 
about  weedy  places,  strawberry  beds,  etc.,  looking  like 
a  snow-flake.  Strawberry  beds  are  a  favourite  resort 
of  many  insects,  probably  for  purposes  of  conceal- 
ment. 

The  last  family  of  moths,  the  Alucitidce,  which  forms  an  isolated  group,  is 
represented  in  England  by  the  twenty -plume  moth,  Alucita  hexadactyla 
(Linn.).  Its  larva  feeds  in  the  buds  of  the  honey- 
suckle. The  moth  is  grey,  with  broad  wings  about  two- 
thirds  of  an  inch  in  expanse,  and  it  is  often  noticed 
on  windows,  walls,  etc.,  sitting  with  its  wings  spread 
out  flat,  and  looking  like  one  of  the  smaller  Geo- 
metrse.  But  on  a  closer  inspection  we  find  that 
each  wing  is  split  up  into  six  separate  feathers,  which 
distinguishes  it  at  once  from  any  other  moth  found 
in  this  country. 


Fig.  84.— WHITE  PLUME 
MOTH  (Pterophorus  penta- 
dactylus). 


Fig.  85.- 

TWENTY- PLUME  MOTH 
(Alucita  hexadactyla). 
V  Nat,  size,  ' 


ORDER  HEMIPTERA  (BUGS  AND  FROG-HOPPERS). 

This  is  a  somewhat  extensive  order  of  insects,  with  four  wings,  of  which 
the  front  pair,  or  tegmina,  are  usually  of  a  stouter  consistency  than  the  hind- 
wings.  They  are  divided  into  two  main  sections.  In  the  first,  the  Hemip- 
tera  Heteroptera,  or  true  bugs,  the  tips  of  the  tegmina  are  usually  trans- 
parent, and  veined  ;  but  in  the  Hemiptera  the  fore-wings  are  nearly  of  the 
same  consistency  throughout.  In  many  large  groups  of  Hemiptera,  however, 
the  fore-wings  are  transparent  and  veined,  like  the  hind-wings  ;  but  all  the 
insects  belonging  to  both  sections  of  the  order  may  be  known  by  their  strong 
sucking  proboscis,  and  the  absence  of  mandibles.  The  metamorphoses  are 
incomplete. 


MOTHS  AND  BUGS.  595 


Sub-Order  Heteroptera. 
BUGS. 

The  word  bug  is  derived  from  the  Arabic,  and  has  nothing  etymologically  to 
do  with  bogy,  with  which  it  is  popularly  associated.     It  suggests  an  ugly,  foul- 
smelling,  wingless  insect,  which  sucks  blood,  hides  itself  in 
crevices,   and  shuns  the  light.      In  America,   however,  the        Sub-Order 
word  has  come  to  be  extended  to  insects  in  general.     Ento-      Heteroptera 
mologically  it  is  applied  to  the  insects  belonging  to  the  sub-          (Bugs). 
order   Heteroptera,  only  some  of    which  suck   blood,   the 
greater  number  feeding  on  the  juices  of  plants  ;  and  these  are  as  beautiful 
and  varied  in  form  and  colour  as  the  beetles  ;  or  more  so,  in  proportion  to 
their  numbers,  and  they  are  mostly  diurnal  insects.     These  insects  may  easily 
be  recognised,   not  only  by  the  characters  mentioned   above,    but   by  the 
peculiar  structure  of  the  antennae,  which,  though  generally  of  considerable 
length,  are  composed  of  a  very  few  long  and* well-separated  joints — generally 
four  or  five. 

The  Scutellridoe,  or  shield-bugs,  are  those  which  most  resemble  beetles,  and 
would  be  easily  mistaken  for  them  at  first  sight.  But  the  hard  convex  wing- 
covering  is  not  formed  by  wing-cases  meeting  on  their 
inner  edges,  as  in  beetles,  but  consists  of  an  inordinate 
development  of  the  appendage  to  the  thorax  called  the 
scutellum,  under  which  not  only  the  wings,  but  the 
tegmina  also,  which  in  such  cases  differ  little  in  con- 
sistency from  the  wings,  are  completely  hidden.  These 
bugs  are  not  numerous  in  Europe,  but  in  tropical  coun- 
tries they  are  often  as  large  as  a  cockchafer,  and  of 
brilliant  colours.  Callidea perplexa  (Hope),  here  figured,  is 
a  common  East  Tndian  species,  of  a  brilliant  green  or 
purple,  with  black  spots. 

In  the  family  Pentatomidce,  the  body  is  still  short,  broad, 
and  bulky  in   many  of  the   species,   but  the  scutellum,  jfat.  size, 

though  still  of  considerable  ske,  is  a  long  structure,  differ- 
ing in  shape,  separating  more  or  less  of  the  basal  portion  of  the  tegmina, 
when  the  wings  are  closed.     Beyond  its  extremity,  the  membranous  portion 
of   the  over-lapping   tegmina   is    generally  visible.      Several 
brown  or  grass-green  species  belonging  to  this  family  are  not 
uncommon  in  England       In   many  species,  especially  foreign 
ones,  the  front  of  the  thorax  expands  into  a  kind  of  spine  or 
horn  on  each  side,  often  of  considerable  length. 

Some  species  of  Pentatomidce  are  carnivorous  as  well  as 
herbivorous,  and  will  attack  caterpillars  and  other  soft  insects, 
and  suck  out  their  juices.  Acanthosoma  griseum  (Linn.),  which  . 

is  common  in  England  on  birch,  is  an  oval  insect,  about  a  Linn.    Nat.  size, 
third  of    an  inch  long.      The  thorax   is  angulated  in  front, 
and  the  colour  is  reddish-ochreous  or  greenish,  finely  punctured  with  black  ; 
at  the  base  of  the  scutellum  is  a  black  patch.     Like  some  of  the  earwigs  and 
Australian  sawflies,  the  female  of  this  species  has  been  observed   to  watch 
over  her  newly-hatched  young  like  a  hen,  and  it  is  said  that,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  crocodiles,  and  some  other  animals,  her  vigilance'  is  chiefly  required  to 
guard  them  against  the  attacks  of  the  male. 


59<5  INSECTA— ORDER  HEMIPTERA. 


The  species  of  this  family  are  more  numerous  in  America  than  in  England, 
and  they  are  called  "stink  bugs"  in  the  former  country,  on  account  of  the 
offensive  odour  which  many  of  them  emit. 

There  are  a  great  variety  of  other  flower-frequenting  bugs  belonging  to 
various  families,  but  the  European  species  are  mostly  of  small  size,  though 
often  prettily  coloured.     The  scutellum  is  generally  much 
Plant-Bugs.       smaller  than  in  the  Pentatomidcc,  and  the  body  is  more  oval ; 
the  legs  and  antennae  are  often  long  and  slender,  remarkably 
so  in  some  species  ;  and  occasionally  the  antennae  are  clubbed.     In  some  of 
the  large  foreign  species  belonging  to  the  family  Harpactoridce,  the  thorax  is 
often  curved  forwards  on  each  side,  and  toothed  in  front,  while  the  antennae 
and  tibiae  are  often  lobate,  and  the  hind-femora  much  thickened  and  dentated. 
Among  the  carnivorous  land-bugs,  two  families  are  specially  notable.     One 
of  these  is  the  Cimicidce,  the  type  of  which,  and,  indeed,  of  the  whole  sub- 
order Heteroptera,  is  the  common  bed-bug,  to  which  we  have 
Tlie  Bed-Bug1,     already  alluded.     It  is  of  a  reddish-brown  colour,   broad, 
flattened,  with  very  slight  rudiments  of  wings  (which  are 
said  occasionally  to  become  fully  developed  in  hot  climates),  and  measures 
less  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length  when  full  grown  ;  but  the  larval 
forms,  which  are,  of  course,  much  smaller,  are  equally  fond  of  blood,  though 
they  must  be  capable  of  subsisting  on  other  food,  as  they  have  been  known  to 
multiply  in  empty  houses.     Very  similar  species  are  found  attacking  pigeons, 
fowls,  and  bats.     This  insect  has  always  been  common  throughout  Africa  and 
Southern  Europe,  but  was  scarcely  known  in  England  till  it  was  introduced 
in  numbers  with  foreign  timber  after  the  Fire  of  London.     (See  my  '  *  Text- 
Book  of  Entomology,"  p.  204.)     It  has  many  enemies,  including  the  cock- 
roach and  the  wheel-bug  ;  and  I  have  been  informed  that  in  the  poor  parts 
of  London,  fleas  and  bugs  do  not  generally  exist  in  equal  numbers  in  the 
same  house,  and  that,  as  a  rule,  it  is  the  cleaner  houses  which  are  most  in- 
fested by  bugs.     Can  it  be  that  fleas  will  attack  bugs  ?     I  am  not  aware  that 
this  has  been  previously  observed  or  surmised  ;  but,  as  fleas  are  known  to 
attack  caterpillars,  it  does  not  seem  by  any  means  impossible. 

The  lleduviidce,  or  wheel-bugs,  are  a  family  of  rather  large  bugs,  with  a 
large  head,  contracted  behind  into  a  neck,  prominent  eyes,  two  ocelli,  rather 
short  antennae,  and  a' curved  proboscis  or  rostrum.     The  type  of  the  family 
is  the  masked-bug,  Reduvius  personatus  (Linn.),  the  larva 
and  pupa  of  which  cover  themselves  with  particles  of  dust, 
apparently  in  order  to  creep  upon  their  insect  prey  un- 
noticed.    This  species  is  not  uncommon  in  outhouses,  and 
is  a  blackish  or  dark  brown  insect,  two-thirds  of  an  inch 
long,  and  very  hairy,  especially  on  the  head,  antennae,  and 
legs.     There  is  a  whitish  line  on  the  membrane- suture  of 
the  tegmina.     This  species  is  rarely  found  in  houses  ;  but, 
as  already  mentioned,  it  preys  on  the  bed-bug,  as  well  as 
on  flies,  etc.     Its  own  bite  is  said  to  be  as  painful  as  the 
sting  of  the  bee,  which  may  well  be  the  case,  considering 
'BUG (faduvius**'     iks  comparatively  large  size  ;  but  it  does  not  appear  to  attack 
personate).          man  or  the  higher  animals  habitually.     There  are,  however, 
Nat.  size.  other  and  much  larger  species  of  the  same  family  that  are 

great  pests  to  both  man  and  beast  in  the  Southern  States 
of  America,  Chili,  and  other  parts  of  the  world. 

Many  bugs,  including  several  of  this  family,  are   usually  apterous,  but 


BUGS.  597 


acquire  wings  occasionally  ;  while  in  some  species,  two  forms  are  habitually 
met  with,  in  one  of  which  the  wings  are  more  or  less  rudimentary,  while  in 
the  other  they  are  fully  developed. 

Hitherto  we  have  been  discussing  land-bugs,  but  several  families  of  the 
Heteroptera  are  aquatic,  and  among  them  we  find  the  largest 
species  of  the  sub-order.  Water-Bugs. 

The  first  family  includes  the  Hydrometridce,  the  water- 
measurers,  which  are  long,  narrow,  black  insects,  often  with  fine  silvery 
pubescence.  They  have  yery  long  middle  and  hind-legs,  and  the  front-legs  are 
directed  forward.  Here,  too,  we  meet  with  both  winged  and  apterous  adult 
individuals  of  the  same  species.  They  measure  from  one  to  three-quarters  of 
an  inch  in  length,  and  are  found  running  rapidly  on  the  surface  of  the  water, 
and  feeding  on  small  insects.  They  can  also  dive  when  alarmed.  One  genus 
of  this  family,  Halobates  (Esch.),  is  found  running  on  the  surface  of  the  open 
ocean  in  various  regions  of  the  tropics. 

The  Nepidce,  or  water-scorpioos,  have  an  oval  and  rather  flattened  body, 
terminating  in  a  breathing  tube  of  nearly  half  its  length,  and  the  front  pair 
of  legs  have  thickened  femora,  and  project  forwards  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  suggest  the  pincers  of  a  scorpion.   Our  British    Water-Scorpion, 
species,  Nepacinerea  (Linn.)  is  a  brown  insect,  nearly  an  inch 
long  exclusive  of  the  spiracular  tube,  and  is  found  in  muddy,  stagnant  pools. 

Eanatra  linearis  (Linn.)  is  an  insect  allied  to  the  last,  and  belonging  to  the 
family  Eanatridce.  It  is,  however,  very  long  and  narrow,  and  of  a  lighter 
yellowish-brown  colour.  The  middle  and  hind-legs  are  very  long  and  slender, 
and  the  front  pair  are  much  longer  and  less  thickened  than  in  Nepa.  It 
measures  nearly  three  inches  in  length,  of  which  the  abdominal  breathing- 
tube  occupies  nearly  half.  It  is  not  a  very  common  insect  in  England,  and 
creeps  about  at  the  bottom  of  stagnant  water. 

The  largest  Heteroptera  belong  to  the  family  Belostomatidce,  which  is  not 
British,  though  common  in  most  of  the  warmer  parts  of  the  world.  They  are 
oval  insects,  with  the  legs  flattened,  especially  the  front  femora.  The  insects 
sometimes  measure  four  and  a  half  inches  in  length,  and  six  inches  or  more 
in  expanse  of  wing.  They  are  of  a  yellowish-brown  colour.  In  the  evening 
they  leave  the  water,  and  fly  about.  This  is  a  common  habit  with  many 
water-insects,  which  enables  them  to  migrate  from  one  place  to  another,  if 
the  ponds  in  which  they  live  dry  up.  In  America,  where  one  or  two 
species  are  common,  they  are  sometimes  attracted  in  large  numbers  by  the 
electric  light.  They  feed  on  small  fish,  frogs,  etc.,  as  well  as  on  water-insects. 

The  water  boatmen  (Notonectidce)  are  represented  in  England  by  one  or  two 
yellowish  species,  about  half  an  inch  long,  with  flattened  hind-legs  fringed 
with  hairs,  and  which  stand  out  from  the  body  in  the  position 
of  oars.     They  are  used  in  a  similar  manner,  for  the  insects    Water-Boatmen, 
float  on  their  backs,  and  row  themselves  about  with  them. 
Zaitlia  aurantiaca  (Leidy)  is  a  light  brown  North  American  species. 

Among  the  remaining  water-bugs  are  the  Corixidce,  which  are  not  unlike  the 
Notonectidce,  but  are  smaller,  much  broader  in  proportion,  especially  the 
head,  and  more  obtuse  behind.  They  are  brown  or  black,  glossy,  with 
yellowish  striae  above. 

A  friend  once  showed  me  an  absurd  error  with  respect  to  the  term  water- 
boatmen,  which  is  frequently  applied  to  different  species  of  water-bugs. 
It  occurred  in  connection  with  the  habits  of  some  South  American  birds, 
in  an  ornithological  work,  the  name  of  which  I  have  forgotten,  and  ran 


598  INSECT  A— SUB-ORDER  HOMOPTERA. 


something  like  this  : — "  They  feed  on  the  eggs  which  the  fishermen  lay  on  the 

banks  of  the  streams,  in  clusters  of  six  lines  long 
ky  three  broad."  If  I  remember  right,  the  pass- 
age  was  translated  from  the  French,  and  I 
have  little  doubt  that  in  the  original  some  ex- 
pression was  used  equivalent  to  "  water-boat- 
rnen."  It  reminds  me  of  another  story  which  I 
read  in  the  translation  of  a  Russian  book  of 
travels,  in  which  an  elephant  was  described  as 
seizing  an  object  with  his  tail,  instead  of  his 
Fig.  89. -WATER-BUG  (Zaitha,  trunk.  I  have  also  heard  of  a  translation  of  a 
aurantiaca),  WITH  EGOS.  German  book,  in  which  a  naturalist  on  ship- 

Nat,  size,  board,  who  wanted  to  shoot  a  bird,  was  de- 

scribed as  taking  down  the  back-shutters, 

instead  of  the  breech-loader. 


SUB-ORDER  HOMOPTERA  (FROG-HOPPERS,  PLANT-LICE,  ETC.). 

A  great  number  of  insects  are  classed  under  this  sub-order,  which  we  have 

already  briefly  defined.     They  do  not  emit  any  foul  odour  like  the  Heterop- 

tera  ;  their  antennae  are  generally  very  short  ;  and  they  are 

Sub-Order        exclusively  plant-feeders.     Some  of  them   supply  us   with 

Homoptera.       useful  products,  such  as  shell-lac  and  cochineal,  while  others 

are  among  the  most  injurious  insects    which    infest    our 

gardens  and  greenhouses. 

The  Homoptera  are  divided  into  several  very  distinct  families,  of  which  the 
first  is  the  Cicadidce.     They  are  large,  wedge-shaped  insects,  with  a  broad 
head,  large  eyes,  a  pointed  body,  with  a  short  ovipositor  in 
Family  the  female,  and  broad  wings,  which  are  generally,  but  not 

Cicadidce.  always,  transparent.  When  at  rest,  the  wings  are  folded 
roof-like  over  the  body,  and  generally  extend  considerably 
beyond  the  abdomen.  They  are  difficult  insects  to  classify,  as  the  most 
tangible  characters  available  for  the  purpose  are  to  be  found  in  the  drums  of 
the  males.  These  organs  are  found  on  each  side  of  the  abdomen,  and  are 
visible  above  in  some  genera,  while  in  others  they  are  covered  by  a  flap.  On 
the  under-surface  they  are  always  covered  by  two  flaps,  called  the  opercula, 
which  are  sometimes  very  short,  small,  and  rounded,  and  in  others  are  very 
large,  and  extend  nearly  to  the  end  of  the  abdomen.  In  the  Australian  genus 
Thopha,  amongst  the  opercula  are  extended  over  the  sides  of  the  abdomen,  as 
well  as  beneath.  In  Tibicina  (Latr.),  there  are  no  covers  at  all  on  the  upper 
surface  of  the  abdomen ;  and  in  Zammara  (Amyot),  the  rims  of  the  openings  are 
slightly  raised,  giving  them  something  of  a  pitcher  shape.  It_has  been  pro- 
posed to  divide  the  Gicadidce  into  two  sub-families,  according  to  whether  the 
drums  are  open  or  closed  above  ;  but  I  find,  not  only  that  the  upper  abdominal 
covers  differ  very  much  in  completeness  or  absence,  but  that  many  genera, 
otherwise  closely  allied,  run  in  pairs,  one  with  closed,  and  one  with  open  tympana. 
The  sounds  made  by  these  insects  have  always  made  them  celebrated,  and 
they  are  among  the  noisiest  denizens  of  the  tropical  forests.  They  are,  how- 
ever, difficult  to  capture,  as  they  are  not  easily  seen,  and  their  flight,  when 
disturbed,  is  very  sudden  and  rapid.  This  is  chiefly  a  tropical  family,  and 
the  largest  known  species,  Pomponia  imperatoria  (Westwood),  which  inhabits 


LANTERN  FLIES. 


599 


the  Malay  Islands,  measures  nearly  eight  inches  in  expanse.  Several  species 
are  found  in  Southern  Europe,  and  their  song  was  greatly  admired  by  the 
Greeks.  In  Northern  Europe  they  are  scarce,  and  we  have  but  one  small 
species  in  England,  which  is  very  far  from  common,  and  is  almost  confined 
to  the  New  Forest,  though  it  has  once  been  met  with  near  Haslemere.  This 
species  is  Melampsalta  montana 
(Scop.),  and  measures  rather  less 
than  two  inches  in  expanse.  It  is 
brown,  with  reddish  markings  on 
the  thorax  ;  and  the  principal 
wing  nervures  towards  the  base, 
and  the  incisions  of  the  abdomen 
are  of  the  same  colour.  It  belongs 
to  a  very  extensive  genus  of  rather 
small  species,  in  which  the  basal 
cell  of  the  tegmina  is  long  and  fig.  W.—Melampsdlta  montana  Nat.  size, 
narrow,  arid  emits  one  bifurcating 

longitudinal  nervure  from  its  extremity,  instead  of  two  separate  ones.  This 
genus  is  represented  by  numerous,  but  usually  comparatively  small,  species,  in 
most  parts  of  the  world,  and  is  especially  numerous  in  Australia  ;  and  it  is  at 
present  the  only  genus  of  Cicadidce  which  is  known  to  occur  in  New  Zealand. 
The  Cicadidce  vary  from  the  general  character  of  the  Homoptera  in  the 
tegmina  and  wings  being  of  uniform  consistency,  though  the  tegmina  are 
always  larger,  and  have  a  more  elaborate  neuration.  They  are  insects  with 
imperfect  metamorphoses,  and  in  countries  where  they  are  common,  the 
empty  pupa-skin  may  often  be  seen  attached  to  trees  by  its  strong  claws, 
with  a  large  hole  in  the  back,  through  which  the  insect  has  emerged. 

The  Fulgoridce  are  an  extensive   and  varied  family,  differing  from   the 
Cicadidce  in  many  particulars.     There  are  only  two  ocelli,  instead  of  three  ; 
the  tegmina  and  wings  are  opaque,  and  generally  differ  con- 
siderably in  consistency ;  the  antennae  are  inserted  oil  the  Family 
sides  of  the  head  and  below  the  eyes  ;  and  the  larvae,  and  in     Fulgoridce. — 
many  cases  the  perfect  insects,  are  frequently  covered  with     Lantern  Flies. 
a  white  waxy  exudation,  which  we  seldom  observe  in  the 
Cicadidce,  and  then  only  to  a  trifling  extent.     This  family  is  divided  into 
several  sub-families,  of  which  we  will  mention  some  of  the  most  interesting. 

The  Fidgorincet  or  true  lantern  and  candle-flies,  are  exotic  insects  of  rather 
large  size,  and  are  remarkable  for  having  the  front  of  the  head  produced  into  a 
long  horn  or  excrescence,  differing  considerably  in  size  and  shape.  The  largest 
species  is  the  lantern-fly  of  South  America,  Fulgora  laternaria  (Linn.),  which 
often  measures  more  than  four  inches  in  expanse.  It  is  of  a  greenish-yellow 
colour,  with  &  large  eyelike  spot  on  the  hind-wings ;  the  head  is  produced 

into  a  great  hollowappendage, 
slightly  bent  downwards,  and 
then  continued  forward.  The 
candle-flies  of  the  East  Indies, 
Hotinus  candelarius  (Linn., 
etc.),  are  also  large  insects, 
measuring  two  or  three  inches 
in  expanse.  In  the  species  w  e 
have  mentioned,  the  tegmina 
are  black  and  green,  spotted 


Fig.  91. — CANDLE-FLY  (Hotinus  candelarius).    Nat.  size. 


6oo 


INSECTA— SUB-ORDER  HOMOPTERA. 


Fig.  Q2.—Flata  circulatd.     Nat.  size. 


with  yellow,  and  the  hind-wings  are  yellow,  bordered  with  brown.  There  is  a 
long  and  somewhat  recurved  horn  on  the  head.  Other  species  of  this  family 
are  varied  with  blue  or  red,  and  the  horns  are  of  different  colours  and  shapes  ; 
yellow  or  green,  and  pointed  ;  dentated  ;  white,  with  a  red  knob  at  the  ex- 
tremity ;  rather  short,  and  trifid  at  the  end,  etc.  Most  of  the  species  are 
East  Indian  or  South  American  ;  a  few  are  African. 

The  Lystrince,  are  also  tropical  species  of  considerable  size  and  bright 
colours,  but  the  excrescence  on  the  head  is  absent.  They  are  chiefly,  but  not 
exclusively,  South  American. 

The  Flatince  are  another  extensive  tropical  group,  in  which  the  tegmina 
are  bordered  more  or  less  broadly  with  a  row  of  oblique  or  transverse  nervures. 
They  generally  measure  from  one  to  two  inches  in  expanse.  The  tegmina 

are  frequently  green,  some- 
times prettily  spotted  with 
red,  and  are  oval  or  angula- 
ted  at  the  tips,  and  not  m  uch 
longer  than  the  wings,  which 
are  generally  light  brown, 
grey,  or  white,  and  sub-hya- 
line. The  species  figured, 
Flata  circulata  (Guerin),  is 
pale  grey,  with  black  mark- 
ings. It  is  a  native  of  Java. 
Most  of  the  European  Fnl- 
goridce  are  small  insects.  The 
Delphacince,  which  measure 

about  one-sixth  of  an  inch  in  length,  have  comparatively  long  antennae,  with 
the  joints  much  thickened,  and  the  last  ending  in  a  bristle.  The  hind-legs 
are  very  long,  and  strongly  spined  at  the  end  of  the  tibiae  ;  they  are  generally 
of  a  yellow  colour.  The  head  is  broad,  and  the  face  more  or  less  keeled. 
They  are  generally  found  on  grass  in  damp  places,  and  many  species  are 
dimorphic,  exhibiting  both  winged  and  subapterous  forms. 

The  Derbince  are  a  small  exotic  sub-family,  with  very  short,  oval  bodies, 
comparatively  long  antennas,  unarmed  legs,  and  long  narrow  wings,  an  inch 
in  expanse,  and  shaped  more  like  those  of  a  Tipula  or  a  Pterophorus  than 
those  of  other  homopterous  insects. 

In  the  Cercopidce,  the  antennse  are  placed  between  the  eyes,  just  under  the 
vertex  ;  the  scutellum  is  rather  small,  and  the  hind  tibiae  are  usually  armed 
with  from  one  to  three  spines,  and  a  crown  of  stronger  ones  at  their  extremity. 
This  family  includes  the  true  frog-hoppers,  the  most  conspicuous  species 
of  which  is  Triecphora  vulnerata  (Illiger),  which  is  not  unlike  a  small  beetle 
in  appearance.      It  is   black,    and    measures   about  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  across  the  long,   oval,   horny  tegmina,  which  are 
black,  with  bright  red  markings  ;    the  wings  are  sub- 
hyaline.     It  is  not  uncommon  in  England.     Aphrophora 
alni  (Fall.)  is  about  the  same  size,  but  is  dull  yellow, 
with  brown  markings  on  the  elytra,  which  are  broader 
than  in  Triecphora  vulnerata,  and  more  pointed  at. the 
tips  ;  the  hind- wings  are  also  broader  and  more  rounded 
than  in  the  latter  insect.     Its  soft  yellow  larva  is  very 
commo.n  on  grass,  etc.,  and  is  always  surrounded  by  a 
mass  of  froth,  called  popularly  "cuckoo-spit." 


Fig.  93  —Triecphora 
vulnerata.    Nat.  size. 


FROG-HOPPERS  AND  PLANT-LICE.  601 


The  Jassidce  differ  from  the  Cercopidoe,  in  the  hind  tibiae  having  a  row  of 
spines   below.     They  are  small  yellowish  insects,  most  of 
which  are  placed  by  Mr.  G.  B.  Buckton,  in  his  "  Monograph  Family  Jassidce. 
of  the  British  Cicadce,"  under  the  genus Deltocephalus  (Burin.). 

The  Membracidce  are  remarkable  for  the  thorax  being  produced  into  a  long 
horn  or  spine,  which  is  frequently  recurved  over  the  abdomen.     The  genus 
Centrotus  (Fabr.),  represented  in  England  by  C.   cornutus 
(Linn.),  is  very  numerous  in  species,  which  are  generally  of  a  Family 

black  or  brown  colour,  with  paler  wings  and  tegmina,  the     Membracidce. 
sides  of  the  thorax  projecting  to  a  more  or  less  sharp  point, 
and  a  long  spine,  broad  at  the  base,  and  narrowing  behind,  projecting  from 
the  thorax  over  the  back.     They  are  insects  of  small  size,  rarely  reaching  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  in  length.     Among  the  foreign  species,  the  forms  of  the 
horn  in  this  family  are  frequently  very  remarkable.     In 
one    genus,    Umbonia   (Burm.),    the    species    are    yellow, 
streaked  with  red,  and  the  whole  insect  is  shaped  exactly 
like  the  thorn  of  a  rose  tree.     These  are  found  in  Tropical 
America.     Respecting  the  North   American  species,  Prof. 
Comstock  remarks,  "In  some  cases  the  prothorax  is  elevated 
above  the  head,  so  that  it  looks  like  a  peaked  nightcap  ;  in 
others  it  is  shaped  like  a  Tam-o'-Shanter  ;  and  sometimes      F. 
it  has  horns,  one  on  each  side,  which  have  given  one  species        l9'  comutus 
the  name  of  the  buffalo  tree-hopper."     In  others,  again,  Nat.  size! 

the  horn  of  the  prothorax  is  nearly  vertical,  larger  than 
the  whole  of  the  rest  of  the  insect,  and  recurved  and  bifid  at  the  extremity, 
and  in  some  species  from  tropical  America,  belonging  to  the  genus  Bocydium 
(Latr.),  the  horn  separates  into  a  number  of  little  balls,  each  of  which  again 
throws  off  a  small  spine. 

The  remaining  families  of  Homoptera  which  we  have  to  notice  are  all 
plant-feeding  insects  of  small  size,  in  which  the  proboscis  appears  to  issue 
from  between  the  front-legs,  if  present  at  all.  The  antennae,  when  present, 
are  usually  long  and  slender,  and  the  tarsi  are  one  or  two- jointed. 

The   Psyllidce  are   short,    broad    insects,   which   have  been   compared    to 
minute  Cicadas.     The  hind  legs  are  thickened,  and  the  antennae  terminate  in 
two  bristles.     They  leap  about  on  plants,  and  many  of  the 
species  produce  galls.     They  resemble  the  Aphidw  in  dis-  Family 

charging  a  sweet  fluid,  which  attracts  ants,  and  their  larvae         Psyllidce. 
are  covered  with  a  white  cottony  exudation.     They  are  pro- 
vided with  three  ocelli.     The  wings  are  transparent. 

The  Aphididce,  which  are  often  called  plant-lice,  smother-flies,  or  blight, 
have  slender  legs,  not  fitted  for  leaping  ;  the  antennae  are  long  and  slender, 
not  terminating  in  a  double  bristle  ;  the  ocelli  are  absent, 
and  the  wings  are  transparent.     There  is  a  most  curious  Family 

alternation  of  broods  in  these    insects,   some  forms  being      Aphididce. — 
winged,   and   with   separate   sexes,    and    others   winged   or        Plant-Lice, 
apterous,  and  capable  of  producing  their  kind  for  an  indefinite 
number  of  generations  before  a  sexual  brood  is  again  developed.     Some  pro- 
duce galls,  but  the  greater  part  feed  on  the  leaves  of  trees.     Sometimes  one 
generation  will  live  on  one  tree,  and  the  next  migrate  to  another,  a  future 
generation  returning  to  the  original  food-plant.     In  fact,  the  anomalies  of 
these  insects  are  endless,  and  it  would  require  volumes  to  epitomise  even  the 
comparatively  little  which  has  already  been  discovered  with  reference  to  their 


602  INSECT  A— ORDERS  ANOPLURA  AND  DIPTERA. 


habits  and  transformations.  They  are  small  insects,  but  some  are  capable, 
like  the  Phylloxera  of  the  vine,  of  ruining  or  crippling  a  vast  industry  over  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  world.  They  exude  a  sweet  liquid  known  as 
honey-dew,  of  which  ants  are  extremely  fond  ;  and  to  ants  they  bear  the  re- 
lation of  milch-kine,  and  are  frequently  protected  and  tended  by  them 
accordingly.  In  some  cases  the  ants  are  even  said  to  superintend  the  breeding 
of  the  various  broods. 

The  Aleyrodidce  are  a  small  family,  of  which  the  perfect  insects  resemble 
very  small  moths,  covered  with  a  whitish  powder.  One  or  two  species  are 
very  destructive  to  cabbages  and  tomatoes. 

The  Coccidce,  or  scale-insects,  differ  much  from  all  other  insects.  The  male 
has  no  rostrum,  and  only  two  wings,  but  possesses  anal  setae,  and  the  wingless, 

short-legged  female   settles   herself 
Family  permanently  down  on  a  leaf  or  twig, 

Coccidce. —       and  forms  a  scale-like  covering  for 
Scale-Insects,      her  own  eggs.    Some  of  these  furnish 
useful  products,  such  as  cochineal, 
but  others  are  highly  injurious.     One  species,  Icerya 
purchasi  (Maskell),  caused  great  damage  in  California; 
but  by  the  advice  of    the  late  Prof.   C.   V.   Riley,     Fig.95.—Aleyrodesproletdla, 
an  Australian  lady-bird,  Novius  cardinalis  (Muls.),  Linn-    Magnified, 

was  introduced  into  the  country,  and  has  since  been 

effectual  in  keeping  the  ravages  of  the  Icerya  within  bounds.  Many  of  the 
Coccidce,  especially  the  larval  forms,  are  covered  either  with  a  white  cottony 
substance  or  with  large  plates  of  white  wax,  which  in  some  cases  has  a  com- 
mercial value. 


ORDER  ANOPLURA. 

The  true  lice,  which  are  wingless  insects,  parasitic  on  mammals,  and 
furnished  with  a  sucking  proboscis,  are  sometimes  regarded  as  a  sub-order  of 
Hemiptera.  Three  species  at  least  infest  man  in  European  countries,  and, 
besides  the  discomfort  and  annoyance  which  they  occasion,  are  either  the 
cause  of,  or  accompany  various  diseases.  They  multiply  very  rapidly,  but 
can  usually  be  destroyed  or  kept  away  by  ordinary  attention  to  cleanliness. 
In  warm  countries,  or,  indeed,  in  any  community  where  cleanliness  is  neglected, 
they  are  universally  prevalent.  There  has  been  much  controversy  as  to 
whether  the  lice  infesting  different  races  of  mankind  are  to  be  regarded  as 
distinct  species,  or  only  as  slight  varieties.  Even  the  two  species  of  lice 
which  infest  the  head  and  clothes  respectively,  Pediculus  capitis  (Linn.),  and 
P.  vestimeuti  (Nitsch),  although  certainly  distinct,  are  so  much  alike  that  they 
can  hardly  be  distinguished  from  each  other.  The  third  species,  the  crab 
louse,  Pthirius  inguinalis  (Leech),  belongs  to  a  distinct  genus,  and  is  much 
smaller,  broader,  and  shorter  than  the  others. 


ORDER  DIPTERA  (FLIES). 
The  Diptera,  or  Flies,  differ  from  other  insects  in  possessing  only  two  wings 


LICE  AND  FLIES. 


603 


throughout  the  whole  of  the  Order,  the  hind-wings  being  represented  only  by 
two  knobbed  appendages  like  drumsticks,  which  are  known  as 
halteres  or  poisers.  They  are  furnished  with  a  proboscis,  General 
with  which  they  imbibe  their  food,  which  consists,  in  the  Characteristics, 
perfect  state,  of  liquid  substances  only.  They  undergo  a 
complete  metamorphosis,  their  larvae  being  footless  maggots,  which  pass  the 
pupa  state  in  a  barrel-shaped  integument  formed  of  the  dried  skin  of  the 
larva.  In  the  larval  state,  many  species  live  in  water,  some  in  the  ground, 
others  on  plants,  sometimes  forming  galls,  while  others  feed  on  carrion, 
dung,  etc.;  and  others,  again,  are  parasitic  on  various  animals,  neither 
vertebrate  nor  invertebrate  animals  being  secure  from  their  attacks.  They 
probably  form  one  of  the  largest  orders  of  insects,  but  have  been  so  little 
studied  that  only  28,000  species  were  described  up  to  1892,  of  which  between 
2,000  and  3, 000 'inhabit  the  British  Islands.  The  Flies  are  divided  into  two 
principal  sections,  and  the  Aphaniptera,  or  fleas,  are  now  usually  regarded  as 
forming  a  third  main  section  of  Diptera  rather  than  a  separate  order. 

The  body  is  not  generally  very  hairy,  and  the  wings  are  usually  destitute 
of  hair  or  scales,  generally  transparent,  and  with  very  few  nervures,  most  of 
which  are  longitudinal.  The  Aphaniptera  have  the  barest  rudiments  of  wings, 
while  some  genera  of  Diptera  are  provided  with  small  additional  lobes  at  the 
base  of  the  wings,  which  are  usually  called  alulae. 


DIPTERA  NEMOCERA  (GNATS  AND  CRANE-FLIES). 

The  insects  belonging  to  this  group  are  generally  slender-bodied  flies,  with 
the  antennae  long,  or  of  moderate  length,  and  composed  of  six  joints  and 
upwards.  The  palpi  have  from  three  to  six  joints.  They  frequently  undergo 
their  metamorphoses  in  the  water  or  in  the  ground  ;  and  none  of  the  species 
of  this  section  are  parasitic,  or  even  carnivorous,  in  the  larval  stage,  though 
the  females  of  certain  families  will  suck  blood  in  their  perfect  state. 

The  Cecidomyiidce,  or  gall-gnats,  with  which  we  will  commence  our  notice 
of  the  Nemocera,  are  very  small,  gnat-like  insects,  with  long  moniliform 
or  cylindrical   antennae,  often  set 
with  whorls  of  hairs,  and  compara-  -         Family 
tively  broad,  iridescent  wings,  with     CecidomyiidcK. 
from  two  to  five  longitudinal  ner-      — Gall-Gnats, 
vures  only,  and  these  frequently 
not  all  clearly  defined.     Their  bodies  are  clothed 
with  long  hairs.     The  larvae  are  very  various  in 
their  habits,  many  of  them  causing  galls,  on  various 
trees  and  plants,  especially  willows,  while  others 
live  in  bulbs,  fungi,  rotten  wood,  under  bark,  or  in 
fir-cones.     One  or  two  species  are  at  times  very 
destructive  to  wheat,  especially  the  wheat-midge 
and  the  Hessian-fly,  Diplosis  tritici  (Kirb.),    arid 
Cecidomyia    destructor    (Say.).       The    latter    has 
only  lately  been  recognised  as  a  British  species. 
It  attacks  the  stems  of  the  wheat,  which  crack  and 
bend  over,  and  this  appearance  furnishes  the  easiest 
and  most  reliable  evidence  of  the  presence  of  the 
pest  among  the  wheat.     Its  ravages  are,  however,  much  checked  by  the  attacks 
of  various  small  parasites  belonging  to  the  Hymenopterous  family  Ghalcididce. 


Fig.  96.— HESSIAN-FLY 

(Cecidomyia  destructor). 

Magnified. 


604 


INSECTA— ORDER  DIPTERA. 


Besides  the  true  gnats  or  mosquitoes  (Culicidce),  some  of  the  species  be- 
longing to  several  other  families  of  this  section  of  Diptera  are  extremely 
troublesome,   the  females  sucking   the  blood  of   men   and 
Gnats  and       animals.     These  are  the  sand-flies  (Simuliidiv),  and  also  the 

Sand-Flies.  Chironomidce  and  Psychodidce.  The  larvae  of  all  these 
families,  except  the  Psychodidce,  live  in  water.  The  Culi- 
cidce  and  Ghironomidce  have  more  or  less  plumose  antennae  in  the  males, 
which  may  often  be  seen  on  our  windows.  The  transformations  of  the 
common  gnat  are  very  curious,  and  have  often  been  described.  The  female 
gnat  lays  her  eggs  in  a  compact,  boat-shaped  mass,  which  floats  on  the  surface 
of  the  water.  The  larva  swims  head  downwards,  having  a  respiratory  tube 
at  the  hinder  extremity  of  the  body,  through  which  it  breathes.  The 
pupa  is  of  a  different  form,  and  swims  head  upwards,  the  upper  end  of  the 
body,  which  is  much  thickened,  being  now  provided  with  respiratory  organs. 
When  it  has  arrived  at  maturity,  the  skin  of  the  upper  end  of  the  pupa  splits, 
and  the  gnat  gradually  disengages  itself,  steps  out  on  the  surface  of  the  water, 
and  flies  away.  The  Simuliidce  have  short,  broad  wings,  comparatively  short 
and  stout  antennae,  a*id  spotted  legs,  in  which  the  first  joint  of  the  tarsi  is  as 
long  as  the  remaining  joints.  The  larvae  and  pupae  live  in  water,  where  they 
form  small  cases,  which  they  attach  to  grass-stems,  weeds,  stones,  etc.  Our 
British  species  are  harmless,  or  nearly  so  ;  but  in  many  countries,  as  in  the 
Banat  of  Hungary,  for  example,  they  form  a  terrible  pest.  The  Psychodidw, 
the  last  of  this  group  of  blood-sucking  families  which  we  shall  notice,  resemble 
small  moths,  and  sit  on  the  underside  of  leaves,  or  run  actively  over  them.  The 
principal  blood-sucking  species  in  this  family  is  Phleboto  mus  papatom(Scopoli), 
whichinhabitsthesouth-east  of  Europe.  It  is  asmall,  hairy,  yellowish-brown  fly. 

Next  to  the  gnats  and  gnat-like  flies,  the  most  familiar  insects  belonging 
to  the  Nemocera  are  the  Tipulidce,  which  are  generally  called  crane-flies,  or 

daddy  longlegs.     These  are  flies 
Family  with  long,  narrow,  transparent 

Tipulidce. —      or    mottled    wings,    expanding 

Crane-Flies.  from  one  to  two  inches  ;  a  long 
pointed  snout,  on  each  side  of 
which  are  moderately  long  antennae  ;  and  a  long 
slender  body,  generally  greyish-brown,  but 
sometimes  banded  with  yellow,  and  terminating, 
in  the  female,  in  a  short  horny  point.  They 
have  very  long  slender  legs,  which  break  ofl'  at 
the  least  touch.  They  are  easily  disturbed 
when  we  are  walking  through  the  meadows, 
when  they  flit  a  few  feet,  and  settle  again  with 
their  wings  extended.  They  frequently  fly  into 
rooms  at  night,  being  easily  attracted  by  a  light. 
Their  grubs  live  in  the  ground,  and  feed  on  the 
roots  of  grass,  frequently  causing  whole  fields 
to  wither  and  turn  brown,  as  if  parched  up  with 
drought.  The  smaller  insects  of  this  rather  ex- 
tensive family  resemble  gnats  in  size  and  general  f.  97._cRANE-FLY 
appearance,  and  some  of  them  appear  during  the  (Pachyrhina'crocata).  Nat.  size, 
winter  months.  The  species  figured,  Packyrhina 

croca£a(Linn.),  is  a  rather  handsome  black  and  yellow  insect,  and  is  found  in 
woods. 


FLIES. 


605 


DIPTERA  BRACHYCERA  (FLIES). 

The  flies  of  this  section  are  generally  stouter  than  those  of  the  last,  and 
may  be  distinguished  from  them  by  their  very  short  antennae,  which  generally 
consist  only  of  three  joints  (never  more  than  six),  and  often  terminate  in  a 
long  bristle  ;  the  palpi,  too,  consist  of  one  or  two  joints  only. 

The  Stratiomyidce  are  a  family  of  small  or  moderate-sized  flies  of  sluggish 
habits,  which  are  often  to  be  met  with  on  flowers.     Some 
are  rather  pretty  black  or  black  and  yellow  flies,  often  with  Family 

spines  on  the  scutellum.     Many  of  their  larvse  live  in  water     Stratiomyidce. 
or  mud. 

The  Tabanidce,  or  gad-flies,  are  large  flies  with  stout  bodies  and  a  very 
strong  proboscis.  They  vary  in  length  from  an  inch  downwards,  and 

are  frequently  very 
troublesome   in  the  Family 

woods  and  fields,  by       Tabanidce. — 
sucking  the  blood  of        Gad-Flies, 
men    and    animals. 
Some  are  of  a  plain  brown  colour, 
but  others  are  rather  pretty,  being 
clothed  with  golden  hair,  while  others 
are  banded  or  marked  with  reddish- 
yellow.      The    larvse   are    harmless, 
living   in    damp    situations,   among 
fallen  leaves,  etc.;  and,  as  usual, it  is 
only  the  female  flies  which  suck  blood. 
We  have  been  speaking  here  chiefly 

of  the  genus  Tabanus  (Linn.),  the  largest  British  species  of  which,  T.  bomnus 
(Linn.),  is  here  figured ;  but  there  are  several  other  equally  troublesome  genera 
of  this  family,  such  as  Chrysops,  with  its  variegated  wings  and  beautiful  large 
golden-green  eyes  ;  and  Hwmatopoda  (Meigen),  which 
contains  dull-coloured  species,  with  longer  and  slenderer 
bodies  than  Tabanus  and  its  allies.  The  species  of  Hce- 
matopota  are  particularly  troublesome  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  woods,  especially  in  rainy  weather,  one  of  the 
Linnean  species  being  actually  named  plumalis  (rainy). 

The  next  family  of  interest  is  that  of  the  Asilidaz, 
which  are  large  flies,  often  measuring  an  inch  or  more  in 
length,  which  feed,  in  the  perfect  state, 
on  other  insects.     They  have  long  and  Family 

narrow  wings,  and  long  bodies,  but  tHeir  comparatively  short        AxilidcE. — 
and  thick  legs  render  it  impossible  for  the  most  careless      Kobber-Flies. 
observer  to  mistake  them  for  Tipulidce.     A  handsome  black 
and  yellow  species,  Asilus  crabroniformis  (Linn.),  is  not  rare.     So  far  as  is 
known,  the  larvse  feed  on  vegetable  substances,  either  under  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  or  in  the  wood  of  trees  ;  but  the  transformations  of  most  of 
the    species    of   this    family   still   remain    to    be    discovered.      Most    flies 
which   are   either  carnivorous   or  blood-suckers   in   their   perfect  state  are 
vegetable-feeders    in   their   early   stages  ;    but  some    of    the  exotic  family 
Midaidce,  the  perfect  insects  of  which  are  carnivorous,  also  feed  on  insects 
in  the  larva  state,  while  the  larvse  of  others  live  in  rotten  wood.     In  the 


Fig.  98.— GAD-FLY  (Tabanus  bovinus). 
.Nat.  size. 


Fig.  99. — Hcematopota 
pluvialis.    Nat.  size. 


6o6 


INSECTA— ORDER  DIPTERA. 


latter  case,  however,  it  is  possible  that  they  feed  on  other  insects  which 

live  in  the  wood,  and  not  on  the  wood 
itself. 

The  species  of  the  family  Empidce  much  re- 
semble the  Asilidce  in  habits,  but  are  smaller, 
and  frequent  woods  rather  than  open  places. 
They  will,  however,  feed  on  vegetable  as  well  as 
animal  substances,  and  their  larvae  live  in  loose 
earth. 

The  BombyliidcE,  or  bee-like  flies,  are  another 
interesting  family.  They  are  moderate-sized 
hairy  flies,  much  resembling  bees,  but  with  a 
long  straight  proboscis,  with  which  they  suck 
the  honey  of  flowers.  The  larvae  are  parasitic 
on  the  earlier  stages  of  other  insects. 

The  Syrphidce  are  a  large  family  of  hand- 
somely -  coloured  flies  of  moderate  size,  which 
curious  hovering  and  darting  flight.  Many 


Fig.  IQO.—Asilus  crabroniformis. 
Nat.  size. 


Fig.  lOl.—Eristalis  tenax. 
Nat.  size. 


are    remarkable  for    their 

of  the  species  resemble  wasps  and  bees ;  and 
their  larvae  live  on  decaying  animal  or  vege- 
table substances,  and  frequently  in  foul  water. 
The  most  interesting  species  of  this  family  is 
Erisbalis  tenax  (Linn.),  a  blackish  fly,  more  or  less 
clothed  with  tawny  hair,  and  rather  more  than 
half  an  inch  long.  Its  larva  is  often  found  in  foul 
water,  and  is  called  the  rat-tailed  grub,  from  a 
long  respiratory  appendage  at  the  end  of  the  body. 
This  species  appears  to  have  given  rise  to  the  wide- 
spread belief  that  bees  might  be  reared  from  dead 

carcases,  as  we  find  recorded  in  the  story  of  Sampson  ;  in  the  ' '  Georgics  "  of 
Virgil,  and  in  many  other  old  writings.  Wasp-like  flies  of  similar  habits 
have  also  given  rise  to  the  idea  that  wasps  or  hornets  were,  or  might  be, 
bred  from  the  carcases  of  horses. 

The  (Estridce,  or  bot-flies,  are  chiefly  remarkable  for  being  parasitic  in 

mammalia.     Recent  statistics  have  shown  that  the  amount  of  damage  caused 

by  the  following  species  to  cattle  in  England  alone  is  quite 

Family  CEstrjdce.  astounding.      Hypoderma  bovis  (Linn.)  is  a  black  hairy  fly, 

— Bot-Flies.       varied  with  whitish  and  yellowish,  which  attacks  oxen  ;  it 

is  about  half  an  inch  in  length.     The  flies  themselves  are  very 

rarely  seen,  unless  when  reared.     Other  species  of  this  family  live  in  the  nasal 

fossae  of  sheep  and  deer  ;  in  the  stomach  of  the  horse  ;  and  in  various  other 

situations.     They  have  sometimes  been  known   to  attack  man,  especially  in 

warm  countries ;  but  whether  any  species  of  this  family  habitually  attacks 

man  is  doubtful.     Hypodermic  dipterous  parasites  which  infest  man  belong, 

as  a  rule,  to  some  section  of  the  immense  family  Muscidce,  which  we  have 

now  to  consider. 

The  Muscidfx  include  nearly  half  the  known  Diptera.  and  have  nearly  all 
more  or  less  resemblance  to  the  common  house-fly,  which  is  the  type  of  the 
whole  order.     The  antennae  are  always  three-jointed,  with 
Family  the  third  joint  compressed,  and  bearing  a  bristle  on  the 

Muscidce.         back,  which  is  often  plumose.     The  proboscis  is  always  pre- 
sent, and  is  usually  membranous,  rarely  horny;  the   palpi 


FLIES.  607 


are  unjointed,  and  the  abdomen  has  from  four  to  seven  joints,  and  is  generally 
soft.  The  larvae  are  footless  maggots,  and  are  either  parasitic,  or  live  on 
decaying  animal  and  vegetable  substances.  The  MuscidcK  are  divided  into 
two  main  sections  :  the  Muscidce  Calypterce,  in  which  the  appendages  called 
alulae,  or  winglets,  are  present ;  and  the  Muscidce  Acalypterce,  in  which  they 
are  absent  or  rudimentary.  (The  alulae  must  not  be  confounded  with  the 
halteres,  or  poisers,  which  are  drumstick  or  battledore-shaped  organs,  which 
are  considered  to  correspond  to  the  hind  pair  of  wings  in  four- winged  insects.) 
Each  of  these  two  sections  is  divided  into  several  large  sub-families,  the 
more  interesting  of  which  we  will  now  proceed  to  consider. 

The  Tachinince,  are  a  sub-family  remarkable  for  the  very  bristly 
abdomen  of  most  of  the  species.  The  larvae  are  parasitic  on  various  species 
of  Lepidoptera,  and  the  flies,  which  are  rather  numer- 
ous in  genera  and  species,  are  frequently  found  on 
the  flowers  of  wild  carrot,  and  other  Umbelliferce.  A 
species  of  this  sub-family  has  been  reared  from  a  nest 
of  the  gregarious  larvae  of  a  West  African  moth  of 
the  genus  Anaphe,  and  is  here  figured. 

The  typical  sub-family  of  the  Muscince  includes  a 

„.  large  number  of  our  most  familiar  flies  ;  and  among 

Twic7naat  s\ze.'  **  them  ^he  true  house-fly,  Musca  domestica  (Linn.), 
which  is  blackish,  more  or  less  varied  with  grey,  and 
with  the  base  of  the  abdomen  reddish  ;  it  is  about  one-third 
of  an  inch  long.  The  various  organs  of  this  insect :  the  House-Flies, 
compound  facetted  eyes,  the  proboscis,  and  the  peculiarly 
complicated  foot,  all  form  interesting  microscopic  objects,  and  have  often 
been  described  and  figured  in  books  on  natural  history.  It  is  now  believed 
fhat  the  pads  of  the  foot  do  not  support  the  insects  when  walking  on  a  ceiling 
or  window-pane  by  performing  the  office  of  suckers,  but  that  they  exude  a 
viscid  fluid  which  enables  the  insects  to  adhere  to  a  smooth  surface.  The 
larvae  of  Musca  domestica  live  in  dung,  or  in  any  sort  of  animal  or  vegetable 
refuse  ;  and  owing  to  the  much  greater  cleanliness  of  our  houses  and  en- 
closures, to  what  was  the  case  formerly,  flies  are  not  nearly  so  numerous  and 
troublesome  as  was  the  case  even  thirty  or  forty  years  ago.  They  do  not 
bite  or  sting,  but  there  is  a  greyer  fly,  Stomoxys  calcitrans  (Linn.),  which  comes 
into  houses  in  wet  weather,  and  bites  sharply.  Its  pupae  have  been  found  in 
horse-dung,  in  which  the  larva  very  probably  feeds.  But  any  flies  can  convey 
the  infection  of  diseases  which  can  be  communicated  in  this  manner,  even 
those  which  do  not  bite  ;  and  ophthalmia  is  frequently  thus  communi- 
cated in  Egypt ;  and  the  bite  of  flies  that  have  been  feeding  on  putrid 
substances  is  still  more  dangerous.  The  mosquitoes  in  the  East  Indies  are 
even  said  to  convey  the  germs  of  a  small  blood-parasite  from  one  person  to 
another  in  this  manner.  At  the  best,  therefore,  flies  are  undesirable  visitors 
in  our  houses ;  but  they  are  not  allowed  to  increase  indefinitely,  but  are  liable 
to  various  natural  checks.  They  are  frequently  seen  in  autumn  plastered  to 
the  windows  by  a  white  fungus,  which  has  spread  over  and  round  them  till 
it  has  killed  them.  They  are  also  frequently  seen  with  the  curious  little 
creatures  called  false  scorpions  (belonging  to  the  Arachnide  family  Cheliferidce) 
clinging  to  their  legs.  These  resemble  microscopic  scorpions  without  the 
tail,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  they  are  really  injurious  to  the  flies,  which,  it  has 
been  suggested,  they  may  use  as  winged  steeds  to  carry  them  to  fresh  fields 
and  pastures  new. 


608  INSECTA— ORDER  DIPTERA. 


The  house-fly  is  most  common  in  summer  and  autumn,  but  there  are  other 
flies  very  similar  to  it  in  size  and  colour,  belonging  to  the  sub-family  Antho- 
myince,  which  are  common  in  houses  earlier  in  the  year,  and  are  commonly 
called  house-flies.  It  is  perhaps  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  although  many 
genera  and  species  of  flies  are  common  in  houses,  either  habitually  or  casually, 
none  of  them  ever  grow  after  assuming  the  perfect  state  ;  and  it  would,  con- 
sequently, be  an  absurd  error  to  suppose  that  the  small  flies  are  the  young 
of  the  large  ones,  even  though  individuals  of  the  same  species  may  vary  a 
little  in  size  within  narrow  limits. 

Other  larger  flies  are  common  in  our  houses,  with  brown  bodies  and  blue 
or  purple  abdomens.  They  are  generally  called  blue-bottle  flies,  and  their 
grubs  feed  on  meat,  or  carrion.  A  smaller  and  prettier  species,  the  green- 
bottle,  Lucilia  ccesar  (Linn.),  is  more  frequently  observed  out  of  doors. 
Linnaeus  is  reported  to  have  said  that  the  progeny  of  three  blow-flies  could 
devour  the  carcass  of  an  ox  as  quickly  as  a  lion  could.  The  Tse-tse  fly, 
Glossina  morsitans  (Westwood),  which  destroys  horses  and  cattle  in  South 
Africa,  is  another  species  of  this  sub-family  ;  it  is  about  the  size  of  a  bee. 


MUSCID.E  ACALYPTER.E. 

This  is  another  large  section,  divided  into  several  sub-families,  mostly  of 
small  size.  Some  of  them  feed  on  dung,  like  the  conspicuous  yellow  fly, 
Scatophaga  stercoraria  (Linn.);  others, as  the  sub-families,  Ortalince,  Trypetince, 
and  Agromyzince,  feed  on  plants  ;  some  in  the  heads  of  floweTs,  and  others 
mining  the  leaves  of  trees,  like  the  Tinece  among  the  moths.  Most  of  the  flies 
of  this  section  are  small  and  slender,  and  many  have  very  prettily  variegated 
wings.  The  best  known  species  is  perhaps  Piophila  casei  (Linn.),  a  rather 
slender,  black,  hairy  fly,  the  larvae  of  which  feed  on  cheese  or  bacon.  It 
belongs  to  the  sub-family  Piophilince. 


Fig.  103.— SWALLOW  FLY  Fig.  104.— SHEEP  TICK 

(Ornithomyia  avicularia,  (Mallophagus  ovinus, 

Linn.).    Nat.  size.  Linn.).    Nat.  size. 


DIPTERA  HOMALOPTERA. 

This  section  contains  only  two  families,  the  Hippoboscidce  and  Nycteribiidw, 
which  include  a  few  species  with  a  rather  horny  integument,  and  very  hairy, 
sprawling  legs.  They  are  parasitic  on  various  mammals  and  birds  ;  and 
some  of  the  species,  such  as  the  sheep  tick,  Melophagus  ovinus  (Linn. ),  are 
apterous. 


FLIES  AND  FLEAS.  609 


DIPTERA  APHANIPTERA. 

This  section  includes  the  fleas,  which  are  too  well  known  to  need  descrip- 
tion.    The  species  are  not  well-defined,  and  it  is  *hot  clear  how  far  those 
which  are  found  on  different   animals  are   really  distinct. 
They  are  all  remarkable  for  their  great  powers  of  leaping ;  Fleas. 

and  they  possess  the  merest  rudiments  of  wings.  They 
sometimes  form  colonies  on  the  ground,  especially  in  warm  countries,  and 
have  been  observed  to  attack  caterpillars,  so  that  their  food  is  not  confined 
to  the  blood  of  mammals  or  birds.  They  are  probably  quite  as  ready  to 
attack  any  soft-bodied  animal  which  comes  in  their  way.  I  have  already 
suggested  (antea,  p.  596)  that  it  is  possible  that  they  may  even  attack  the 
common  bed-bug,  and  exterminate  it  in  houses  where  they  are  sufficiently 
numerous.  In  America  it  is  said  that  the  common  house-flea  is  the  dog- 
flea,  the  human  flea  being  much  less  common. 


40 


SUB-KINGDOM   III.— MOLLUSCA. 

SNAILS,  ETC. 

BY  B.  B.  WOODWARD,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S.,  ETC. 

THE  sub-kingdom  Mollusca  includes  such  well-known  creatures  as  the  whelk, 
the  oyster,  the  garden  snail,  and  the  octopus.  It  may  be  roughly  character- 
ised as  comprising  soft-bodied  animals  that  are  usually  possessed  of  a  hard 
shell  into  which  they  can  withdraw  for  protection.  The  forms  of  its  different 
members  are  as  varied  as  the  different  conditions  of  life  to  which  they  have 
become  adapted  ;  for  some  live  in  the  open  sea,  others  hide  in  its  depths  ; 
some  live  in  rivers  or  swift-flowing  streams  and  even  torrents,  or  abide  in 
still  lakes  and  ponds  ;  others,  again,  are  adapted  for  life  on  dry  land,  and, 
though  mostly  lovers  of  moist,  shady  spots,  will  some  of  them  rejoice  in 
sun-baked  rocks,  or  live  in  arid  spots  where  vegetation  is  scanty.  Indeed, 
save  for  the  frozen  polar  regions  and  snow-capped  mountain  summits,  or 
desert  wastes — such  as  the  Sahara — there  is  no  spot  on  the  surface  of  the 
globe,  nor,  unless  it  be  certain  of  the  extreme  depths,  any  point  on  the  sea 
bottom,  without  its  representative  mollusc.  But  it  is  in  the  tropical  regions 
and  oceans  that  they  most  abound.  Their  mode  of  life  is  as  varied  as  their 
habitat :  some  are  strong  swimmers,  others  only  float  in  the  water  ;  some 
crawl  on  land  or  under  water,  others  burrow  in  the  mud  or  sand,  or  even 
into  hard  rocks,  whilst  a  few  live  in  the  tissues  of  other  animals  ;  others, 
again,  attach  themselves  to  different  objects  more  or  less  permanently  ;  this 
is  especially  the  case  with  the  shore  dwellers,  who  have  to  withstand  the 
action  of  currents,  the  sweep  to  and  fro  of  the  tides,  or  the  violence  of 
storm-tossed  waters.  Their  food,  too,  differs,  some  being  carnivorous  and 
even  cannibals,  others  strict  vegetarians,  whilst  many  prefer  a  mixed  diet. 
Those  that  burrow,  or  are  attached,  generally  feed  on  microscopic  organisms, 
which  they  obtain  from  the  mud  or  the  water ;  whilst  the  parasites,  as  all 
the  world  over,  dine  at  the  expense  of  their  hosts. 

Owing  to  the  great  variations  in  form,  and  even  in  structure,  which 
conformity  to  these  widely  different  requirements  of  life  has  brought 
about,  it  is  impossible  to  draw  up  any  satisfactory  definition  of  a  mollusc 
which  shall  be  fairly  applicable  to  even  the  majority  of  the  larger  groups. 
Nevertheless,  certain  characters  they  do  possess  more  or  less  in  common. 
The  shell,  though  not  universally  present,  is  on  the  whole,  perhaps,  the 
most  conspicuous  feature,  although  not  the  most  important  part  of 
the  animal.  They  have  also  a  well- developed  muscular  system,  of  which 
that  portion  pertaining  to  the  foot,  or  organ  of  locomotion,  is  the  most 
prominent.  There  is  a  distinct  nervous  system  ;  a  heart  and  circulatory 
system  with  its  associated  organs  of  respiration  ;  an  alimentary  system,  or 

610 


GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  MOLLUSCS.  611 


set  of  organs  for  preparing  and  digesting  the  food  ;  an  excretory  system  ;  and 
reproductive  organs. 

The  shell  in  the  majority  of  Mollusca  consists  of  a  single  more  or  less 
coiled  tube  (a.s  in  the  whelk  and  snail),  and  hence  they  are  termed  univalves ; 
in  the  oyster  and  other  bivalves  the  shell  is  in  two  pieces  ;  whilst  in  the 
coat-of-mail  shells,  chitons,  there  are  eight  little  overlapping  shelly  plates. 
The  shell  is  composed  mainly  of  carbonate  of  lime,  with  the  admixture 
of  an  organic  substance  known  as  conchiolin,  which  is  very  similar  to  chitin, 
the  horny  material  forming  the  hard  parts  of  insects.  It  is  generally 
divisible  into  layers  exhibiting  differences  of  structure.  The  outermost, 
called  the  periostracum,  largely  and  often  entirely  consists  of  conchiolin  ;  it 
varies  greatly  in  appearance,  being  sometimes  smooth  and  shiny,  at  others 
rough  and  coarse,  frequently  it  is  fibrous.  In  many  forms  it  readily  rubs 
off,  in  others  it  is  firmly  united  to  the  true  shell  beneath.  The  term 
epidermis,  which  has  been  misapplied  to  this  layer,  should  be  reserved 
exclusively  for  the  outermost  layer  of  the  skin  of  the  animal  itself.  Of  the 
shell  proper  the  main  layer  is  usually  either  porcellaneous  or  crystalline  in 
structure,  and  in  certain  cases,  such  as  Pinna,  it  is  prismatic.  The  inner- 
most layer  is  frequently  pearly  (nacreous),  and  in  some,  like  the  fresh-water 
mussels  or  the  pearl  oyster,  it  is  the  thickest  of  all.  The  iridescent  play  of 
colours,  for  which  mother-of-pearl  is  noted,  results  not  so  much  from  any  fine 
microscopic  sculpturing  of  the  surface  as  from  the  breaking  up  and  refraction 
of  the  light  that  falls  on  them  by  the  extremely  thin  films  of  which  the 
pearly  layer  is  built  up.  Yet  another  quality  of  shelly  matter  is  that  which  is 
deposited  when  a  damage  in  the  shell  has  to  be  made  good,  or  an  unoccupied 
space  requires  to  be  filled  up.  Very  similar,  too,  is  the  calcareous  material  of 
which  the  trap-door  (operculum)  closing  the  mouth  of  some  shells  is  formed. 
These  different  layers  of  shelly  matter  are  secreted  by  a  series  of  special 
cells  near  the  margin  (collar)  of  the  tough  muscular  skin  (mantle)  that 
envelops  the  greater  portion  of  the  animal's  body,  the  outermost  layer 
by  the  cells  nearest  the  margin,  the  next  one  by  those  further  in, 
and  so  on.  The  shell,  therefore,  increases  in  size  by  the  addition  of 
fresh  material  to  its  free  edges,  the  whole  being  subsequently  thickened 
and  strengthened  by  further  deposits  on  the  inner  surface.  The  successive 
additions  along  the  growing  edge  generally  leave  ridges  or  marks  parallel 
with  it,  that  are  known  as  lines  of  growth.  The  deposition  of  shell  does 
not  go  on  continuously  ;  every  now  and  again  there  comes  a  period  of 
rest,  and  these  rest-periods  are  frequently  indicated  by  the  occurrence  of 
a  stronger  ridge  or  mark.  The  different  details  of  sculpturing  on  the 
surfaces  of  the  shell,  striae,  ribs,  spines,  etc.,  are  all  the  products  of  corre- 
sponding irregularities  on  the  margin  of  the  mantle,  and  were,  when  first 
formed,  situated  on  the  growing  edge.  Pearls  result  from  the  coating  over 
with  nacre  of  any  irritating  object  that  may  have  got  between  the  mantle  of 
a  pearl-producing  mollusc  and  its  shell — a  fact  taken  advantage  of  by  the 
ingenious  Chinese  who  introduce  small  metal  images.  More  often,  perhaps — 
and  certainly  it  is  the  case  with  the  finer  examples — they  result  from  a 
diseased  condition  of  the  cells  that  secrete  the  nacre. 

The  muscular  foot,  which  is  generally  an  organ  of  locomotion,  takes  various 
forms  in  the  different  groups  of  Mollusca:  the  univalves  (snails  and  whelks) 
creep  along  by  its  means ;  the  bivalves  employ  it  to  burrow  with ;  in  the 
cuttle-fish  it  is  drawn  out  into  the  arms ;  in  other  Mollusca  it  is  transformed 
into  fins  to  swim  with ;  whilst  in  some,  like  the  oyster,  it  has  ceased  to  be 


612  MOLLUSC  A— GENERAL  DESCRIPTION. 


employed,  and  has  degenerated  into  a  mere  rudiment.  Most  of  the  muscles 
of  the  body  are  concerned  with  the  extension  or  retraction  of  the  different 
organs  of  the  body,  and  do  not  here  need  special  enumeration. 

The  nervous  system  of  Mollusca  acquires  peculiar  importance  in  that  it  is 
the  last  feature  to  be  influenced  by  the  modifications  of  the  organism,  and 
henoe  is  of  extreme  value  in  tracing  relationships  of  the  parts.  Its  principal 
elements  comprise  a  series  of  paired  nerve  centres  or  ganglia ;  of  these  one 
pair,  the  cerebral  ganglia,  lying  above  the  oesophagus,  sends  off  nerves  to 
(innervates)  the  head,  eyes,  and  the  special  organs  of  sense;  another  pair, 
the  pedal  ganglia,  situated  below  the  oesophagus,  innervates  the  foot ;  whilst 
the  pleural  ganglia,  lying  one  on  each  side  just  above  the  pedal  ganglia,  form 
the  third  pair.  These  several  ganglia  are  united  by  nerve  cords,  so  that  the 
whole  usually  forms  a  ring  or  collar  round  the  throat.  A  nerve  cord  runs, 
also,  from  each  pleural  ganglion  back  into  the  visceral  mass,  innervating  the 
viscera  and  various  organs :  these  two  ultimately  joining  form  what  is  known 
as  the  visceral  commissure.  Sometimes  these  two  cords  cross  over  each  to  the 
opposite  side  of  the  body  before  uniting,  and  the  loop  becomes  a  figure  of  8. 
Various  sense  organs  are  present  in  the  Mollusca.  Many  of  these  are  situated 
on  the  integument,  and  are  probably,  like  the  tentacles,  organs  of  touch. 
Eyes  are  found  in  most  forms,  sometimes  very  perfect  organs,  as  in  the 
cuttle-fish ;  in  snails  generally  they  are  less  well-developed,  and  placed  near 
the  base  of  the  horns,  or  on  the  summit  of  a  special  pair:  the  bivalves  being 
headless,  have  usually  no  eyes ;  when  visual  organs  are  present  they  occur  in 
some  part  of  the  margin  of.  the  mantle  and  are  numerous.  In  the  case  of 
one  or  two  molluscs,  eyes  are  developed  over  the  back.  From  their  dis- 
crimination of  certain  food,  some  Mollusca  appear  to  be  capable  of  tasting, 
and  they  certainly  can  smell.  The  seat  of  the  olfactory  sense  is  believed  to 
vary,  and  sometimes  to  reside  in  a  tentacle,  at  others  to  be  traced  to  a  special 
organ  called  an  osphradium,  which  in  marine  snails  is  situated  close  to  the 
gills  and  resembles  them  somewhat  in  appearance.  That  molluscs  can  hear 
is  inferred,  rather  than  known,  from  the  presence  of  otocysts,  small  cavities 
filled  with  fluid  in  which  grains  of  shelly  material  float.  These  otocysts  are 
situated  close  to  the  pedal  ganglia  and  supplied  by  nerves  from  the  cephalic 
ganglia. 

The  most  important  feature  in  connection  with  the  digestive  system  of 
Mollusca  is  the  armature  of  the  mouth,  and  consists  of  a  horny  jaw  or  jaws, 
and  the  radula,  as  it  is  called.  Both,  however,  are  wanting  in  the  bivalves 
and  in  a  few  other  isolated  forms. 

The  cuttle-fish  have  a  pair  of  jaws,  upper  and  under ;  the  common  snails  and 
limpets,  a  single  upper  jaw  ;  but  the  majority  of  the  univalve  Mollusca  have 
a  pair  of  jaws,  right  and  left.  The  radula  is  characteristic  of  the  Mollusca. 
It  consists  first  of  a  ribbon-like  horny,  or  chitinous,  transparent,  yellowish 
membrane  lying  on  the  floor  of  the  mouth,  and  passing  over  two  cartilages, 
to  which  it  is  attached  by  special  muscles.  On  the  surface  of  this  membrane 
are  set  a  series  of  minute,  recurved  teeth,  also  formed  of  very  dense,  hard 
chitine.  In  a  few  instances  there  is  but  a  single  row  of  teeth,  one  behind 
the  other  ;  usually  there  are  several,  sometimes  a  greafc  many,  side  by  side, 
and  row  upon  row,  each  tooth  repeating  the  form  of  the  corresponding  one 
in  the  row  immediately  in  front  of  it.  Only  those  teeth  near  the  front  are 
in  use,  the  muscles  attached  to  the  basal  membrane  pulling  that  portion  of 
the  radula  backwards  and  forwards  over  the  cartilages,  so  that  the  teeth  act 
very  much  after  the  manner  of  a  chain-saw,  and  rasp  off  portions  of  the  food. 


GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  MOLLUSCS. 


613 


The  cartilages,  too,  which  are  attached  by  one  end  to  the  floor  of  the  mouth, 
can  be  worked  backwards  and  forwards  by  special  muscles,  and  so  bring  the 
teeth  into  play.  The  action  of  the  tongue  thus  formed  can  be  well  seen  in  a 
common  pond  snail,  as  it  slowly  crawls  up  the  glass-side  of  an  aquarium, 
clearing  off  the  microscopic  plant-growths  as  it  goes.  Of  course  the  teeth  in 
front  soon  wear  away  and  drop  off,  so  that  further  and  further  portions  of 
the  radula  have  to  be  brought  into  use  as  required.  The  portion  of  the 
radula  held  in  reserve  for  this  purpose  is  stowed  away  in  a  kind  of  pocket 
(the  radula  sac),  situated  at  the  back  of  the  mouth  and  immediately  under 
the  oasophagus.  At  the  extreme  end  of  this  radula  sac  a  special  set  of  cells, 
in  the  substance  of  its  wall,  are  engaged  in  forming  fresh  teeth,  so  that  a 
constant  supply  is  being  manufactured  ready  to  be  moved  forward  in  place 
of  the  worn-out  ones.  When  the  reserve  supply  needed  is  very  great  the 
radula  is  of  great  length,  and  the  radula  sac,  correspondingly  long,  has  to  be 
stowed  away  amongst  the  other  organs  of  the  body.  This  is  especially  the 
case  in  the  limpet  and  the  periwinkle,  which  last  has  proportionately 
the  longest  known  radula  of  any  mollusc.  As  a  rule,  in  each  transverse 
row  of  teeth  there  is  a  symmetrical  central  one  called  the  median  or 
rachidian  tooth ;  on  either  side  of  this  the  teeth  are  unsymmetrical, 
and  their  shape  changes  as  they  are  traced  outwards  from  the  centre, 
but  each  one  pairs  exactly  with  the  corresponding  tooth  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  median  one.  Generally  the  first  few  near  the  median  more  or  less 
resemble  each  other,  and  are  succeeded  rather  abruptly  by  smaller  ones,  so 
that  the  whole  radula  appears  divided  into  three  longitudinal  tracts.  The 
middle  tract  is  then  termed  the  rachis  and  the  teeth  on  it  the  median  and 
admedian,  whilst  the  outer  tracts  are  styled  pleurae,  and  their  teeth  uncini. 
Sometimes  between  the  admedian  and  the  uncini  there  is  a  conspicuous  tooth 
differing  from  either,  which  may  be  termed  the  lateral  or  capituliform  tooth. 
The  shapes  and  patterns 
of  these  teeth  (Fig.  1) 
and  their  arrangement 
are  so  characteristic  in 
the  different  genera  as  to 
form  valuable  aids  to 
classification,  though, 
since  they  are  apt  to  vary 
in  the  young  and  adult 
state  of  the  same  in- 
dividual, they  do  not 
furnish  an  unerring 
clue  to  the  identity 
of  species.  A  formula 
has  been  invented  for 
expressing  the  number 
of  teeth  in  each  trans- 
verse row  thus  : — 

I'l'l  signifies  that 
there  is  a-  median,  with 
a  single  lateral  on  either 
side  ;  2'11-1'2  has  in 
addition  2  uncini  on  either  side.  When  the  uncini  are  very  numerous 
the  sign  oo  (=  infinity),  or,  better  still,  x  is  employed,  thus  oo  'l'4'l'4*l*oo, 


Fig.  1.— 

A,  Docoglossa  (Patella  vulgata). 

B,  Rhipidoglossa(7Voc/ittS  cinerarius). 

C,  Tamiojrlossa  (Cyprcea  Europcea). 

D,  Rhachiglossa  (Buccinum  undatum)— Whelk. 

E,  Achatina  fulica. 


614  MOLLUSCA— GENERAL  DESCRIPTION. 


or  x  •l^'l'i'l*  5c,  is  the  formula  for  certain  kinds.  Further  allusion 
to  these  will  be  made  when  treating  of  the  different  groups. 

All  the  Mollusca  have  a  circulatory  system,  with  a  heart  as  the  central 
organ,  which  propels  the  blood  through  the  body.  The  heart  lies  in  a  cavity, 
known  as  the  pericardium,  and  receives  from  auricles,  usually  two  in  number 
and  lying  one  on  each  side  of  it,  the  blood  that  has  been  aerated  in  the  gills. 
This  blood  is  driven  by  the  heart  through  a  series  of  arteries,  whence  it 
passes  in  most  Mollusca  through  a  series  of  cavities  amongst  and  between 
the  various  organs  and  muscles  of  the  body  ;  hence  it  finds  its  way  back,  for 
the  most  part  through  veins,  to  the  gills,  but  some  passes  direct  to  the  heart 
without  aeration  and  thence  circulates  again.  The  blood  is  often  colourless, 
or  is  slightly  bluish,  from  the  presence  of  an  albuminoid  (hwmocyanin)  con- 
taining copper  ;  sometimes  it  is  red,  and  contains  the  same  colouring  matter 
(hcemoylobin)  as  the  blood  of  vertebrates. 

The    gills     have    been    so     largely    employed    in    classifying     Mollusca 
that    it     is     impossible     to     omit    a     brief    description     of     their    main 
features.       The     simple     or     primitive     form     of     gill     has     been     aptly 
compared     to     a     plume,     in    that,     like     an    ostrich    feather,     it     con- 
sists of  a  main  axis  or  shaft,  from  which,  at  short  intervals,  filaments  are 
given  off  in  pairs.    The  axis  of  the  gill  contains,  on 
opposite  sides,  the  vessels  that  convey  the  blood 
to  the  smaller  passages  in  the  filaments  and  carry 
it  off  again  to  the  heart  after  it  has  been  aerated 
in  them.     Increase  in  the  surface  of  aeration  is 
obtained  either  by  the  lengthening  of  the  fila- 
ments, or  by  the  union  and  flattening  out  of  each 
pair  into  a  small  leaf-like  expansion.    The  former 
is  the  Filibranchiate,orPectintinibranchiate  (comb- 
Fig.  2—  DIAGRAM  ILLUSTRATING      gilled),  the  latter  the  Scutibranchiate,  or  Aspido- 
THB  Two  TYPES  OF  GILL      branchiate    (both    meaning    shield  -  gilled),     or 
STpTeUctinibraDchiate.  Foliobranchiate    (leaf-gilled)   condition  (Fig    2). 

B,  Foliobranchiate.  Further  modifications  take  place  in  the  gills  of 

bivalves,  but  these  will  be  treated  of  later  on. 

In  the  Foliobranchiate,  and  in  the  more  complicated  forms  of  gill,  the 
vessels  conveying  the  blood  to  and  from  the  gill  have  their  positions  with 
relation  to  the  axis  considerably  modified. 

A  pair  of  organs  called  nephridia,  which  play  the  part  of  kidneys  and  free 
the  blood  from  impurities  on  its  way  to  the  gills,  lie  in  the  region  of  the 
heart ;  they  open  into  the  pericardium  on  the  one  hand,  and  communicate  on 
the  other  with  the  exterior. 

In  the  majority  of  Mollusca  the  sexes  are  distinct,  but  in  the  land  snails, 
the  sea  slugs,  and  their  allies,  the  sexes  are  united  in  each  individual.  Most 
Mollusca  are  oviparous  ;  that  is  to  say,  lay  eggs.  In  a  few  instances  the  young 
are  brought  forth  alive,  the  eggs  being  hatched  within  the  body  of  the 
parent ;  whilst  in  numerous  other  cases,  notably  the  bivalves,  the  eggs  are 
retained  within  the  parent  shell  till  hatched.  The  land  snails  lay  beparate 
eggs,  which  have  each  a  tough  outer  layer  or  case,  or  even  a  regular  shell 
like  a  bird's  egg.  There  is  one  West  African  snail  whose  egg  is  as  large  as 
that  of  a  pigeon,  and  has  nearly  as  thick  a  shell.  The  fresh  water  and 
marine  snails  deposit  their  eggs  generally  in  clusters,  adhering  together 
either  in  a  mass,  or  spread  out  in  a  ribbon.  Sometimes  each  egg  is  enclosed 
in  a  tough  albuminous  capsule,  as  in  the  case  of  the  whelk  and  the  cuttle-fish. 


COAT-OF-MAIL  SHELLS.  615 


The  early  stages  in  the  development  of  the  young  Mollusca  are  the  same  as 
in  all  other  animals.  The  original  single  cell  splits  up  into  many  cells,  till  it 
looks  like  a  mulberry.  These  cells  next  arrange  themselves  in  a  single  layer, 
so  as  to  form  a  hollow  ball ;  one  side  then  becomes  folded  in,  so  that  a 
double  layer  of  cells  results,  enclosing  a  cavity  which  ultimately  becomes  the 
digestive  tube  ;  other  cells  arise  between  the  two  layers,  that  subsequently 
form  the  various  organs  and  the  muscles  of  the  young  animal.  Meantime 
there  arises  a  swimming  organ,  which  is  peculiar  to  the  young  mollusc  ;  this 
is  called  the  velum.  It  begins  as  a  ridge,  fringed  with  fine  hairs  (cilia), 
encircling  that  part  of  the  head  of  the  embryo  which  lies  in  front  of  the 
mouth,  and  it  finally  expands  into  a  sort  of  disc,  which  is  drawn  out  into 
lobes  or  into  fingers.  This  is  known  as  the  veliger  stage,  and  is  further 
marked  by  the  formation  of  the  young  shell  and  the  first  appearance  of  the 
foot.  The  young  shell  is  always  a  simple  coil,  even  in  those  forms  which, 
when  adult,  have  a  straight  shell,  or  discard  their  shell  altogether.  As  the 
young  snail  grows  up  the  velum  disappears. 

The  molluscan  sub-kingdom  is  divided  into  five  classes  : — 

I.  AMPHINEURA. 

II.  PELECYPODA,    Or   LAMELLIBRANCHIATA, 

III.  SCAPHOPODA. 

IV.  GASTROPODA. 
V.  CEPHALOPODA. 

Formerly  the  sea-butterflies  PTEROPODA  were  considered  to  form  a  class  by 
themselves  :  they  are  now,  however,  known  to  be  only  very  greatly  modified 
forms  of  Gastropoda. 

CLASS  I.— AMPHINEURA. 

The  Amphineura  are  in  many  respects  the  most  primitive  of  all  the  Mollusca. 
They  are  literally  symmetrical ;  that  is  to  say,  if  the  body  were  divided  down 
the  middle  from  head  to  tail,  structures  found  on  one  side  of  the  body  would 
be  seen  to  be  repeated  on  the  other. 

The  elementary  canal  is  not  bent,  the  hinder  end  opening  at  the  opposite 
extremity  of  the  elongate  body  to  the  mouth. 
The  nervous  system  consists  of  two  lateral  and 
two  ventral  nerve  trunks,  which  start  from 
the  cerebral  ganglia  and  are  connected  together 
at  intervals  by  numerous  transverse  nerve  cords. 
The  class  is  divided  into  two  orders  : — POLYPLA- 
COPHORA  and  APLACOPHORA. 

K 

ORDER  I. — POLYPLACOPHORA. 
The  Coat-of-Mail  Shells,  or  Chitons  (Fig.  2),  are 
readily  distinguished  by  being  alone  amongst  the 
Mollusca  in  possessing  a  shelly  covering  of  many 
pieces  called  the  lorica.  There  are  eight  plates 
or  valves  in  all  on  the  back  of  the  animal,  fitting 
one  over  the  other  like  the  tiles  on  a  roof. 
Generally  the  lorica  is  surrounded  by  a  leathery 
girdle,  so  called,  which  helps  to  unite  the  several 
plates,  and  which,  though  sometimes  naked,  is  Fig.  B. 

usually  studded  with  scales  or  beset  with  spines.  A  CHITON* 


616  MOLLUSCA—APLACOPHORA. 


In  some  forms  the  animal  is  very  long  in  the  body  and  the  shelly  plates 
are  placed  at  intervals.  The  animals,  which  are  vegetable  feeders,  may  be 
found  clinging,  like  limpets,  to  the  under  surfaces  of  rocks  and  stones  at  low 
tide,  and  when  detached  will  coil  up  much  after  the  fashion  of  the  well-known 
wood-louse.  The  muscular  foot  extends  the  whole  length  of  the  under 
surface  of  the  body  ;  the  end  of  the  snout  is  just  visible  ;  there  are  rio 
tentacles.  A  row  of  small  gills  is  seen  along  each  sido  of  the  body  under  the 
edge  of  the  mantle.  A  remarkable  feature  in  the  shell  of  many  chitons  calls 
for  special  mention.  The  outer  chitinous  layer  of  the  valves  is  perforated 
for  the  passage  of  sense  organs,  which,  in  the  family  Chitonidae,  are  in 
part  converted  into  eyes. 

The  Polyplacophora  are  divided  into  families  as  follows,  according  to 
details  of    sculpturing,    etc.,    of    the    valves:  —  LEPIDOPLEURIDJE,    ISCHNO- 

CHITONID^E,  MOPALIID^E,  ACANTHOCIHTID-iE,  CRYPTOPLACI.UJE, 


ORDER  II.  —  APLACOPHORA,  OR  SOLENOGASTRA. 

The  Aplacophora,  which  are  carnivorous,  are  so  modified  that  they  scarcely 
resemble  molluscs  at  all.  The  body  is  worm-like  and  there  is  no  trace  of 
shell,  but  the  much  thickened  outer  skin  contains 
shelly  spicules,  which  probably  represent  the  spines 
and  scales  of  the  Polyplacophora.  The  foot  is 
extremely  reduced,  or  altogether  wanting.  The 
gills  are  in  a  chamber  at  the  latter  end  of  the 
body,  into  which  chamber  also  the  excretory 
orifices  open.  Their  blood  is  red.  Two  sub- 
orders are  distinguished  :  — 

Sub-order  1.  —  NEOMENIINA,  in  which  the  foot  is 
reduced  to  a  ridge  sunk  in  a  groove  along  the  ventral 
,  4-  side  of  the  body. 

&f  CH^MRMA.  The  radula  is  of  the  usual  many-toothed  order,  or 

wanting.      There  are  four  families  :  —  NEOMEN^ID^E, 
PRONEOMENIID^,  DONDERSIID^E,  and  PARAMENIID.E. 

Sub-order  2.  —  CH^TODERMATINA,  represented  by  a  single  genus  Chceto- 
derma,  in  which  the  body  is  extremely  long  and  cylindrical  ;  the  foot  is 
wanting,  its  position  being  merely  indicated  by  a  groove  ;  whilst  the  radula  is 
represented  by  a  single  tooth. 

CLASS  II.—  PELECYPODA,  OR  LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 

The  principal  characteristic  of  this  class  is  the  division  of  the  shell  into 
two  halves,  the  valves,  which  lie  on  either  side,  right  and  left,  of  the  animal  : 
hence  the  class  at  one  time  received  the  name  of  Bivalvia.  These  valves  are 
usually  connected  by  an  elastic,  chitinous  ligament,  and  are  further  kept  in 
place,  when  the  shell  is  closed,  by  a  series  of  interlocking  teeth  that  project 
from  their  margins.  The  shell  is  closed  by  powerful  adductor  muscles,  but 
opens  spontaneously,  when  the  muscles  relax,  by  the  action  of  the  ligament. 
Each  valve  is  a  hollow,  irregular  cone,  the  apex  of  which,  termed  the  beak 
or  umbo,  is  the  point  at  which  growth  began,  and  is  in  fact  formed  by  the 
valve  of  the  young  shell.  In  very  good  specimens,  when  the  umbones  are 
not  worn  or  eroded,  the  two  valves  that  were  formed  by  the  animal  ere  it 


BIVALVE  SHELLS-GENERAL  STRUCTURE. 


617 


issued  from  the  egg  can  be  seen  crowning  the  umbones  ;  they  generally  differ 
in  shape  and  marking  from  the  portion  subsequently  formed  and  are  called 
the  prodissoconch. 

The  umbo  is  generally  curved  more  or  less  to  one  side,  and  usually  points 
towards  the  head,  or  anterior  end,  when  the  shell  is  said  to  be  prosogyre,  in 
contradistinction  to  those  in  which  the  umbones  are  straight,  orthogyre,  or 
are  directed  backwards,  opisthogyre.  More  often  than  not  the  two  valves 
are  of  equal  size  and  shape,  and  the  shell  is  equivalve,  as  in  the  cockle  ; 
sometimes,  however,  as  in  the  oyster,  one  valve  is  smaller  than  the  other, 
and  the  shell  is  inequivalve.  The  bivalves  are  all  more  or  less  inequilateral; 
that  is  to  say,  if  a  line  be  drawn  from  the  umbo  to  the  ventral  margin  of  the 
valve  the  portion  on  one  side  of  that  line,  usually  the  front  one,  will  be 
found  to  be  smaller  than  that  on  the  other.  When  the  shell  is  shut  it  is 
said  to  be  close,  if  the  valves  fit  accurately  ;  and  to  gape,  if  openings  be  left. 
The  ligament  is  made  up  of  two  elements  :  an  external  horny,  non-elastic 
layer,  or  ligament  proper,  and  an  inner,  fibrous  layer,  the  resilium,  which 
imparts  elasticity  to  the  whole.  The  latter  is  sometimes  separated  from  the 
outer  layer  and  situated  in  a  pit,  resilifer,  in  the  margin  of  the  shell,  or 
even  borne  on  a  process  projecting  into  the  interior.  This  resilium  was 
formerly  known  under  the  misleading  name  of  cartilage.  The  margin 
of  the  shell,  on  which  the  ligament  and  the  teeth  that  lie  close  to  it 
are  situated,  is  termed  the  hinge  line:  it  is  sometimes  expanded  inwards 
and  forms  a  sort  of  platform,  the  hinge  plate,  on  which  the  teeth  are 
placed.  The  central  teeth,  under  the  umbo,  are  termed  cardinal,  those 
on  each  side  lateral  teeth  :  frequently  some  one  or  other  of  these,  and 
sometimes  all,  are  wanting.  The  mode  of  origin  of  these  teeth  is  a  matter  of 
extreme  interest  and  importance,  but  is  too  special  a  subject  to  be  followed 
out  here.  On  the  interior  of  the  shell  in  each  valve  are  impressed  markings 
or  scars,  which  indicate  the  points  of  attachment  of  the  muscles.  Firstly, 


Fig.  5.— TOPOGRAPHY  OP  A  BIVALVE  SHELL. 
I,,  Exterior  of  right  valve.  II.  Dorsal  view  of  both  valves. 

III.  Interior  of  right  valve. 

A,  Anterior  or  front.  P,  Posterior  or  hinder  end.  D,  Dorsal  area  or  back,  V,  Ventral  area  or 
under  margin,  c,  Cardinal  teeth,  al,  Anterior  lateral  teeth,  pi,  Posterior  lateral  teeth. 
aa,  Scar  of  anterior  adductor  muscle,  pa,  Scar  of  posterior  adductor  muscle,  p,  Pallial  line, 
ps,  Pallial  einua. 

there  are  in  the  majority  of  shells — e.g.,  the  fresh  water  mussel — two  large 
impressions  in  each  valve,  one  near  the  front,  the  other  near  the  hinder, 
margin  ;  these  are  the  scars  of  the  adductor  muscles  that  close  the  shell.  In 


6i8  MOLLUSCA— CLASS  IL—PELECYPODA. 


some  forms,  like  the  oyster,  only  one  such,  the  hinder  one,  remains. 
Bivalves  with  two  adductor  scars  in  each  valve  are  termed  Dimyaria,  the 
others  Monomyaria.  The  reduction  and  disappearance  of  the  anterior 
adductor  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  more  rapid  growth  of  the  latter  half 
of  the  body,  which  thus  tends  to  bring  the  two  muscles  and  the  hinge  into 
line,  when  the  anterior  adductor,  being  less  and  less  required,  is  propor- 
tionately reduced  and  ultimately  disappears.  In  Pinna  the  hinge  is  reduced 
to  the  lowest  limit  instead.  Running  from  one  adductor  scar  to  the  other 
in  the  Dirnyaria,  and  at  a  short  distance  from  the  ventral  margin  of  the  shell, 
is  a  shallow  groove,  the  pallial  line,  which  marks  the  attachment  of  the 
muscular  mantle.  In  a  large  group  of  the  bivalves  this  line,  instead  of 
running  in  a  continuous  curve,  makes,  shortly  before  it  reaches  the  hinder 
scar,  a  sharp  bend  back  towards  the  centre  of  the  valve,  forming  a  bay  or 
sinus  called  the  pallial  simis.  Its  presence  indicates  that  the  animal  had 
retractile  breathing  tubes  or  siphons,  and  to  these  further  allusion  will  be 
made  later  on.  Other  small  scars  of  lesser  importance  are  generally  present. 
The  terms  employed  in  designating  the  different  parts  will  best  be  gathered 
from  the  accompanying  diagrams  (Fig.  5). 

No  bivalve  mollusc  possesses  a  head,  and  hence  the  term  Acephala,  or  its 
equivalent  Lipocephala,  has  sometimes  been  applied  to  the  class.  The  animal 
is  enclosed  between  the  two  lobes  of  the  thin  mantle,  one  lying  on  either 
side  of  it  immediately  under  the  shell.  These  lobes  are  attached  along  the 
back  and  reach  out  to  the  margin  of  the  valves.  In  the  more  primitive 
forms  the  mantle  margins  are  quite  simple,  and  open  from  the  front  round 
the  ventral  edge  to  the  back  ;  but  many  different  modifications  take  place  in 
the  higher  forms.  Instead  of  the  margins  being  simple,  there  may  be  folds, 


Fig.  6.— DIAGRAM  TO  ILLUSTRATE  THR  DIFFERENT  FORMS  OF  MANTLB  OPENING  AND  TTTB 
FORMATION  OF  TUB  SIPHON. 

A,  Mantle  open  all  round. 

B,  Mantle  margins  appl.ed  to  each  other  except  at  e  (exhalent  aperture)  and  t  (iahalent  aperture) 

and  where  /(the  foot)  protrudes. 

C,  Mantle  margins  grown  together  at  1. 

D,  Mantle  margins  grown  together  at  1  and  2. 

E,  Mantle  margins  prolonged  into  siphons,  e  and  t  (as  before),  united  at  1  and  2. 
Fv  Siphons  united,  alao  mantle  margins  at  2  and  3. 

thickenings,  protuberances,  tentacles,  various  glands,  and  even  eyes.  Nor  are 
the  margins  always  free ;  indeed,  in  extreme  cases,  they  are  united  nearly  the 
whole  way  round.  There  are  various  stages  (Fig.  6) :  counting  the  open  one 
as  the  first,  in  the  second  the  currents  of  water,  instead  of  being  drawn  in  all 
the  way  round,  the  edges  of  the  mantle  are  kept  close  together  except  where 
the  foot  protrudes  and  at  two  points  at  the  hinder  end,  one  of  which  (i)  serves 
to  admit  the  fresh  water  to  the  gills  and  food  to  the  mouth,  and  is  called  the 


BIVALVE  SHELLS-GENERAL  STRUCTURE. 


619 


inhalent  aperture,  whilst  the  other  (e)  allows  the  fouled  water  to  escape  and  is 
termed  the  exhalent  aperture.  In  the  next  stage  the  edges  of  the  mantle  are 
united  permanently  at  the  point  between  these  two  openings,  and  in  the 
fourth  at  a  second  point  below  the  inhalent  aperture.  In  the  fifth  stage  the 
margins  of  these  apertures  have  grown  out  into  tubes  (siphons),  and  the 
remaining  portions  of  the  mantle  margins  have  united  all  round,  except 
where  the  foot  is  protruded.  Finally,  the  two  siphons  become  united  exter- 
nally. In  these  cases  there  is  frequently  a  fourth  small  aperture  left  in  the 
ventral  margin.  The  siphons,  the  ends  of  which  are  frequently  fringed,  can 
be  wholly  or  partly  withdrawn  ;  and  it  is  to  make  room  for  them  within  the 
shell  that  the  pallial  attachment  is  set  further  back  at  that  point,  giving  rise 
to  the  pallial  sinus  already  spoken  of.  The  proportionate  length  of  the 
siphons  forms  a  rough  index  to  the  burrowing  habits  of  the  animal,  since  the 
longer  the  siphons  and  the  more  complete  the  union  of  the  mantle  margins, 
the  deeper  the  mollusc  can  burrow  into  the  mud  or  silt  and  still  inhale  clear 
water  from  above. 

The  gills  lie  underneath  the  mantle,  one  on  either  side,  in  the  space 
between  the  latter  and  the  body  of  the  animal.  In  structure  these  organs 
vary  progressively  from  a  very  simple  to  an  extremely  complicated  form,  and 
since  their  features  have  been  made  the  basis  whereby  this  difficult  group  is 
classified,  it  is  necessary  briefly  to  describe  them.  In  the  more  primitive 
bivalves  the  gill  is  of  the  foliobranch  type  (see  ante,  p.  614);  but  in  the  higher 
Pelecypods  they  are  filibranch,  only  the  filiments  of  each  of  the  two  rows, 
instead  of  running  separate,  have  an  arrangement  whereby  they  interlock  and 
form  a  continuous  membrane,  like  the  web  of  a  feather.  The  mechanism  by 
which  this  is  brought  about  is  extremely  simple.  At  regular  intervals  on  either 
side  of  each  filiment  are  little  patches  of  stiff  hairs  which  interlock  with  the 
corresponding  ones  on  the  two  neighbouring  filiments,  just  as  two  brushes 
can  be  made  to  do ;  these  are  known  as  the  ciliated  junctions  (Fig.  7  E). 
Moreover,  the  two  membranes  lamellce  thus  arising  do  not  simply  depend 
from  the  axis,  but  their  edges  are  folded  upwards — that  of  the  outer  one 
outwards,  that  of  the  inner,  inwards,  making  a  W  in  section  as  shown  at 
B,  Fig.  7. 


Fig,  7. — DIAGRAM  ILI/CTBTRATING  STTCCKSSIVB  DEVELOPMENT  OF  PELECYPOD  GILUJ. 

A,  Protobranch  (or  Foliobranch).  B,  Filibranch. 

Oj  Eulamellibranch.  D,  Septibranch.  E,  Diagram  of  Ciliated  Junctions. 

A  further  complication  of  structure  ensues  when  junctions,  called  inter- 
lamellar  junctions,  are  formed  between  the  dependent  part  of  each  filament 
and  its  reflected  portion.  In  a  more  advanced  stage  still  both  the  ciliated 


620  MOLLUSCA— CLASS  IL— PELECYPODA, 


and  the  interlamellar  junctions  become  solid  connections,  so  that  the  whole 
structure  presents  a  spongy  appearance,  whilst  the  reflected  ends  of  the 
filaments,  uniting  with  the  walls  of  the  mantle  and  foot,  subdivide  the  pallial 
chamber  (C,  Fig.  7).  One  further  development  remains  to  be  mentioned,  in 
which  the  gills  have  become  converted  into  a  sort  of  party  wall.  The  follow- 
ing diagrammatic  drawings  will  make  these  various  stages  more  clear  (Fig.  7). 

The  muscular  foot  is  a  prominent  feature  in  most  bivalves,  lying  in  the 
middle  line  towards  the  front  of  the  body.  It  is  actuated  by  special  muscles, 
and  is  principally  of  service  in  forcing  a  way  for  the  creature  into  the  sand 
or  mud ;  in  a  few  it  is  a  creeping  organ ;  whilst  the  cockles,  by  its  means, 
take  extraordinary  leaps.  In  some  forms  it  is  greatly  reduced,  or  altogether 
wanting.  Towards  the  back  of  the  foot  is  situated  the  apparatus  for 
spinning  the  horny  threads  by  which  many  bivalves  anchor  themselves 
to  stones,  seaweed,  etc.  The  common  mussel  is  a  familiar  example, 
and  the  bunch  of  threads  is  known  as  the  byssus.  The  animal  generally 
has  the  power  of  rejecting  its  byssus  at  any  time  and  spinning  a  fresh 
one. 

The  mouth  is  situated  a  little  behind  and  beneath  the  front  adductor 
muscle;  it  is  unarmed,  neither  jaw  nor  radula  being  present.  It  is  flanked 
on  either  side  by  a  pair  of  twin,  triangular  lobes,  the  labial  palps,  which  are 
in  a  line  with,  and  in  front  of,  the  gills.  Their  function  apparently  is  to 
collect,  and  possibly  to  taste,  the  food  before  it  passes  into  the  mouth.  A 
short  oesophagus  leads  to  the  stomach  at  the  base  of  the  foot,  whence  the 
intestine,  more  or  less  coiled,  leads  off,  and,  after  passing  through  the  peri- 
cardium, terminates  beneath  the  hinder  adductor  muscle,  at  the  base  of  the 
exhalent  siphon. 

The  heart,  in  addition  to  the  ventricle,  which  frequently  encircles  the 
alimentary  canal,  has  usually  two  auricles.  The  nervous  system  is  sym- 
metrical, and  consists  typically  of  three  pairs  of  ganglia  : — The  cerebro- 
pleural,  resulting  from  the  fusion  of  the  cerebral  and  pleural  ganglia,  lying 
above  the  oesophagus  ;  the  pedal  ganglia,  which  are  situated  in  the  foot,  near 
its  base  \  and  the  visceral  ganglia,  placed  close  to  the  posterior  adductor 
muscle.  These  ganglia  are  connected  by  nerve  cords,  and  supply  nerve 
fibres  to  the  various  organs.  The  remaining  anatomical  features  call  for  no 
comment  here. 

The  classification  of  the  Pelecypoda  is  a  most  difficult  and  vexed  question  ; 
but  that  founded  on  the  structure  of  the  gills,  as  explained  above,  will  be 
employed  here.  The  five  orders  thus  created  are  ; — 

I.    PROTOBRANCHIATA. 
II.    FILIBRANCHIATA. 

III.  PSEUDOLAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 

IV.  EULAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 
V.    SEPTIBRANCHIATA. 

ORDER  I. — PROTOBRANCHIATA 

Contains  the  most  primitive  forms  of  Pelecypoda,  The  gills  are  folio- 
branchiate  in  type,  and  the  mantle  margins  generally  open.  The  foot  has  a 
creeping  disc  on  its  ventral  surface. 

Two  families  are  included  in  this  order — the  NUCULIDJE  and  the  SOLENO- 
MYID.E.  To  the  former  belong  the  little  nutshells  (Nucula),  small  triangular 
shells  of  a  plain  brown  exterior  and  pearly  interior,  provided  with  a  series 
of  fine  transverse  teeth  in  the  hinge,  calling  to  mind  a  comb,  with  the  re- 


BIVALVES-ARKS,  NUT-SHELLS,  ETC,  621 


silium  borne  in  a  small  triangular  pit  in  the  middle.  The  umbones  are 
directed  backwards.  Their  close  allies,  Leda  and  Yddia,  are  elongate,  and 
have  fewer  and  more  prominent  teeth,  and  a  more  prominent  ligament  pit. 
The  family  is  one  of  the  oldest  known,  dating  back  to  the  earliest  geological 
times,  and  its  modern  representatives  are  found  in  all  seas. 

The  SOLENOMYID.E  comprise  a  single  genus  Solenomya,  and  are  remarkable 
for  being  without  teeth  in  the  hinge,  and  in  having  the  periostracum  greatly 
prolonged  beyond  the  margin  of  the  valves.  The  typical  species,  S.  togata, 
is  found  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  genus  also  occurs  on  the  east  coast  of 
North  America,  the  Antilles,  Patagonia,  New  Zealand,  and  Australia. 

ORDER  II. — FILIBRANCHIATA. 

In  this  order  the  gill  filaments  are  dependent  and  reflexed  with  ciliar,  but 
no  interlamellar  junctions.  The  animal  generally  spins  a  strong  byssus. 
Four  sub-orders  are  distinguished  : — 

Sub-order  1. — ANOMIACE^R,  whose  typical  genus  Anomia  is  well-known  by 
the  common  A.  ephippium,  found  on  our  shores.  The  shell  is  very  variable 
in  shape,  but  the  right  valve  is  generally  the  flatter  of  the  two,  since  it  is 
moulded  to  the  surface  of  the  object  the  animal  is  attached  to.  The  strong 
byssus,  by  which  it  holds  on  consists  of  a  shelly  "plug,"  instead  of  a  bundle 
of  threads,  and  passes  through  a  notch  in  the  right  valve  near  the  umbo. 
When  quite  young  the  notch  is  in  the  ventral  margin  of  the  valves,  as  in  the 
next  group,  but  the  shell  subsequently  grows  round  it.  There  are  no  teeth 
in  the  hinge  ;  only  a  single  adductor  muscle,  the  posterior  one,  is  present  in 
the  adult;  and  the  heart  projecting  into  the  pallial  cavity  lies  almost  with- 
out the  body.  The  Saddle  oyster,  f  lacuna  sella,  also  belongs  to  this  group. 

Sub-order  2.— ARCACEA,  of  which  the  Noah's  Ark- 
shells  are  the  type  (Fig.  8),  have  hinge-teeth  like Nucula; 
but  the  ligament  is  external,  extends  for  ward  in  advance 
of  the  umbones,  and  spreads  over  the  wide  space  be- 
tween the  two  beaks,  frequently  obtaining  additional 
hold  by  grooves  in  the  shell.  In  Area  there  is  often 
a  strong  and  sometimes  shelly  byssus,  which  passes 
through  an  opening  in  the  ventral  margin  of  the  shell. 
The  two  adductors  are  nearly  equal  in  size.  The 
mantle  margins  are  entirely  open.  The  genera  Pec- 
tunculus  and  Limopsis  have  much  rounder  shells  ;  the  A»  ARCA 

teeth  are  far  fewer,  and  less  comb-like  than  in  Area.  '        A 

All  three  genera  are  represented  on  our  coasts,  and  have  a  wide  distribu- 
tion ;  whilst  Area  dates  back  to  almost  the  earliest  geological  times. 

Sub-order  3. — TRIGONIACEA,  represented  by  a  single  family,  TRIGONIID.E, 
having  one  genus  Trigonia.  This  genus,  now  confined  to  the  Australian 
seas,  was  in  geological  times  very  widely  distributed.  The  living  species  are 
beautiful  pearly  shells,  roughly  triangular  in  shape  and  externally  ribbed, 
after  the  manner  of  a  cockle-shell.  The  right  valve  bears  two  cardinal  teeth? 
the  left  four.  These  teeth  are  transversely  grooved.  There  is  no  byssus. 

Sub-order  4. — MYTILACEA  is  so  well  known  through  its  representatives  the 
common  marine  mussel,  Mytllus  edulis,  and  the  Horse- mussel,  Modiola 


622  MOLLUSCA-CLASS  IL-PELECYPODA. 


modiolus,  as  to  need  no  further  description.  The  genus  Mytilus  is  world- 
wide in  its  distribution :  Modiola  is  chiefly  tropical. 

The  genus  Crenella  is  interesting  on  account  of  its  hinge  margin,  which  is 
crenulated  behind  the  ligament.  Lithodomus,  the  Date- shell,  so  called  from 
its  resemblance  in  external  shape  to  a  date-stone,  is  an  interesting  example 
of  adaptation  to  habitat.  It  perforates  corals  and  the  hardest  rocks,  forming 
for  itself  a  long,  narrow  burrow  into  which  it  exactly  fits. 

The  fresh-water  genus  Dreissensia,  introduced  into  this  country  from  the 
Baltic  on  timber,  may  be  placed  here  rather  than  with  the  fresh- water  mussels, 
despite  certain  of  its  anatomical  features,  till  its  true  affinities  shall  have  been 
determined. 

ORDER  III. — PSEUDOLAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 

In  this  division,  to  which  the  oyster  belongs,  the  mantle  is  entirely 
open  ;  the  foot  is  but  little  developed,  and  the  gill  filaments  are  reflected 
and  joined  by  interlamellar  connections.  The  order  is  further  subdivided 
into  AVICULACIA,  OSTREACEA,  PECTINACEA. 

Sub-order  1.  — Th e  A  VICULACE A,  or  swallow  shells, 
are  so  called  from  the  fancied  resemblance  pre- 
sented by  representative  forms,  when  the  two 
valves  are  spread  open,  to  a  flying  bird  (Fig.  9). 

They  are  extremely  pearly  shells,  indeed  the 

Fig.  a-AvrouiAHntuNDo.  Pear|  °^ter  of  Commerce  is  a  conspicuous  ex- 
ample,  the  nacreous  layer  being  the  thickest ; 
the  middle  layer  of  the  shell  is  prismatic  and 

consequently  brittle  ;  the  periostracum  is  very  thin.  In  shape  they  are 
inequivalve  ;  the  hinge  is  long  and  straight,  with  few  and  obscure  teeth, 
or  none  at  all,  and  the  hinge  line  is  usually  produced  on  either  side  of  the 
umbones,  forming  expansions,  technically  known  as  ears. 

The  ligament  is  external,  and  placed  in  a  groove  or  grooves.  The  posterior 
adductor  is  very  large  ;  the  anterior,  situated  close  to  the  umbo,  is  small,  or 
sometimes  wanting  ;  the  pallial  line  is  represented  by  a  chain  of  small 
isolated  scars.  They  spin  a  strong  byssus,  which  issues  through  a  notch  in 
the  right  valve  beneath  the  front  ear.  They  dwell  in  temperate  or  tropical 
seas,  and  in  point  of  geological  time  are  found  right  back  to  almost  the  earliest 
fossiliferous  rocks.  The  principal  genera  are  Avicida,  Meleagrina  (the 
pearl  oyster),  Malleus  (the  hammer-headed  oyster),  Perna,  in  which  the 
ligament  is  crumpled  into  numerous  folds,  occupying  transverse  grooves  in  the 
thick  hinge,  and  the  common  Pinna. 

Sub-order2. — TheOsTREACEA,of  which  theoyster(0s£rea)is  the  type, present 
some  points  of  great  interest  other  than  gastronomic.  The  mantle  margin  is 
double  and  finely  fringed,  forming  the  so-called  "beard."  The  foot  is  reduced 
to  a  rudiment,  and  there  is  no  byssus.  The  anterior  adductor  in  the  adult 
is  entirely  wanting ;  but  in  the  embryo,  that,  as  in  all  bivalves,  is  the  first 
of  the  two  adductors  to  be  formed,  the  posterior  developing  later  and  per- 
sisting, whilst  the  former  disappears.  The  stage  in  which  both  are  present 
has  not  yet  been  seen  in  the  European  oyster.  Traces  of  teeth  are  some- 
times to  be  observed.  Oysters  are  world- wide  in  their  distribution,  if  Arctic 
seas  be  omitted. 

Sub-order  3. — The  PECTINACEA  are  best  known  by  the  scallop  (Pecten),  of 


BIVALVES— OYSTERS,  MUSSELS,  ETC.  623 


which  there  are  numerous  species,  many  of  them  most  beautifully  coloured  and 
marked.  As  in  the  oyster,  the  mantle  margins  are  double  and  fringed,  but 
in  addition,  there  is  a  row  of  conspicuous  round  black  eyes.  Most  of  the 
pectens  spin  a  byssus  when  young,  and  some  do  habitually;  whilst  many  not 
only  remain  free  but  move  about,  progressing  through  the  water  by  rapidly 
opening  and  closing  their  valves.  With  few  exceptions  the  Pecten  shells  are 
ornamented  with  radiating  ribs.  The  genus  Lima  resembles  pecten,  but  is 
more  elongate  and  not  so  equilateral. 

The  thorny  oyster  (Spondylus)  is  ornamented,  as  its  popular  name  suggests, 
with  spines  and  other  shelly  prominences.  The  Spondyli  attach  themselves  to 
various  objects,  sometimes  slightly  by  a  few  spines,  sometimes  by  the  whole 
surface  of  a  valve.  Two  curved  teeth  in  each  valve  so  interlock  with  corre- 
sponding sockets  in  the  other  that  it  is  impossible  to  separate  them  without 
damage.  The  big  Water  Spondylus  in  its  growth  leaves  cavities  in  the  shell 
substance  which  retain  sea  water. 

ORDER  IV. — EULAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 

In  this  order  is  included  the  great  majority  of  the  bivalves.  The  gills  have 
complete  interfilamentary  and  interlamellar  junctions.  Both  adductors,  with 
few  exceptions,  are  present.  The  hinge  teeth  are  few  and  strong. 

The  following  seven  sub-orders  may  conveniently  be  distinguished: — SUB- 
MYTILACEA,  TfiLLINACEA,  VENERACEA,  CARDIACEA,  MYACEA,  PHOLADACEA, 
ANATINACEA. 

Sub-order  1. — SUBMYTILACEA.  The  Submytilacea  are  generally  devoid  of 
siphons,  and  hence  the  pallial  impression  is  simple.  They  are  more  nearly 
related  to  the  Mytilacea  than  to  the  Pseudolamellibranchiata  just  described  ; 
indeed  the  Dreiasensiidse  and  the  fossil  Modiolopsidre  are  by  some  included 
in  the  Mytilacea,  and  the  Unionidse  and  ^Etheriid?9  placed  close  to  them. 

The  UNIONISE  include,  amongst  others,  the  fresh-water  mussels  familiar 
to  all.  The  young,  as  soon  as  they  leave  the  parent  shell,  attach  themselves 
to  passing  fish,  and,  becoming  buried  in  the  skin,  pass  a  short  period  of 
their  lives  as  parasites.  This  stage  of  the  young  mussel,  till  its  true  nature 
was  ascertained,  was  called  Glochidium. 

The  ^.ETHERIID.E  include  sEtheria,,  the  fresh- water  oyster  of  the  Nile, 
that  has  a  remarkable  cellular  shell,  the  layers  on  the  inside  looking  like 
blisters.  The  corresponding  South  American  form,  Mnlleria,  has  only  a 
singrle  (posterior)  adductor,  and  looks  yet  more  like  an  oyster. 

The  CYRENID^,  another  fresh-water  family,  are  represented  in  the  British 
Isles  by  the  genera  Cydas  and  Pisidium.  Formerly  there  was  a  third 
genus,  Corbicula,  which  spread  all  over  Europe  and  Siberia,  but  is  now 
confined  to  warmer  climes. 

The  Cyrenidoe  have  equivalve,  subtriangular  shells  with  brown  periostra- 
cum.  The  hinge  has  two  or  three  cardinals,  and  laterial  teeth  are  present, 
which  in  Corbicula  are  striated  ;  the  ligament  is  external.  The  siphons 
are  short. 

Amongst  the  marine  forms  belonging  to  this  group  are  the  CARDITID^:, 
stout,  equivalved,  heart-shaped  shells,  generally  with  radiating  ribs  like  the 
Cockles,  and  having  a  strong  hinge  with  one  or  two  oblique  cardinal  teeth 
and  one  or  two  laterals ;  the  ligament  is  external.  One  member  of  the  family, 
Cardita  concamerata,  is  remarkable  for  the  curious  egg-pouch,  formed  by  an 
infold  of  the  ventral  margin  of  the  mantle  and  shell.  The  Carditidse  are 


624  MOLLUSCA— CLASS  IL—PELECYPODA. 


principally  inhabitants  of  southern  waters,  but  are  represented  in  the 
Mediterranean. 

The  ASTARTID^E,  on  the  other  hand,  are  northern  forms.  Their  shells  are 
rather  flattened,  subtriangular,  or  ovoid  in  outline,  marked  with  concentric 
ribs,  and  covered  with  a  thick  brown  periostracum.  There  is  a  strong  hinge 
with  two  or  three  cardinal  teeth  in  each  valve  ;  the  ligament  is  external. 

The  CRASSATELLID^E,  another  family  of  southern  range,  have  a  much  longer 
shell,  generally  subtriangular  and  concentrically  ribbed  ;  there  is  a  distinct 
lunule  ;  the  hinge  is  furnished  with  two  or  three  cardinals  in  each  valve  ;  the 
resilium  is  lodged  in  a  pit  between  the  teeth. 

The  ARCTICID^E  are  best  known  by  the  Arctica  [  =  Cyprina]  Islandica  of  our 
own  northern  shores.  It  has  a  strong,  fairly  globose  shell,  with  prominent 
umbones,  covered  with  a  rough  brown  periostracum  ;  there  is  no  lunule. 
The  ligament  is  external ;  the  hinge  teeth  well  developed,  and,  like  those  of 
the  Veneracea,  there  are  two  cardinal  teeth,  two  posterial  laterals,  and  two 
feeble  anterior  laterals  in  each  valve.  Another  genus,  Libitina,  is  found  in 
the  Red  Sea  and  Indian  Ocean  ;  it  is  an  oblong  shell  with  very  long,  straight, 
posterior  teeth.  Another  member  of  the  group  is  Coralliophaga^  which,  in 
external  form,  closely  resembles  LithodomuSj  already  alluded  to  under 
Mytilacea. 

The  ISOCARDIID^E,  or  heart-cockles,  which  were  formerly  associated  with 
the  preceding,  have  very  globose  shells,  and  very  prominent,  widely  separated, 
spiral  umbones.  The  ligament  which  follows  the  umbones  in  their  growth 
is  split  in  front  and  curved  out  on  either  side. 

A  contrast  to  the  foregoing  is  offered  by  most  of  the  LUCINID^J,  which 
have  very  round,  but  rather  depressed,  and  generally  white  shells,  with 
small  umbones.  The  teeth,  when  well  developed,  comprise  two  cardinal  and 
one  lateral  in  each  valve  ;  the  ligament  is  internal  and  very  large.  There  is 
generally,  in  addition  to  the  usual  muscular  scars  on  the  interior,  the  mark 
of  a  muscular  attachment  running  obliquely  right  across  the  valves.  The 
foot  is  long  and  cylindrical.  The  UNGULINID^E,  with  a  single  genus  Ungulina, 
are  closely  allied. 

The  three  remaining  families,  KELLYELLID.E,  ERYCINID/E,  and  GALEOM- 
MID.E  are  small  shells,  which  have  the  common  characteristic  of  a  foot 
adapted  for  creeping  ;  many  of  them  when  thus  crawling  spread  the  valves 
wide  open.  The  mantle  is  generally  more  or  less  reflected  over  the  shell, 
and  in  Ephippodonta  and  Clamydoconcha  it  completely  and  permanently 
envelopes  the  valves. 

Sub-order  2. — TELLINACEA.  These  have  very  long  siphons,  which  are  not 
united  ;  the  pallial  sinus  is  correspondingly  deep ;  the  foot  is  large  and 
flattened. 

In  the  type  family  TELLINID^:,  or  sunset  shells,  the  shell  is  generally  very 
elongate,  sometimes  smooth  and  polished,  sometimes  marked  with  concentric 
ribs,  and  oblique  and  gaping  behind.  There  are  two  cardinal  and  two  lateral 
teeth,  one  anterior  and  one  posterior,  in  each  valve ;  the  ligament  is  external. 
The  Tellinidae  are  world-wide  in  their  distribution,  but  the  finer  specimens 
come  from  tropical  seas. 

The  SCROBICULARIID^  are  Tellinse  in  which  the  ligament  is  internal ;  they 
love  the  mud  of  estuaries  to  dwell  in,  and  obtain  their  food  from  it. 

The  PSAMMOBIID.E  resemble  the  Tellinidae  both  in  shell  and  animal.  ^The 
former,  however,  is  more  equivalve,  less  twisted,  and  gapes  more  widely 


BIVALVES— VENUS  SHELLS,   COCKLES,  ETC.  625 


behind.  The  hinge  plate  is  broader  and  there  are  no  lateral  teeth.  As  their 
name  indicates,  they  are  sand  dwellers.  A  few  occur  on  the  British  coasts, 
but  the  finer  examples  come  from  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans. 

The  DONACID^E,  or  wedge  shells,  are  very  inequilateral,  the  front  portion 
being  much  longer  than  the  truncated  hinder  part.  The  exterior  is  usually 
smooth,  the  umbones  are  directed  backwards,  and  the  margins  of  the  valves' 
are  usually  very  finely  crenulated,  whilst  the  pallial  sinus  is  deep.  There 
are  two  or  three  cardinals  and  two  laterals,  one  anterior  and  one  posterior, 
in  each  valve. 

The  TANCREDIID^E  have  very  similar  shells  to  the  Donacidse. 

The  MACTRID^E  are  a  large  and  widely- distributed  family  dwelling  in  sand. 
The  shell  is  equivalve  and  somewhat  triangular ;  commonly  smooth  and  white, 
with  a  trace  of  periostracum.  The  hinge  is  usually  marked  by  the  conspicu- 
ous internal  resilium  lodged  in  a  deep  pit  ;  but  in  some  forms  the  whole 
ligament  is  external.  The  hinge-plate  is  well  developed;  the  teeth  vary 
somewhat,  typically  there  is  a  A-shaped  cardinal  tooth  in  each  valve  in  front 
of  the  resilifer,  and  single  anterior  and  posterior  lateral  teeth  in  the  right 
valve  fitting  into  double  ones  in  the  right  one. 

The  CARDILIID^:  are  very  similar  in  their  shell  to  the  preceding,  and  are 
probably  closely  allied  to  them,  bub  their  anatomy  is  still  unknown. 

The  MESODESMATIDJK  resemble  the  Mactridae  in  their  anatomy,  but  the 
siphons  are  not  united,  the  shell  usually  is  more  like  that  of  Donax  with 
umbones  directed  backwards. 

Sub-order  3— VENERACEA.    These  have  usually  short  siphons,  and  there- 
fore a  moderate   pallial    sinus.      The  shells  of 
the  principal  family,  VENERID^E,  are  remarkable 
for  the  elegance  of   their   forms  and  colours. 
Their  texture  is  very  hard  and  procellaneous, 
the  exterior   is  frequently  smooth  and  highly 
polished,  sometimes  ornamented  with  V-shaped 
lines  of  colour,sometimes  with  concentric  grooves, 
\vh:lst  a  few  have  projecting  plates  or  spines 
(Fig.  10).     The  margins  are  closed,  and  often 
crenulate.    The  siphons  are  more  or  less  united. 
The  ligament  is  external,  and  there  is  a  well-         Fig.  10.— CYTHERKA  DICNK. 
marked  lunule ;  the  hinge  is  strong,  and   con- 
sists of  three  well-developed  cardinal  teeth  in  each  valve,  two  out  of  the 
three  appearing  double ;  the  laterals  are  variable. 

The  PETRICOLID^E,  which  occupy  burrows  in  limestone,  are  very  elongate ; 
in  their  shape  and  external  markings  they  closely  resemble  the  well-known 
rock-borer  Pholas,  though  they  are  readily  distinguished  by  the  possession 
of  three  cardinal  teeth  in  each  valve. 

The  GLAUCOMYID^E,  which  are  fresh,  or  brackish-water  forms,  have  very 
long  siphons,  and  live  buried  in  the  mud  of  estuaries  in  India,  China,  and 
the  Eastern  Archipelago.  The  shell  is  shaped  like  Mya. 

Sub-order  4.  — CARDIACEA  comprises  the  cockles  and  their  allies.    The  shell 

is  heart-shaped,  with  an  internal  ligament,  and  there  are  She  or  two  cardinals 

in  each  valve ;  whilst  the  right  valve  usually  carries  two  anterior  and  two 

posterior  laterals,  which   receive   the  corresponding    single    teeth   of    the 

41 


626  MOLL  USC A  -  CLASS  IT.  -PELECYPODA. 


left  valve.  The  siphons  are  short  and  deeply  fringed ;  the  foot  very  long 
and  slender. 

The  cockles,  CARDIID.*:,  live  buried  in  sand  or  sandy  mud,  and  in  some 
species  with  a  prickly  shell  the  size  and  number  of  the  spines  is  dependent 
on  the  nature  of  the  sea  bottom,  the  spines  being  fewest  in  those  which 
bury  in  the  firmest  silt.  The  shells  of  the  genus  Hemicardium  are  the  most 
peculiar  in  shape  of  almost  any  bivalve,  for  they  are  much  shorter  than  wide 
or  thick. 

The  "giant  clam"  (Tridaena),  and  the  bear's-paw  (Hippopus),  so  commonly 
used  to  make  shell-baskets,  form  the  family  TRIDACNID.E.  In  these  no 
anterior  adductor  is  present  in  the  adult,  nor  are  there  any  siphons.  The 
shell  is  ornamented  with  radiating  ribs,  and  the  margins  are  deeply 
indented.  The  hinge  has  a  single  cardinal  in  each  valve,  and  two  posterior 
laterals  in  the  right,  one  in  the  left  valve.  Tridaena  is  the  largest  bivalve 
known,  either  recent  or  fossil,  T.  gigas  attaining  2  ft.  in  length.  It  lives 
in  coral  reefs  moored  by  its  huge  byssus,  which  issues  through  the  large 
notch  in  the  valves  in  front  of  the  umbones.  The  animal  is  most  gaudily 
coloured,  rivalling  the  corals  amongst  which  it  dwells.  Large  dull  pearls  are 
sometimes  found  in  it.  Hippopus,  on  the  other  hand,  has  a  close-fitting 
shell,  through  it  spins  a  small  byssus.  It,  too,  is  a  reef-dweller. 

The  CHAMID^E,  which  resemble  oysters  in  external  appearance,  and  in 
being  attached,  are  inequivalve,  with  sub-spiral  umbonea  and  external 
ligament.  The  shell  is  rough,  and  generally  ornamented  with  frills,  or  flat 
shelly  projections.  Sometimes  one  valve  is  attached,  sometimes  the  other  ; 
the  hinge  teeth  consist  of  two  cardinals  in  the  attached,  and  one  in  the  free 
valve,  with  traces  of  laterals.  They  inhabit  tropical  seas. 

Sub-order  5. — MTACEA.  The  shells  of  this  group  gape  more  or  less  widely, 
and  never  completely  enclose  the  animal.  The  mantle  margins  are  united, 
except  where  passage  is  given  for  the  foot,  and  at  the  siphons,  which  are  long 
and  more  or  less  united.  The  hinge  is  degenerate.  The  typical  family, 
Myida,  includes  the  common  Mya  or  "gaper"  of  our  coasts.  The  animal 
is  difficult  to  obtain  owing  to  its  habit  of  burrowing  a  foot  down  in  the  mud. 
Its  siphons  are  encased  in  an  extension  of  the  horny  periostracum,  and  are 
never  completely  withdrawn  into  the  shell.  The  hinge  is  peculiar  :  from  the 
left  valve  at  the  umbo  a  spoon-shaped  process  projects  that  carries  the 
resilium,  the  corresponding  attachment  in  the  right  valve  being  underneath 
the  umbo,  the  hinge  plate  being  folded  quite  back.  Traces  of  the  cardinal 
teeth  are  sometimes  visible. 

In  the  SOLENID^E,  or  razor-shells,  the  shell  is  usually  very  elongate  and 
open  at  either  end.  The  ligament  is  external,  the  hinge  teeth  are  small, 
usually  two  or  three  in  each  valve.  The  foot  is  long  and  cylindrical;  the  siphons 
short,  and  mostly  united.  The  family  is  world-wide  in  its  distribution.  The 
common  Solen  of  the  English  shores  is  known  to  all.  The  razor-fish  live 
deeply  bedded  in  sand  or  mud,  into  which  they  force  themselves  by  means 
of  their  powerful  foot.  By  some  the  Solenidse  are  placed  as  a  separate 
group  nearer  the  Tellinidre.  , 

The  SAXICAVID.E  resemble  the  Myidse,  but  the  gills  extend  into  the  cavity 
of  the  inhalent  siphon.  The  genus  Glycimeris  also  resembles  Mya  in  its 
habitat ;  but  the  members  of  the  typical  genus  Saxicava  bore  into  hard 
stone,  and  are  generally  found  in  colonies,  honeycombing  the  rocks  with 
burrows  sometimes  6  in.  in  depth,  nor  do  they  scruple  to  drill  through 


BIVALVES— PI D DOCKS,  SHIP-WORMS,  ETC.  627 


their  neighbours  should  they  lie  in  their  path.  They  are  anchored  in  their 
crypts  by  a  byssus.  The  shell  is  elongate  and  when  young  has  two  teeth  in 
each  valve ;  these  disappear  in  the  adult.  It  is  one  of  the  most  widely 
distributed  of  all  bivalves,  and  varies  a  great  deal  in  shape. 

The  GASTROCH^NID^  have  wedge-shaped  shells  that  gape  widely  in  front ; 
the  anterior  adductor  scar  is  smaller  than  the  posterior  ;  the  pallial  sinus  is 
deep  ;  the  gills  are  as  in  Saxicava;  the  siphons  naked  and  united.  The 
ligament  is  external  ;  sometimes  a  single  cardinal  tooth  is  present.  Some 
members  of  the  family  line  their  burrows  with  a  shelly  tube,  to  which, 
however,  they  are  in  no  way  attached. 

Sub-order  6. — PHOLADACEA.  In  this  are  included  the  Pholas,  or  piddock, 
known  to  every  sea-side  visitant,  the  ship-worm,  and  their  allies.  The 
PholadidsB  have  white,  brittle  shell's,  roughened  like  a  file  on  the  outside  ; 
they  are  generally  elongate  and  gape  at  both  ends  widely  ;  but  in  one  genus, 
Jouanettia,  the  two  valves  form  an  almost  spherical  shell,  with  one  small 
aperture.  There  is  no  hinge  properly  speaking,  or  ligament,  the  hinge  plate 
being  bent  back  over  the  umbo  and  the  anterior  adductor  muscle  carried  with 
it  so  that  it  lies  without  the  shell.  It  is  by  the  action  of  this  muscle  that 
the  valves  are  opened,  the  posterior  adductor  serving  to  close  them.  The 
little  curved,  shelly  process  that  arises  from  beneath  the  umbo  in  each  valve 
and  projects  into  the  interior  serves  the  purpose  of  muscular  attachment. 
The  animals,  which  are  phosphorescent,  have  long,  united  siphons  ;  the 
mantle  margins  are  united,  except  in  front,  where  the  large  foot,  that  fills  up 
the  opening  in  the  shell,  protrudes.  The  adult  animal  has  additional  shelly 
plates  on  the  back  on  either  side  of  the  umbones.  The  common  Pholas  of 
our  shores  bores  into  rocks,  the  burrows  lying  parallel  to  one  another  ;  but 
some  species  bore  into  floating  wood  across  the  grain. 

The  TEREDINID^E,  or  ship- worms,  have  two  very  small  valves  widely 
gaping  at  both  ends,  that  are  borne  at  the  extreme  anterior  end  of  the  long 
cylindrical  animal.  The  greater  portion  of  the  creatures'  length  (ordinarily 
they  are  a  foot  long,  and  sometimes  two  and  a  half  feet)  is  taken  up  by  the 
gills  and  the  fleshy  siphons.  These  last  are  united  to  within  a  short  distance 
of  their  extremities.  At  the  point  where  they  separate  two  little  shelly 
pallets,  or  styles,  are  found.  The  true  ship-worms  bore  into  timber  with  the 
grain,  and  become  so  abundant  where  they  once  settle  that  they  soon  honey- 
comb and  destroy  the  stoutest  balks.  Their  burrows  are  lined  with  shell 
and  sometimes  show  cross  partitioning.  One  species  bores  into  cocoa-nuts 
and  other  woody  fruits  floating  in  tropical  seas.  The  tube  of  the  giant 
Teredo  is  often  a  yard  long  and  two  in  diameter ;  it  burrows  in  sand  and  in 
the  roots  of  mangroves. 

Sub-order  7. — ANATINACEA.  In  the  gills  of  this  group  the  outer  lamella 
on  each  side  is  directed  upwards  instead  of  downwards,  and  its  free  edge  is 
not  reflected.  The  margins  of  the  mantle  are  largely  united.  The  shell  is 
usually  thin,  and  pearly  within,  frequently  strengthened  at  the  umbo  by  a 
buttress.  The  hinge  rarely  has  any  teeth  ;  the  ligament  is  generally  internal, 
and  more  or  less  divided  by  a  shelly  portion  or  ossicle.  The  principal 
families  are : — PANDORID^E,  CHAMOSTREID^,  VERTICORDIID^,  LYOKSIID^E, 
ANATINID^E,  PHOLADOMYIDJE,  and  CLAVIGELLIDJE.  The  Pandoridse  are 
represented  in  British  seas  by  Pandora,  in  which  the  right  valve  is  flat, 


628  MOLLUSCA  -CLASS  III.—SCAPHOPODA. 


whilst  the  left  is  convex  ;  the  shell  is  also  very  inequilateral.  There  are 
two  diverging  resilium  grooves  at  the  hinge.  It  lives  buried  in  sand. 

The  single  species  Chamostrea  albida,  found  off  the  coast  of  New  South 
Wales,  constitutes  the  family  CHAMOSTR^EIDVE.  It  has  a  thick,  pearly  shell  ; 
the  right  valve,  by  which  it  is  attached,  is  deep  and  strongly  keeled  ;  the  left 
valve  is  flat,  with  a  conical  tooth  in  front  of  the  resilifer;  the  ossicle  is 
extremely  large. 

The  VERTICORDIID^E  and  LYONSIID^E  are  deep-water  forms  not  often  met 
with. 

The  ANATINID^E  have  extremely  thin  shells,  sometimes  granular  on  the 
surface,  and  gaping  behind.  The  genus  Thracia  is  British. 

The  PHOLADOMYIP^E,  represented  to-day  by  a  single  species,  Pholadomya 
Candida,  in  the  West  Indies,  was  formerly  an  abundant  group.  The  shell  is 
oblong  and  equivalve,  gapes  behind,  and  is  ornamented  with  obscure  radiat- 
ing ribs.  The  ligament  is  internal,  and  there  is  one  tooth  in  each  valve. 

The  CLAVIGELLID^E  are  in  some  respects  the  most  interesting  members  of 
the  group.  One  genus,  Clavigella,  bores  into  rocks,  the  left  valve  becomes 
attached  to  the  wall  of  the  burrow,  the  right  remaining  free  ;  the  passage  to 
the  exterior,  occupied  by  the  siphons,  has  a  shelly  lining,  which  projects 
freely  on  the  exterior  and  terminates  in  two  or  more  frills. 

The  other  principal  genus  Brechites  [  =  Aspergittum],  known  as  the 
watering-pot  shell,  burrows  in  sand,  lining  the  burrow  with  a  shelly  tube, 
into  the  wall  of  which  the  valves  of  the  young  shell  are  built.  The  free  end 
of  the  tube  is  also  frilled.  The  adductor  muscles  not  being  required  are 
aborted.  When  the  animal  is  full  grown  the  bottom  of  the  tube  is  closed 
with  the  familiar  perforated  plate,  secreted  by  the  fringed  foot.  It  occurs 
only  in  the  tropical  seas. 

ORDER  V. — SEPTIBRANCIIIATA 

Contains  two  families — POROMYID^  and  CUSPIDARIID^E — principally  inter- 
esting on  account  of  the  modification  of  the  gills  to  form  a  transverse  septem 
as  already  described  (ante,  p.  620).  The  POROMYID^S  are  rounded  shells  with 
a  single  tooth  in  each  valve.  The  siphons  are  fringed.  The  CUSPIDARIID^E 
are  represented  in  British  waters.  The  shell  is  beaked  behind,  and  the 
valves  are  closed  except  at  the  end  of  the  beak  through  which  the  fringed 
siphons  protrude.  There  are  no  teeth  in  the  hinge. 

CLASS  III.-SCAPHOPODA,  OR  SOLENOCONCHA. 

The  Elephant's-tooth  shells  belong  to  a  small  but  very  distinct  class  of 
low  organisation.  The  shell  is  long,  slightly  curved,  and  tapers  almost  to  a 
point,  resembling  in  external  appearance  a  miniature  elephant's  tusk.  It  is, 
of  course,  quite  hollow,  and  there  is  an  opening  at  each  end  ;  the  one  at  the 
small  end  is  generally  notched  on  the  ventral,  i.e.,  the  convex  side.  Some- 
times the  shell  is  finely  striated  lengthwise.  The  animal  is  symmetrical. 
The  margins  of  the  mantle  are  united  beneath,  forming  a  long  tube  open  at 
either  end  ;  a  barrel-shaped  prominence  or  snout  represents  the  head,  and 
the  mouth  at  its  extremity  is  surrounded  by  leaf  like  tentacles. 

The  formula  of  the  radula  is  I'l'l'l'l.  The  alimentary  canal  is 
doubled  on  itself,  and  terminates  about  the  middle  of  the  ventral  side, 
opening  into  the  mantle  cavity,  which  latter  has  its  efferent  opening  at  the 
apex  of  the  shell.  There  are  no  gills  properly  so  called,  but  their  function 


ELEPHANT 'S- TOOTH  SHELLS,  ETC. 


629 


is  probably  taken  by  a  double  row  of  retractile  filaments,  each  terminating 
in  a  knob-like  thickening,  that  encircle  the  base  of  the  snout.  The  heart  is 
quite  rudimentary.  The  foot  lies  under  the  snout,  and  is  a  long,  cylindrical 
body  directed  forwards  and  terminating  in  three  lobes.  The  nervous  system 


1     S    CG 


Fig*  11.— DENTALIUM  SHELL  AND  DIAGRAM  OF  ANATOMY. 

AC.  Alimentary  canal.  Ft  Foot.  M',  Mantle.  S'.  Shell. 

CG,  Cephalic  ganglia.  L,  Liver.  PQ,  Pedal  ganglia.          TT,  Tentacles. 

EA,  Efferent  aperture,,  M,  Mouth.  S,  Snout  VG,  Visceral  ganglia. 

is  simple  and  resembles  in  general  arrangement  that  of  the  Pelecypoda 
already  described  (p.  620),  except  that  the  cerebral  and  pleural  ganglia  are 
not  fused.  The  Scaphopoda  live  in  mud,  and  feed  on  the  small  organisms 
they  find  in  it. 

CLASS  IV.— GASTROPODA. 

In  this  class  are  included  mollusca  like  the  snail,  whelk,  etc.,  that  have  a 
distinct  head,  and,  along  the  underside  of  the  body,  a  muscular  foot  on  which 
they  creep ;  whilst  the  visceral  mass  situated  above  is  sometimes  naked,  but 
more  often  covered  with  a  shell,  composed  of  a  single  piece. 

The  organs  of  the  body  are  asymmetrical,  i.e.,  those  on  one  side  of  the 
body  are  not  matched  by  corresponding  ones  on  the  other. 

The  shell  is  essentially  a  longer  or  shorter  hollow  cone.  In  some,  such  as 
the  limpet,  it  is  a  simple  cone,  but  in  by  far  the  greater  number  it  is  an 
elongated  cone,  coiled  round  and  round  spirally,  each  coil  forming  a  whorl, 
the  last  being  the  body-whorl.  Nearly  all  spiral  shells  are  dcxtral;  that  is  to 
say,  when  placed  with  the  mouth  uppermost,  and  the  apex  directed  away 
from  the  observer,  the  mouth  lies  to  the  right  hand  of  the  axis  of  the  shell. 
Some  are  wound  in  the  opposite  direction,  and  are  sinistral.  Reversed 
varieties  of  shells  normally  dextral,  or  sinistral,  are  met  with. 

The  axis  or  columella  of  the  shell  is  sometimes  hollow  or  umbllicated 
(the  hollow  itself  being  called  the  umbilicus),  sometimes  the  whorls  are 
closely  coiled,  and  solid  pillar  of  shell  results.  The  apex  or  extreme  top  of 
the  shell  generally  differs  in  markings  and  other  features  from  the  rest,  and 
offers  important  characters.  This  nudeus  or  protoconch  is  the  portion 
formed  in  the  egg,  hence  it  is  also  known  as  the  embryonic  shell. 


630 


MOLLUSC  A— CLASS  IV.— GASTROPODA. 


The   spiral 
the    suture. 


---APEX 


COLUMELLA 
UMBILICUS 


-ANT£«IOa  CANAl 

Fig.  12.— TOPOGRAPHY  OF  A  GASTRO- 
POD 


channel  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  whorls  is  termed 
A  spiral  line  traced  along  the  whorls  midway  between 
the  sutures  would  mark  the  periphery. 
The  mouth  or  aperture  has  sometimes 
quite  a  circular  margin  (peristome)  when  it 
is  said  to  be  continuous  ;  more  often  it  is 
interrupted,  the  side  next  the  columella 
being  bounded  by  the  inner  wall  of  the 
body- whorl  only,  when  the  exterior  portion 
is  known  as  the  outir  lip  or  labrum,  and  the 
other  side  as  the  -inner,  columella  lip  or 
labium.  There  is  frequently  a  notch  in  the 
margin  of  the  aperture  near  the  junction 
of  the  outer  lip  with  the  body-whorl,  and 
another  where  it  joins  the  anterior  end 
of  the  columella:  these  are  respectively 
termed  the  posterior  and  anterior  canal, 
and  give  passage  to  the  siphons  of  the 
animal  (Fig.  12). 

The   labrum  is   thin  and  sharp  in  most 
immature  shells,  and  in  some  adult  forms; 

but  more  frequently  it  is  either  thickened,  or  curved  outwards  (reflected), 
or  curled  inwards  (inflected),  or  expanded,  or  fringed  with  spines.  When 
these  thickenings  or  expansions  occur  periodically  during  the  growth  of  the 
shell  they  form  conspicuous  transverse  markings  on  the  whorl  termed  varices. 
The  exterior  of  the  shell  is  also  more  frequently  than  not  ornamented 
with  either  spiral  lines  or  ridges  running  in  the  direction  of  growth,  or  with 
transverse  markings  coinciding  with  the  "lines  of  growth,"  or  with  both. 

Many  Gastropods,  like  the  periwinkle,  close  the  aperture  of  the  shell  when 
they  retire  with  a  horny,  or  shelly  trap-door,  the  operculum.  It  is  developed 
in  the  embryo  within  the  egg,  and  to  its  inner  surface  are  attached  strong 
muscles  that  hold  it  firmly  in  place.  The  following  figures  (Fig.  13)  give  some 
idea  of  the  principal  forms. 

The  head  of  the  animal 
bears  either  a  single  pair  or 
two  pairs  of  tentacles,  be- 
neath which,  quite  in  front, 
the  mouth  is  situated.  Of 
the  armature  of  the  mouth 
mention  has  already  been 
made  (ante,  p.  612-14). 

The  visceral  mass  is  ex- 
ternally covered  by  the 
mantle,  which  is  in  one 
piece.  Towards  the  front, 
and  a  little  to  the  right  side, 
there  is,  under  the  edge  of 
the  mantle,  a  cavity  in 
which  are  placed  the  gills 
or  gill,  whilst  into  it  also 
the  excretory  duct  and  the 
The  mantle  margin  is  sometimes 


Fig  13  —PRINCIPAL  FOBMS  OF  OPKRCULA. 
A,  Unguiculate  or  claw-shaped.        B,  Concentric. 
C,  MultispiraJ.  D,  Pancispiral.  E,  Articulate. 

terminal  end  of  the  digestive  tract  open. 


LIMPETS  AND  KEYHOLE  LIMPETS.  631 


prolonged  in  front  of  this  cavity  into  a  respiratory  siphon :  a  posterior  exha- 
lent  siphon  is  likewise  present  in  certain  forms. 

Originally,  in  all  probability,  the  animal,  like  the  Amphineura,  had  a 
straight  alimentary  canal,  terminating  behind  with  a  gill  on  either  side  of  the 
opening ;  but,  through  the  operation  of  causes  which  need  not  here  be  dis- 
cussed, the  alimentary  canal  first  became  arched,  then  its  hinder  portion  was 
tucked- under,  so  to  speak,  whilst  subsequently  the  visceral  mass  became 
twisted,  the  hinder  portion,  with  the  gills,  being  forced  round  by  the  right 
side  to  the  front,  so  that  in  its  final  stage  what  had  been  the  left  gill  is,  in 
the  typical  gastropod  of  to-day,  now  on  the  right  side,  whilst  the  right  one 
has  passed  over  the  neck  to  the  left  side.  This  last,  however,  is  wanting  in 
the  majority  of  Gastropoda. 

In  the  process  of  this  torsion  the  visceral  nerve-loop  became  twisted  into  a 
figure  of  8,  and,  though  in  one  great  group  the  body  is  again  untwisted, 
traces  of  its  former  contortion  can  still  be  traced  in  the  nerve-loop. 

The  Gastropoda  are  divided  first  into  two  sub-classes :  A,  Streptoneura,  in 
which  the  visceral  nerve-loop  forms  a  figure  of  8 ;  and  B,  Euthyneura,  in  which 
the  loop  is  not  thus  twisted. 

SUB-CLASS  A.— STREPTONEURA. 

To  this  section  the  name  Prosobranchiata  has  also  been  applied,  since  the 
gills  are  in  advance  of  the  heart.  There  is  only  a  single  pair  of  tentacles, 
the  eyes  being  situated  on  prominences  near  their  bases.  The  sexes  are 
usually  distinct. 

They  are  further  sub-divided,  according  to  the  structure  of  their  gills,  into 
Scutibranchiata  and  Pectinibranchiata. 

ORDER  I. — SCUTIBRANCHIATA 

(Sometimes  called  Diotocardia  because  the  heart  has  two  auricles)  comprises 
the  Limpets,  Keyhole  Limpets,  Ormers,  and  Top-Shells. 

For  convenience  they  are  further  sub-divided,  according  to  the  arrangement 
of  the  teeth  on  the  radula,  into  Docoglossa  and  Rhipidoglossa. 

Sub-order  1. — The  DOCOGLOSSA,  or  limpets,  are  characterised  by  their  simple 
conical  shell  without  any  operculum.  The  animals  adhere  by  the  sucker- 
like  foot  to  rocks  between  tide-marks.  There  are  three  families  : — The 
ACM^:ID^E  in  which  there  is  but  one  true  gill.  The  genus  Scurria  has  in 
addition  a  series  of  leaflets  arising  from  the  mantle  in  a  circle  between  it  and 
the  foot,  that  also  serve  for  the  purpose  of  respiration,  and  are  known  as 
pallial  gills.  The  PATELLID.E,  to  which  the  common  limpet  belongs,  have  a 
circlet  of  pallial  gills,  but  nearly  all  trace  of  the  ordinary  gill  has  disappeared. 
The  LEPETID^E,  going  a  step  further,  have  neither  ordinary  nor  pallial  gills, 
nor  have  they  any  eyes. 

Sub-order  2.— RHIPIDOGLOSSA.  The  radula  of  this  group  is  very  distinctive. 
The  teeth  are  numerous  and  weak,  the  large  number  of  uncini  being 
especially  remarkable. 

The  FISSURELLID.E,  called  keyhole  limpets  on  account  of  the  aperture  in 
the  shell  that  communicates  with  the  pallial  chamber,  where  the  two  gills 
are.  In  Emargimda,  the  "keyhole"  takes  the  form  of  a  notch  in  the  edge 
of  the  shell. 


632  MOLLUSCA-CLASS  IV.— GASTROPODA. 


The  PLEUROTOMIDJS,  or  slit-shells,  have  conical,  spiral  shells  with  a  notch 
in  the  outer  lip  at  the  periphery.  The  typical  genus  Pleurotoma  is  one 
of  the  rarest  of  living  sea-shells  (only  a  few 
specimens  have  ever  been  dredged),  but  they 
include  one  very  fine  example  measuring  over  6  in. 
in  height  (Fig.  14).  There  are  two  gills  and  the 
mantle  is  slit  in  front.  The  shell  is  pearly  within, 
and  there  is  an  operculum. 

The  H AUCTION,  or  ormers,  have  an  ear-shaped, 
flat,  spiral,  pearly  shell,  with  a  row  of  perforations, 
a  very  wide  aperture,  and  no  operculum.  The 
animal  has  two  gills,  of  which  the  right  one  (left 
in  position)  is  the  smaller. 

In  the  families  next  succeeding  the  mantle  is 
entire'  there  ia  no  slifc.  or  Perforation  in  the  shell, 
and  only  one  gill  remains,  the  (originally)  left  one. 
The  TROCHID^E  have  spiral  shells  of  conical  form,  and  very  largely  com- 
posed of  nacre ;  they  are  frequently  used  for  necklaces  after  the  non-pearly 
outer  coat  has  been  removed.  Some  of  the  smaller  examples  are  common 
on  our  coasts,  but  the  finer  and  more  handsomely  coloured  ones  all  come 
from  tropical  seas.  The  operculum  is  circular,  horny,  arid  spiral. 

The  STOMATID^  are  for  the  most  part  pearly  shells  with  a  minute  spire 
and  large  aperture ;  the  operculum  is  like  that  of  the  Trochidte. 

The  DELPHINULID^E  are  flat-topped,  spiral  shells,  having  few  whorls ;  the 
umbilicus  is  wide  and  the  angles  of  the  whorls  rough  or  spiny ;  the  interior  is 
pearly.  They  occur  in  tropical  seas. 

The  CYCLOSTREMATID^E  are  small,  sometimes  minute,  nearly  discoidal  shells, 
with  cross-ribbing  on  the  whorls.  They  are  not  pearly  within. 

The  TURBINID^E  include  large  and  very  pearly  shells,  much  used  as  orna- 
ments. They  have  a  moderate  number  of  rounded  whorls,  sometimes  very 
richly  coloured.  The  operculum  is  calcareous,  and  sometimes  very  thick 
and  heavy,  with  the  outer  surface  frequently  beautifully  sculptured  or 
coloured :  one  kind,  called  cat's-eyes,  has  been  used  for  necklaces.  The 
Turbinidse  are  tropical  forms. 

The  NERITOPSID^E  have  solid  shells  much  resembling  Natica  in  shape. 
There  is  only  one  living  species  known. 

The  NERITID.E  have  solid  and  rather  globular  shells  of  not  many  whorls 
and  very  short  spire,  or  none  at  all;  the  columellar  lip  is  crenulate  or 
toothed,  and  the  shelly  operculum  is  articulated.  The  genus  Neritina 
occurs  both  in  the  sea  and  in  fresh  water. 

The  TITISCANIID.E  are  shell-less :  one  species  only  is  known,  which  cornea 
from  the  Pacific. 

The  PROSPERPINID^,  HELICINID^J,  and  HYDROCENID.E  are  terrestrial 
members  of  the  sub-order,  in  which  the  gill  is  absent  and  the  gill  cavity 
transformed  into  a  pulmonary  chamber,  as  in  the  snail.  The  shell  is  more 
or  less  globular,  and  mostly  of  a  yellow  tint.  All  three  are  tropical  families, 
and  occur,  the  first  two  in  the  New  World,  the  laat  in  the  Old. 

ORDER  II. — PECTINIBRANCHIATA 
(Sometimes  termed  Monotocardia,  the  heart  having  only  one  auricle). 

In  this  order,  which  includes  the  majority  of  the  marine  Gastropods, 
only  one  gill  remains,  the  (originally)  left  one.  The  greater  number, 


PURPLE-SNAILS,   WENTLE-TRAPS,  ETC.  633 


moreover,  are  monopectinate ;  that  is  to  say,  the  gill  has  only  one  row  of 
filaments. 

The  Pectinibranchiata  are  further  divided  into  sub-orders  according  to  the 
characters  of  the  radula. 

Sub-order  1. — GYMNOGLOSSA.  Under  this  are  grouped  some  more  or  less 
parasitic  Mollusca  which  have  no  radula.  The  arrangement  is  artificial  but 
convenient.  Two  families  are  distinguished,  both  of  universal  distribu- 
tion : — EULIMID.E  and  PYRAMIDELLID/E.  The  former  are  mostly  high-spired, 
very  glossy  ;  small  white  shells,  with  slightly  bent  axis  ;  at  times  furnished 
with  an  operculum.  S  >me  species  are  found  crawling  in  the  stomachs  of 
sea-cucumbers  (Hulothuria),  others  affix  themselves  to  the  exterior  of  the 
same  creatures  by  means  of  the  long  proboscis,  which  is  thrust  through  the 
skin  of  the  host.  The  genus  Stylifer  has  a  glassy,  globular  shell,  and  lives 
amongst  the  spines  of  Echinoderms  or  buried  in  the  skin  of  star-fish.  The 
Pyramidellidse  form  the  preceding  family  by  the  occurrence  of  plaits  or  folds 
on  the  columellar,  and  by  the  fact  that  the  protoconch  is  sinistral,  whilst  the 
rest  of  the  shell  is  dextral  and  the  axis  of  the  former  inclined  at  a  consider- 
able angle  to  that  of  the  latter. 

Sub-order  2.  — PTENOGLOSSA.  Two  families  are  associated,  probably  pro- 
visionally, under  this  sub-order,  having  but  one  feature  in  common,  viz.,  the 
radula  contains  a  great  number  of  similar  teeth  in  each  row,  the  largest 
being  at  the  outer  edges. 

The  IANTHINID/E,  or  purple  sea-snails,  float  about  in  mid-ocean.  Their 
violet  shells  are  thin  and  translucent ;  the  animal  has  a  distinct  snout ;  the 
eyes  are  generally  wanting.  Two  plume-like  gills  are  present.  At  certain 
seasons  a  membranous  float  or  raft,  full  of  air  cells,  is  secreted  by  the 
animals,  the  egg-sacs  are  attached  beneath,  and  when  the  whole  is  complete 
it  is  cast  adrift.  They  seem  to  be  gregarious,  and  stray  parties  brought  by 
the  Gulf  Stream  are  frequently  stranded  on  our  western  shores. 

The  SCALARIID^E,  or  wentle-traps,  are  high-spired  shells,  with  the  whorls 
often  only  united  by  the  prominent  varices  that  occur  at  regular  intervals 
and  impart  to  the  shell  its  most  characteristic  feature.  The  aperture  is 
circular,  the  operculum  horny  and  spiral.  The  animal  has  a  retractile 
snout.  The  Scalariidse  are  carnivorous  snails  and  widely  distributed.  Four 
species  are  British. 

Sub-order  3. — T^ENIO^LOSSA.  To  this  the  greater  part  of  the  Pectini- 
branchiata belongs.  The  radula  usually  has  the  formula  2'1*1'1'2.  The 
various  families  may  be  conveniently  taken  in  the  following  order,  bub  the 
position  in  the  group  of  the  first  two  ia  still  undecided. 

The  SOLARIID/E,  called  "stair-case  shells,"  from  the  appearance  of  the 
whorls  as  seen  within  the  open  umbilicus  of  Solarium,  comprise  forms  having, 
for  the  most  part,  depressed  shells  with  wide  and  deep  umbilicus.  The 
opercula  vary  in  the  different  genera. 

The  HOMALOGYRIDJE  include  one  genus — Homaloyyra — which  has  a  very 
small,  flat,  coiled  shell  with  circular  operculum.  The  animal  has  no  tentacles, 
and  the  eyes  are  not  on  stilks  ;  the  front  of  the  foot  is  lobed  and  covered 
with  fine  hairs. 

The  NATICID^  have,  for  the  most  part,  very  stout,  globular  shells  in  which 
the  umbilicus  is  sometimes  open,  sometimes  more  or  less  completely  filled 


634  MOLLUSC  A—  CLASS  IV.— GASTROPODA, 


up  with  a  shelly  deposit  termed  the  callus.  The  operculum  is  either  horny 
or  shelly.  The  animal  of  Natica  is  blind  and  has  an  extension  of  the  fore- 
part of  the  foot  that  projects  over  its  head  when  the  animal  is  crawling  ; 
extensions  of  the  side  of  the  foot  also  partially  envelop  the  shell.  The 
Naticas  prey  on  bivalves,  boring  a  small  hole  right  through  the  shell. 
Several  species  are  British. 

The  LAMELLARIID.E  have  a  delicate  shell  over  which  the  mantle  is  reflected 
to  a  greater  or  less  degree.  The  aperture  is  very  large  and  rounded,  and 
there  is  no  operculum. 

The  TRICHOTROPID.E  have  a  conical  shell ;  the  whorls  are  keeled,  and 
the  periostracum,  where  it  covers  these,  is  fringed  with  hairs.  They  are 
northern  forms  and  come  from  moderately  deep  water.  The  operculum  is 
short  and  claw-shaped. 

The  NARICIDJE  have  shells  shaped  like  Nalica,  but  covered  with  a  velvety 
periostracum,  whilst  the  shell  itself  is  marked  with  spiral  and  transverse  ridges, 
forming  a  kind  of  network  sculpturing.     The  operculum  is  thin  and  horny. 
The  majority  of  the  XENOPHORID^  may  be  recognised  at  once  by  their 
curious  habit  of  building  into  their  own  shells 
those  or  parts  of  others,  stones,  corals,  or  what- 
ever may  happen  to  be  lying  on  the  sea-bottom 
where  they  dwell  (Fig.  15). 

The  shell  in  the  CAPULID^E  is  limpet-like. 
In  CapuLus,  the  cap-of -liberty  shells,  it  has  a 
little  curly  apex  ;  whilst  in  the  cup-and-saucer 
limpets  (Crucibulum,  etc.)  there  is  an  internal 
shelly  projection  which  serves  for  muscular 
attachments. 

The    HIPPONICID.E    have    also    limpet -like 
Fig.  15.— XENOPHORA.  shells,  but  the  mouth  is  closed  by  an  accu- 

rately-fitting shelly  plate  attached  to  some  fixed 

object.  This  plate  is  secreted  by  a  kind  of  second  mantle  that  envelopes 
the  under  surface  of  the  animal  and  represents  the  foot,  of  which  there  is 
none  properly  so-called.  A  great  horse-shoe-shaped  muscle  holds  the  shell 
to  its  base. 

The  four  next  families  are  all  dwellers  on  the  land,  and  in  place  of  the 
gill,  which  is  not  developed,  the  pallial  cavity  is  converted  into  a  lung,  as 
in  the  common  snail.  The  animals  have  a  distinct  snout. 

The  TRUNCATELLIDJE  and  ARICULID^  are  diminutive  forms  with  cylin- 
drical, many-whorled  shells  having  a  blunt  apex,  and  closed  with  a  spiral 
operculum. 

The  CYCLOSTOMATID.E  have  spiral  shells,  sometimes  top-shaped,  sometimes 
globose,  closed  by  a  spiral  operculum.  One  species  of  Cyclostoma  is  found 
on  our  chalk  downs. 

The  CYCLOPHORID^E  vary  much  in  the  shape  of  their  shells,  some  having 
high  spires,  whilst  others  have  none  at  all.  The  mouth  is  always  circular, 
and  closed  with  a  tightly-fitting  operculum,  in  which  the  nucleus  is  generally 
central.  To  enable  the  creature  to  breathe,  when  fast  shut  in  its  shell,  there 
is  often  either  a  notch  in  the  peristome  or  an  aperture  a  short  distance  from 
the  margin,  that  is  occasionally  prolonged  into  a  tube.  A  few  examples 
occur  in  Southern  Europe,  but  the  majority  are  found  in  the  tropical  regions 
of  the  Old  World. 

The  succeeding  five  families  are  all  fresh  or  brackish-water  forms. 


BANDED  WATER-SNAILS,  PERIWINKLES,  ETC.  635 


The  ASSIMINIDJB  are  small,  high-spired  shells  that  live  in  brackish  waters, 
near  the  mouths  of  large  rivers  through  Europe,  Asia,  and  in  the  Antilles. 
One  species  is  still  to  be  found  in  ditches  beside  the  mouth  of  the  Thames, 
but  is  rapidly  becoming  extinct. 

The  AMPULLARIID^  dwell  in  tropical  lakes  and  rivers.  They  have  globular 
shells,  with  greenish  periostracum,  and  closed  with  a  horny  or  shelly  con- 
centric operculum.  In  some  species  the  shell  is  sinistral.  The  animal  of 
Ampullaria  has  a  double  respiratory  chamber — one  portion  for  breathing  air, 
the  other  for  respiring  water. 

The  VALVATID^C,  in  which  there  is  but  a  single  genus  Vatvata,  are 
restricted  apparently  to  the  northern  hemisphere.  Two  species  occur  in 
Britain.  The  shell  is  flat,  or  moderately  spired,  and  furnished  with  a  many- 
whorled  operculum  fitting  the  circular  mouth. 

The  VIVIPARIDJS  have  two  common  British  representatives,  known  as  the 
banded  water-snails.  The  shell  is  high-spired  with  rounded  whorls,  the 
mouth  is  oval,  and  the  operculum  horny. 

The  right  tentacle  of  the  males  is  shorter  than  the  left,  and  has  a 
deformed  look.  The  eggs  are  usually  hatched  within  the  parent.  The 
family  is  confined  to  the  northern  hemisphere,  except  in  Africa,  where  it 
extends  to  the  head- waters  of  the  Nile. 

The  PALUDESTRINID  ,E  are  miniature  editions,  so  to  speak,  of  the  preceding; 
but  the  tentacles  are  not  modified.  The  operculum  is  calcareous  in  Bythinia. 
They  are  world-wide  in  their  distribution,  and  there  are  several  British 
representatives. 

The  RlSSOZlDJS  are  minute  marine  shells,  very  similar  to  the  preceding  ; 
they  are  abundant  everywhere.  The  LITIOPLD^E  and  JEFFREYSIID^E  are 
closely  allied  to  the  Rissoiidse. 

The  LITTORINID^E,  or  Periwinkles,  both  the  common  one  with  its  round, 
banded  shell  arid  short,  sharp  spire,  and  the  yellow  one  without  any  spire, 
are  too  well  known  to  need  description.  Some  of  the  species  have  spiral 
ridges  on  the  shell.  Pagodus  has  a  conical  shell  with  tubercles  or  spines. 
The  operculum  in  this  family  is  horny  and  spiral. 

The  FOSSARID^Q  are  closely  allied  and  very  similar  to  the  LittorinidsB. 

The  MELANIID^E  and  PLEUROCERID^E  have  as  a  rule  very  high-spired  shells 
covered  with  a  brown  periostracum ;  the  mouth  is  simple,  and  the  spiral 
operculum  oval.  The  whorls  are  sometimes  smooth,  sometimes  ornamented 
with  spiral  ridges  and  lines  of  tubercles,  or  a  row  of  spines  near  the  suture. 
They  are  exclusively  fresh- water  forms. 

The  C^ECID^E,  sole  genus  Ccecum,  are  strange  little  curved  shells  without  any 
markings.  The  young  shell  is  coiled,  but  the  creature,  as  it  grows,  breaks 
off  successive  portions  and  blocks  up  the  end  with  a  shelly  plate,  so  that  the 
whole  shell  is  never  found  in  the  adult.  It  has  a  horny,  spiral,  circular 
operculum.  Two  species  occur  in  Britain. 

The  TURRITELLID.E,  or  screw-shells,  have  long,  slender,  pointed  shells  of  a 
great  many  whorls,  more  or  less  keeled,  or  ornamented  with  spiral  ridges  ; 
the  aperture  is  small,  the  lip  simple,  and  the  operculum  horny,  many- 
whorled,  and  covered  with  short  hairs.  The  family  has  a  world- wide 
distribution.  One  species  of  Turritdla  is  British. 

The  VERMETID.E,  when  young,  often  have  a  neatly- wound  spiral  shell  like 
Turritella,  but  in  the  more  mature  and  the  adult  state  this  straggles  off  into 
an  irregular  circular  tube  much  resembling  those  of  certain  marine  worms. 
The  shells  are  attached  to  each  other  in  masses  or  to  other  objects.  The  foot 


636  MOLLUSC  A— CLASS  IV.— GASTROPODA. 


of  the  animal  is  plug-like  and  quite  useless  for  crawling.  In  the  genus 
Tenagodes  the  tubular  shell  is  fissured  for  almost  its  whole  length. 

The  CERITHIID.E  have  long  shells  like  the  Turritellidse,  but  the  mouth  is 
not  so  round  and  is  interrupted  by  the  anterior  and  posterior  canals,  the 
former  of  which  is  usually  bent  to  the  left.  The  operculum  is  horny.  The 
whorls  are  generally  sculptured,  or  ornamented  with  ribs,  tubercles,  or 
spines.  They  occur  in  all  parts  of  the  world  and  dwell  in  the  shallow  waters 
of  coasts  and  estuaries,  some  even  advancing  up  the  rivers  into  fresh  waters. 
There  are  three  British  species. 

The  wing-shells,  STROMBID.E,  APORRHAID^E,  and  STRUTHIOLARIIDJS,  are 
noted  for  their  strong  shells,  with  very  short  spire  and  widely  expanded  outer 
lip,  which  is  often  drawn  out  into  curved  spines.  The  fountain-shell, 
Strombus  giyas,  of  the  West  Indies,  the  scorpion-shells,  Pterocera,  and  the 
pelican's-foot  shell,  Aporrhais,  are  familiar  examples.  The  operculum, 
which  is  rudimentary  in  all,  is  horny  and  claw-shaped  :  in  the  Strombida?  its 
outer  edge  is  serrate. 

In  the  CYPRJSID/E,  or  cowries,  the  outer  lip  of  the  adult  shell  is  curled 
inwards,  blocking  still  further  the  already  narrow  aperture,  which  is, 
moreover,  edged  with  numerous  fine  teeth,  whilst  the  short  spire  is  almost, 
if  not  quite,  concealed.  The  young  shell,  on  the  other  hand,  has  a  distinct 
spire  and  thin,  sharp  lip.  The  mantle  when  the  animal  is  crawling  is  greatly 
extended,  enveloping  the  shell,  which  thus  acquires  that  beautiful  polished 
surface  for  which  the  cowries  are  noted. 

The  DOLIIDM  are,  for  the  most  part,  large,  thin,  and  rather  globose  shells, 
the  fragile  whorls  of  which  are  strengthened  by  their  walls  being  corrugated. 
In  Pirula  the  shell  is  stouter,  and  furnished  with  a  long  anterior  canal. 
There  is  no  operculum.  They  are  denizens  of  tropical  seas. 

The  CASSIDIDJS,  or  helmet-shells,  resemble  the  preceding,  to  which  they 
are  closely  allied,  and  with  which  they  are  found.  Their  shells,  however, 
have  the  margin  of  the  outer  lip  inflected,  or  thickened  and  crenulated,  and 
they  furthermore  possess  a  fan-shaped,  horny  operculum.  The  under-layers 
of  the  shell  in  Strombus,  Cyprcea,  and  Cassis  being  of  a  different  colour  to  the 
upper  ones,  these  shells  lend  themselves  especially  to  the  art  of  the  cameo 
engraver  :  the  best  results  are  generally  those  obtained  from  the  Cassis  rufa 
of  West  Africa. 

The  LOTORIIDJS  are  best  typified  by  the  great  triton-shell  (Fig.  12),  which 
the  sea-gods  in  mythical  pictures  are  represented  blowing.  It  is  a  fine  large 
shell,  with  slender  pointed  spire  and  numerous  varices,  resulting  from  the 
formation  of  periodic  mouths.  The  aperture  is  large  and  oval,  whilst  both 
inner  and  outer  lip  are  denticulate.  The  periostracum  in  this  family  is 
usually  stout  and  fibrous  :  the  operculum  is  horny  and  claw-shaped. 

The  most  highly  specialised  of  all  the  Tsenioglossa  are  certain  pelagic 

forms  formerly  placed  in  a  separ- 
ate group,  and  called  Heteropoda 
or  Nucleobranchiata.  The 

y-^  ,    ^wBin  -f  T-V* -^-  animals  are  remarkable  for  their 

4£^~*~X*3Hft^  ;X*dtf9C*.  transparency,  all  the  various 

organs  being  perfectly  visible 
even  through  the  shell.  They 
swim  upside  down  in  the  water, 

fig.  16.-CARIKARIA.  the  flafcfcened  f 00t  aCfcing  «  a-fin- 


VENUS' -CO  MB  SHELLS,   WHELKS,  ETC.  637 


The  ATLANTID.E  have  convolute  shells,  which  in  Atlanta  is  flat,  and 
furnished  with  a  single  remarkably  deep  keel  at  the  periphery,  and  in 
Oxygyrus  is  globose,  and  provided  with  many  small  keels. 

The  PTEROTRACH^ID.E,  as  a  rule,  have  neither  mantle,  shell,  nor  tentacles; 
in  Carinaria  (Fig.  16),  however,  there  is  a  cap-shaped,  transparent,  glassy 
shell  covering  the  small  visceral  mass.  The  animals  are  carnivorous. 

To  the  Tsenioglossa,  also,  in  all  probability,  belong  the  families  CIIORISTID^E, 
ADEORBID.E,  SEGUENZIID/E,  and  OOCOIIYTHID^:. 

Sub-order  4. — RACHIGLOSSA,  Mollusca  with  long  retrac- 
tile proboscis.  The  formula  for  the  radula  is  I'l'l; 
the  laterals,  however,  are  often  wanting. 

The  MURICII^E  are  a  numerous  family,  chiefly  familiar 
by  the  many  examples  of  the  spiny  species  of  Murea 
that  adorn  some  people's  houses.  Their  shells  have 
moderate  spires  and  generally  a  large  body-whorl ;  the 
mouth  is  furnished  with  both  anterior  and  posterior 
canals,  the  former  often  being  of  great  length,  and  a 
horny  operculum.  They  are  usually  more  or  less 
spirally  ribbed,  whilst  Murex  has  numerous  strong 
varices  frequently  ornamented  with  spines  of  great 
length,  which,  in  the  Venus*  Comb  (Fig.  17),  extend  the  Fi(j  17 

whole  length  of  the  anterior  canal.    The  dog-periwinkle,       MDRBX  TENUI-SPINA. 
Purpura  lapiUus,  so  common  on  our  coasts,  belongs  to 
this  family. 

The  CORALLIOPHILTDJE  live  amongst  masses  of  coral  ;  Magilus,  indeed, 
becomes  buried  in  them,  and  forms  a  tubular  shell  to  keep  pace  with  the 
coral  as  it  grows.  The  young  Magilus,  before  it  becomes  fixed,  and  the 
other  members  of  the  family  resemble  Purpura,  both  in  shell  and  animal,  but 
have  no  radula. 

The  COLUMBELLIDJE  are  small  fusiform  shells  resembling  Strombus  in  shape  ; 
but  the  lip,  instead  of  being  expanded,  is  thickened  and  dentate  within  ;  the 
aperture  is  narrow  and  the  anterior  canal  short.  • 

The  NASSIDJS,  or  dog-whelks,  have  a  shell  like  the  common  whelk,  only 
smaller  ;  the  outer  lip  is  thickened  and  dentate  ;  the  columella  lip  is 
thickened  with  a  callus  ;  the  operculum  is  horny  ;  the  wide,  thin  foot 
of  the  animal  is  divided  behind  into  two  tails.  Nassa  reticidata  is  very 
common  on  our  coasts. 

To  the  BUCCINID.E  belong  the  common  whelk  and  its  allies.  The  siphon 
is  rather  long  and  allows  the  animal  to  burrow  in  the  mud  in  search  of  the 
bivalves  on  which  it  feeds,  boring  a  neat  little  hole  in  their  shells  and  rasp- 
ing out  its  victim  with  the  radula  in  its  long,  retractile  proboscis.  The  foot 
is  large  and  thin  ;  the  operculum  horny  and  oval  ;  a  scanty,  rough 
periostracum  is  found  on  fresh  specimens,  but  soon  rubs  off. 

The  TURBINELLID.E  have  generally  pear-shaped,  solid  shells,  usually  with 
shelly  plaits  or  folds  on  the  columella  ;  the  anterior  canal  is  fairly  long. 
They  are  for  the  most  part  tropical  forms.  To  this  family  belongs  the 
largest  known  Gastropod,  Semifusus  proboscidiferus,  which  attains  2  ft.  in 
length.  It  comes  from  Australia. 

The  FASCIOLARIIDJE  have  elongate  fusiform  shells  ;  the  spire  is  generally 
high  and  pointed  and  the  anterior  canal  long.  The  columella  bears  several 
shelly  plaits  or  folds  ;  the  lip  is  simple,  and  the  horny  operculum  bluntly 
claw- shaped.  The  whorls  are  frequently  ornamented  with  tubercles  arranged 


638  MOLLUSC  A— CLASS  IV.— GASTROPODA. 


spirally,  and  with  spiral  stride.  The  members  of  this  family,  also,  chiefly 
inhabit  southern  seas. 

The  MITKID^E  are  more  cylindrical  shells  than  the  preceding,  with  more 
or  less  acute  spire  and  narrow  aperture,  without  operculum ;  the  columella 
bears  several  folds,  of  which  the  hindermost,  i.e.,  the  one  furthest  from  the 
well-marked  anterior  canal,  is  the  largest.  The  Mitridse  are  tropical  shells, 
the  best-known  examples  being,  perhaps,  Mitra  episcopcdis,  which  is  white, 
with  squarish,  red  spots  arranged  in  rows. 

The  VOLUTID^J  include  some  of  the  finest  of  the  tropical  shejls.  The 
animal  has  a  long  foot  and  a  wide,  flat  head ;  the  shell  varies,  being  spindle- 
shaped  in  some,  and  greatly  swollen  in  others ;  in  all,  however,  the  aperture 
is  large,  the  outer  lip  slightly  turned  out,  the  margin  simple,  notched  for  the 
siphon  at  the  anterior  end  next  the  columella,  which  ends  in  a  point,  and 
bears  several  folds.  The  protoconch  is  set  obliquely. 

The  MARGINELLID^E  have  oval,  or  sub-conoidal,  shells  that  are  shining  and 
polished,  without  operculum. 

The  HARPID.E  include  but  a  single  genus,  Harpa,  to  the  shell  of  which  the 
periodic  mouths  impart  its  characteristic  lirate  appearance.  The  spire  is 
short,  the  aperture  wide,  lip  simple,  with  anterior  siphonal  notch ;  there  are 
no  folds  on  the  columella,  nor  is  there  any  operculum.  The  Harps  are  found 
in  tropical  seas,  and  so,  too,  are  olives,  which  come  next. 

The  OLIVID;E,  or  olives  and  rice  -  shells,  in  point  of  polished  surface 
and  in  colour-markings,  are  equal  to  the  cowries.  They  are  more  or  less 
cylindrical,  with  a  short  spire  and  long,  narrow  mouth;  the  columella  is 
callous,  and  bears  several  plaits  towards  the  anterior  extremity  •  an  oper- 
culum is  sometimes  present. 

Sub-order  5. — TOXOGLOSSA.  The  radula  normally  has  the  formula  1/0  1, 
and  the  teeth  are  large. 

The  CANCELLARIID^E  include  but  one  genus,  Cancellaria,  so  named  from 
the  cancellate,  or  cross-marked  sculpturing  of  the  shell,  which  is  oval,  or 
turreted,  with  anterior  siphonal  notch ;  the  columella  is  strongly  plicate ;  the 
operculum  is  wanting. 

The  PLEUROTOMIDJE  include  a  great  number  of  spindle-shaped  shells,  most 
of  which  bear  a  characteristic  notch  in  the  outer  lip,  and  a  marked  anterior 
canal ;  the  columella  is  smooth ;  the  operculum  is  not  always  developed. 

The  CONID.E  are  too  universally  known  to  require  description,  their 
conical  shells,  with  long,  narrow  apertures,  are  only  approached  in  form  in 
one  or  two  exceptional  instances  by  members  of  other  families.  The 
operculum,  when  present,  is  very  small,  and  almost  rudimentary.  Perhaps 
the  most  remarkable  feature  about  the  animal  lies  in  its  radula,  the  teeth 
of  which  are  proportionately  large,  are  barbed,  and  perforated  by  a  duct 
leading  to  a  poison  gland.  This  character  has  not  been  observed  in  any 
other  group.  The  cones  are  essentially  tropical  inhabitants.  The  varied 
markings  of  their  shells  are  completely  concealed  during  the  lifetime  of  the 
occupant  by  the  tough  periostracum  in  which  they  are  enveloped. 

The  TEREBRID^?,  or  auger  shells,  are  extremely  long  and  slender,  with 
many  whorls,  which  are  sometimes  smooth  but  often  ribbed  ;  the  mouth  is 
oblique,  with  simple,  thin  lips  and  large  anterior  notch  ;  the  columella  is 
without  folds.  The  horny  operculum  is  bluntly  claw-shaped.  The  sole 
genus,  Terelra,  is  entirely  confined  to  tropical  seas. 


BULL  AS  AND  SEA-BUTTERFLIES. 


639 


SUB-CLASS  B.—  EUTHYNEURA. 

Gastropoda,  in  which  the  visceral  nerve-loop,  with  one  exception,  is  not 
twisted  into  a  figure  of  8,  and  in  which  the  nerve  ganglia  are  brought  closer 
together  around  the  oesophagus.  The  twist  in  the  visceral  mass  is  not  so 
great  as  in  the  preceding  sub-class,  and  the  pallial  cavity  with  its  accompany- 
ing organs  lies  on  the  right  side  of  the  body.  The  head  generally  bears  two 
pairs  of  tentacles  ;  the  radula  is  usually  composed  of  rows  of  uniform  teeth 
on  either  side  of  a  central  one  ;  and  the  sexes  are  united  in  each  individual. 

The  Euthyneura  are  divisible  into  two  orders — Opisthobranchiata  and 
Pulmonata. 

ORDER  I. — OPISTHOBRANCHIATA. 

In  this  group  the  heart  is  placed  in  front  of  the  gills.  The  order  is  sub- 
divided into  Tectibranchiata  and  Nudibranchiata. 

Sub-order  1. — TECTIBRANCHIATA.  The  animal  possesses  a  shell  usually 
more  or  less  completely  concealed  by  the  folds  of  the  mantle  and  skin.  For 
convenience  this  sub-order  is  further  divided  into  three  groups — Bulloidea, 
Aplysioidea,  and  Pleurobranchoidea. 

A. — BULLOIDEA. 

The  Bulloidea  have  a  well-developed  shell,  external  or  internal  (Fig.  18 
A-C);  the  head  is  generally  devoid  of  tentacles,  and  the  skin  of  the  upper 
part  is  produced  into  a  broad  disc.  In  many  the  stomach  is  armed  with 
shelly  plates  for  crushing  the  shells  of  their  prey. 


Fig.  18.— TKOTIBRANCHS. 

A,  Actaeon. 

B,  Bulla. 

C,  Philine. 

D,  Dolabella. 


Fig.  19 — PTKROPODS. 
•A,  Spiralia.       0,  Cleodora. 
B,  Eurjbia,       D,  Limacina 


The  genus  ActcE^n  is  distinctly  streptoneurous  and  thus  forms  a  con- 
necting link  between  the  Streptoneura  and  Euthyneura.  It  has  an 
ovate,  spired  shell,  with  pointed  apex  and  a  narrow  aperture  that  widens 
out  in  front.  The  horny  operculuru  is  elliptical  in  shape. 


640  MOLLUSC  A— CLASS  IF.— GASTROPODA. 


In  the  genus  Tornatina  the  shell  is  cylindrical,  the  apex  of  the  short  spire 
being  sinistral ;  in  Volvulella  the  spire  is  no  longer  raised,  the  shell  being 
convolute,  i.e.,  wound  on  itself  like  a  measuring  tape  ;  in  Bulla  and 
JBullinella  [  =  Cylichna]  it  is  involute,  i.e.,  the  spire  is  sunk,  leaving  an 
aperture,  whilst  the  columella  is  less  pronounced  ;  in  Scaphander  the  latter 
has  disappeared  and  the  shell  is  without  any  central  axis,  the  whole  interior 
being  visible  from  the  front  ;  in  Philine  this  is  carried  still  further,  the 
shell,  which  is  internal,  being  widely  open — unrolled,  as  it  were. 

To  the  Bulloidea  is  now  referred  that  section  of  the  old  class  Pfceropoda, 
or  sea-butterflies,  in  which  the  animal  retains  its  shell  in  the  adult  state. 

The  chief  peculiarity  of  the  Pteropoda  lies  in  the  conversion  of  the  foot 
into  a  pair  of  wing-like  fins.  Their  shells  vary  greatly  in  shape,  whilst  their 
general  appearance  will  best  be  understood  from  the  foregoing  figures  (Fig.  19). 

The  following  families  are  referred  to  the  Bulloidea : — Actseonidfe,  Torna- 
tinidse,  Scaphandridre,  Bullidaj,  Aplustridpe,  Ringiculidre,  Gastropteridre, 
PhilinidfB,  Doridiidse,  Runcinidre,  Oxynoidse,  Limacinidte,  Cymbulidre, 
Cavolinidse. 

B.  — APLYSIOIDEA. 

Tn  the  Aplysioidea  the  shell  is  either  very  greatly  reduced  or  wanting 
altogether  ;  the  head  carries  two  pairs  of  tentacles. 

The  APLYSIIDVE,  or  sea-hares,  have  large  bodies  of  greenish  or  oiive-greeii 
hue,  with  a  pair  of  lappet-like  extensions  of  the  foot  folded  over  the  back  ; 
the  shell,  concealed  beneath  the  mantle-folds,  is  thin,  covered  with  a  horny 
periostracum,  triangular  in  shape,  and  flexible  when  first  removed  from 
the  animal  (Fig.  18  D). 

The  shell-less  sea-butterflies  are  now  placed  with  this  group,  which 
includes  the  following  families  : — Aplysiidse,  Pneumonodermatidso,  Clionop- 
sidse,  Clionidse,  Notobranchseidae,  and  Eurybiidse. 

C.  — PLEUROBRANCHOIDEA. 

The  Pleurobranchoidea  have  two  pairs  of  tentacles,  no  lappet-like 
extensions  of  the  foot,  and  no  gill  cavity,  the  gill  occupying  a  narrow 
space  between  the  mantle  and  the  foot. 

In  the  PLEUROBRANCHID^E,  the  thin  flexible  shell  which  is  covered  by  the 
mantle  is  large,  oblong,  and  nearly  flat,  with  the  nucleus  at  the  hinder 
margin.  In  Umbrella,  the  sole  genus  in  the  family  UMBRELLIDJS,  the 
external  shell  is  a  flat,  circular  disc,  with  the  nucleus  nearly  in  the  centre. 

Sub-order  2. — NUDIBRANCHIATA.  The  sea- 
slugs  are  shell-less  in  the  adult  state,  but  possess 
when  still  in  the  egg  both  shell  and  operculum. 
There  are  no  true  gills ;  their  place  is  taken  by 
certain  tentacle-like  organs  that  sometimes  are 
placed  in  a  cluster  near  the  end  of  the  body 
(Fig.  20  A),  and  sometimes  ranged  in  rows 
down  the  back  (Fig.  20  B).  These  "branchial 
leaflets,"  "dorsal  appendages,"  or  "cerata," 
as  they  are  variously  styled,  frequently  bear 
Fig.  20.— NUDIBRANCHS.  &  sfcriking  resemblance  both  in  form  and 

A,  Doris.     B,  Dendronotus.         colour  to  some  other  marine  object,  such  as  a 
cluster  of  zoophytes   or   small  sea-weeds,  etc. 
The  radula  is  very  variable,    sometimes  there    are   many  teeth   in  each 


A IR-BREA  THING  SNA  ILS.  64 1 


transverse  row,  sometimes  the  whole  radula  consists  of  a  row  of  single 
teeth,  one  behind  the  other.  In  one  group,  the  Elysioidea,  the  worn- 
out  teeth  as  they  drop  off  are  saved  up  in  a  little  pouch  in  front  of  the 
mouth. 

The  Nudibranchiata  are  divided  into  Elysioidea,  Tritonioidea,  Moli- 
dioidea  and  Doridoidea. 

Though  they  occur  on  every  sea-coast  they  are  not  forms  often  met  with 
by  the  ordinary  student,  and  hence  will  not  be  discussed  in  further  detail. 

ORDER  II. — PULMONATA. 

In  this  order  are  included  the  vast  majority  of  the  land  Mollusca  (both 
snails  and  slugs)  and  of  the  fresh-water  snails,  besides  three  genera,  repre- 
senting a  like  number  of  families,  of  marine  Gastropods.  In  all,  the  gills 
have  entirely  disappeared,  and  the  pallial  cavity  has  been  converted  into  a 
breathing  organ.  The  free  edge  of  the  mantle  has  been  united  to  the  skin 
of  the  neck  and  back,  leaving  only  a  small  contractile  aperture,  whilst  on 
the  roof  of  the  chamber  thus  formed  respiration  is  effected  by  means  of  a 
branching  net-work  of  blood-vessels  that  surround  and  lead  to  the  heart, 
which  lies  with  its  auricle  to  the  front.  In  the  marine  forms  sea  water 
is  admitted  into  this  cavity,  in  the  others  air  is  drawn  in  and  then  expelled. 
With  one  exception  no  operculum  is  present  in  the  adult. 

The  Pulmonata  are  divided  into — BASOMMATOPHORA,  or  those  in  which 
the  eyes  are  placed  at  the  base  of  the  tentacles,  and  STYLOMMATOPHORA,  in 
which  the  eyes  are  borne  on  the  ends  of  tentacles. 

Sub-order  1. — BASOMMATOPHORA.  These  have  one  pair  of  tentacles,  which 
are  not  retractile,  and  the  eyes  are  placed  at  their  bases.  All  have  an 
external  shell,  and,  in  the  egg,  an  operculum,  which  is  subsequently  lost, 
except  in  Amphibola. 

The  AURICULID^:  greatly  resemble  the  Actreonidse— from  which  in  all 
probability  they  have  descended — in  the  shape  of  their  shells  as  well  as  in 
certain  points  in  their  anatomy.  The  shell  is  oval  in  outline,  with  a 
prominent  spire  and  large  body-whorl,  whilst  the  aperture  is  long,  narrow 
behind,  and  widening  out  in  front.  There  are  two  or  three  strong  folds  on 
the  columella  ;  the  margin  of  the  outer  lip  is  thickened  and  often  more  or 
less  toothed  on  its  inner  side.  They  especially  frequent  salt  marshes  and 
damp  spots  within  reach  of  the  waves.  The  smallest  British  land-shell, 
Carychium  minimum,  is,  however,  found  inland  everywhere  in  damp  spots 
at  the  roots  of  grass. 

The  OTINIC^J  are  closely  related  ;  their  shells  are  auriform.  They  occur 
between  tide-marks,  and  one  species  is  British. 

The  AMPHIBOLID^E  are  represented  by  a  single  genus,  Amphibola,  which 
has  a  globular,  spiral  shell,  with  an  uneven  surface,  looking  as  if  it  had 
shrivelled.  The  operculum  is  horny  and  sub-spiral.  They  live  by  the 
margins  of  the  sea  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  the 
Pacific  Islands. 

The  SIPHONARIID^E  have  limpet-like  shells,  only  distinguishable  from 
those  of  the  true  Patellidse  by  the  slight,  channel-like  depression  on  the 
interior  that  marks  the  position  of  the  opening  into  the  respiratory  chamber. 
Like  the  limpets  they  are  found  clinging  to  rocks  at  low  water,  but  do  not 
occur  in  the  colder  seas. 

The  CHILINID^E  are  fresh-water  forms  that  occur  in  South  America.  The 
42 


642  MOLLUSC  A— CLASS  J 'V.— GASTROPODA. 


single  genus  Cliilinia  has  a  globose  shell  with  wide  aperture,  a  thickened 
columella  with  one  or  two  strong  folds  ;  the  exterior  is  ornamented  with  zig- 
zag lines  and  spots  of  colour. 

The  LIMNJEID.E  include  our  commonest  pond-snails,  Limncea  and 
Planorbis,  as  well  as  the  little  fresh- water  limpet,  Ancylus,  with  a  few 
other  allied  genera.  A  characteristic  feature  of  their  shells  is  that  their 
surface  looks  as  if  it  had  been  beaten  with  a  hammer. 

The  LimnseidsB  are  amongst  the  most  widely  distributed  of  Mollusca, 
being  found  from  arctic  to  tropical  climes,  whilst  Limncea  can  even  live  in 
hot  springs  where  the  water  attains  a  temperature  of  104°  F.  The  shells 
of  Limncea  vary  from  very  high  to  very  short  spired  forms,  but  all  have  a 
very  large  body-whorl.  The  genus  Planorbis,  or  the  flat-coil  shells,  are 
really  sinistral  forms.  Ancylus  is  found  clinging  to  stones  in  swift-flowing 
streams. 

The  PHYSIOS  are  sinistral  forms,  and  have  very  thin,  globular,  horn- 
coloured,  and  glossy  little  shells. 

Sub-order  2. — STYLOMMATOPHORA.  The  Stylommatophora  have,  as  a  rule, 
two  pairs  of  tentacles,  which  can  be  withdrawn  into  the  body  by  a  process 
of  inversion,  and  carry  their  eyes  on  the  summits  of  the  upper  pair.  They 
are  all  terrestrial  forms  and  have  an  external  spiral  shell,  except  the  slugs, 
in  which  it  is  reduced  to  an  internal  shelly  plate,  or  is  wanting  altogether. 
The  slugs  do  not  constitute  a  group  by  themselves,  but  belong  to  different 
families. 

The  land-snails  occur  in  all  climes  and  at  all  altitudes  where  life  is 
possible,  and  include  innumerable  forms  which  have  been  variously 
divided  into  a  great  number  of  families  and  sections  ;  the  following,  how- 
ever, may  be  taken  as  constituting  the  principal  groups  : — 

The  ONCHIDIID^E  are  slug-like  animals,  entirely  devoid  of  any  shell,  that 
live  close  down  to  the  margin  of  the  sea.  Only  one  pair  of  retractile 
tentacles,  bearing  the  eyes,  is  present.  Certain  species  are  also  furnished 
with  eyes  on  the  back.  There  is  a  British  representative  found  locally  on 
the  coasts  of  Cornwall  and  Devon. 

The  VAGINULID^E  are  shell-less  slugs,  unrepresented  in  Europe.  Only 
one  genus,  Vaginida,  is  distinguished. 

The  ATHOKACOPHORID^,  with  a  single  genus,  Athoracophorus,  have  a  small, 
flat,  internal,  shelly  plate.  The  lower  pair  of  tentacles  is  wanting.  They  are 
found  in  New  Zealand,  New  Caledonia,  and  the  New  Hebrides. 

The  SUCCINEID^J  include  snails,  in  some  of  which  the  shell  is  external, 
whilst  in  others  it  is  internal.  The  lower  pair  of  tentacles  is  either  little 
developed  or  wanting.  The  type  genus  Succinea,  or  the  amber-snails,  are 
world-wide  in  their  distribution,  and  have  pretty  little  delicate,  amber- 
coloured,  glossy,  spiral  shells.  Two  or  three  species  are  British.  Hyalimax 
is  one  of  the  slug-like  members  of  the  family  found  in  the  Mascareigne 
and  Nicobar  Islands. 

The  ACHATINELLUXE  occur  in  the  Sandwich  Islands.  They  are  prettily 
marked,  and  very  variable  little  high-spired  shells,  that  are  sometimes 
dextral  and  sometimes  sinistral. 

The  ACHATINID^I  include  at  the  same  time  some  of  the  largest  and  of  the 
smallest  land-snails.  The  type  genus  Ackatina  is  confined  to  Africa  and 
its  islands,  although  one  species  has  been  introduced  into  the  Botanical 
Gardens  in  India.  It  has  a  high-spired  shell,  usually  with  a  large  body- 


SNAILS  AND  SLUGS. 


643 


Fig.  21.— 

CLAUSILIA, 

showing 

clausium(c)in 

position. 


whorl.  The  largest  species  attains  7  in.  in  length,  and  lays  an  egg  as  large 
as  a  pigeon's,  with  a  calcareous  shell.  Stenogyra  has  a  very  long  and  narrow, 
many-whorled,  glossy  shell ;  some  species  are  nearly  an  inch  in  length. 
Cfficillianella  is  very  small  and  lives  underground.  It  is,  as  its  name  implies, 
blind.  One  species  occurs  in  England. 

The  PUPID^  have  many-whorled  (more  or  less  cylindrical)  spiral  shells, 
often  strongly  striated  and  frequently  sinistral. 

The  genus  Pupa,  the  chrysalis-shells,  is  represented  in 
Britain,  as  also  is  Clausilia,  in  which  the  shell  is  very  long 
and  sinistral.  The  latter  is  remarkable  for  possessing  a 
curious  little  valve,  the  clausium,  which  is  attached  within 
the  shell  by  a  spiral  elastic  stalk  to  the  columella,  and  closes 
automatically  behind  the  animal  when  it  retires  (Fig.  21). 

The  CYLINDRELLHLE,  which  are  confined  to  America  and 
the  West  Indies,  have  exceedingly  long,  many-whorled  shells, 
with  circular  aperture  :  the  last  whorl  often  stands  out  from 
the  rest. 

The  BULIMULID.E  occur  in  America,  Southern  Asia,  and 
Polynesia.  With  the  exception  of  the  slug-like  genus 
Peitella,  they  have  external  high-spired  shells. 

The  ORTITALICID.E  are  an  American  family,  whose  single 
genus  Orthalicus  has  a  shell  in  external  shape  resembling  that 
of  Bidimulus. 

The  HELICID.E  comprise  an  enormous  number  of  forms  : — High-spired 
shells  as  in  the  genus  Bulimus,  which  is  confined  to  South  America  and  the 
West  Indies;  or  as  in  the  gaudily-painted  shells  of  the  Philippine  genus 
Helicostyla  and  our  own  Cochlvella ;  shells  with  short  spire  or  no  spire  at 
all,  as  in  the  big  genus  Helix,  of  which  the  garden  snail  is  an  example. 

The  family  THYROPHORELLID^E  has 
been  created  to  receive  one  small  species, 
Thyrophorella  Thomensis  (Fig.  22),  from 
the  Island  of  St.  Thomas,  Gulf  of  Guinea. 

The  unique  feature  about  the  shell, 
which  is  a  flat,  spiral  one,  consists  in  the 
prolongation  of  the  upper  half  of  the 
peristome  beyond  the  aperture  and  the  A 
formation  of  a  hinge  allowing  this  pro- 
jection to  close  over  the  mouth  and  thus 
act  like  an  operculum  when  the  animal 
retires. 

The  ARIONID^E  are  slugs  whose  shell 
is  represented  by  a  few  calcareous  grains 
beneath  the  mantle.  The  big  black  slug 
Avion  ater  is  a  type. 

The  PHILOMYCID^E  are  shell-less  slugs  found  in  North  and  Central  America, 
Eastern  Asia,  and  Java. 

The  ENDODONTID^E  have  flatly-coiled  shells,  generally  ribbed  and  marked 
with  little  red  patches.  The  common  little  Pyramidula  rotundata  is  a 
British  example. 

The  LIMACID^  are  slugs  with  small,  internal,  shelly  plate.  The  majority 
of  the  British  slugs  belong  to  this  group. 

The  ZONITID^E  have  external  shells,  often  very  thin  and  shining.     The 


B 

Fig.  22.— THYROPHORKLLA. 

A,  The  animal  crawling1.      B,  The  shell  seen 

edgewise.      C,  Do.  seen  from  beneath. 


644  MOLLUSCA-CLASS  V.  — CEPHALOPODA. 


peristome  is  sharp.  The  cellar-snail,  Vitrea  cellaria,  is  one  of  several  British 
examples. 

The  TESTACELLHLE  and  SELENITIDJE  are  the  most  highly  specialised  of  the 
Stylommatophora  and  are  almost  all  voracious  carnivores.  Testacella  looks 
like  a  slug  with  a  tiny  shell  at  the  end  of  its  tail.  It  is  a  worm-eater  and 
follows  its  prey  in  their  burrows,  hence  it  is  seldom  seen  though  fairly 
abundant  in  England.  Other  members  of  the  group  have  shells  of  varying 
sizes  and  shapes. 

CLASS  V.-CEPHALOPODA. 

THE  Cephalopoda  include  not  only  the  most  highly  organised  Mollusca,  but 
also  the  largest  of  them  all,  some  forms,  it  is  calculated,  exceeding  50  ft.  in 
total  length.  The  pearly  nautilus  has  an  external  shell,  the  cuttle-fish  and 
its  near  allies  have  internal  ehells,  whilst  the  octopus  has  none  at  all. 

The  Cephalopoda  are  symmetrical  animals,  the  two  halves  of  the  body 
corresponding  in  structure.  The  visceral  mass  is  large  and  often  elongated. 
The  head,  on  either  side  of  which  there  is  a  large  and  well-developed  eye, 
is  more  or  less  distinct,  and  is  surrounded  by  the  foot,  which  has  in  fact 
grown  around  the  head  and  has  developed,  or  been  drawn  out  into,  eight  or 
ten  long  processes  called  arms. 

In  the  majority  of  living  forms  these  arms  are  furnished  with  rows  of 
suckers  or  hooks.  The  upper  part  of  the  back  of  the  foot  has  grown  out  into 
two  fleshy  lobes,  the  free,  outer  edges  of  which  can  be  applied  to  each  other 
so  as  to  form  a  tube,  known  as  the  funnel,  or  siphon,  that  con  municates  with 
the  mantle-cavity.  Sometimes  the  edges  of  these  lobes  have  grown  together 
and  form  a  complete  tube.  The  bell-shaped  mantle  which  envelopes  the 
body  is  extremely  tough  and  muscular. 

The  mantle-cavity  is  on  the  under  side  towards  the  back  of  the  body,  and 
the  water  for  respiration  is  taken  in  at  its  open  end  and  then  discharged 
through  the  siphon.  By  the  forcible  expulsion  of  water  in  this  way  these 
animals  can  dart  backwards  through  the  water  with  great  rapidity. 

The  mouth  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  arms;  it  is  furnished  with  two 
jaws  which  resemble  a  parrot's  beak  and  which  are  moved  by  powerful  muscles. 
The  radula  is  small  in  proportion  to  the  animal,  and  has  lut  few  teeth  in 
each  row;  the  alimentary  canal  runs  in  an  almost  straight  line  from  the 
mouth  to  the  stomach  near  the  further  erd  of  the  bcdy,  thence  the  intestine 
leads  forwards  and  downwards  and  terminates  in  the  mantle-cavity.  Just 
at  the  same  point  the  ink-bag  also  opens  into  the  mantle-cavity.  By  dis- 
charging the  ink  or  sepia-pigment  contained  in  this  gland,  and  thus  clouding 
the  water,  the  animal  is  enabled  to  cover  its  retreat  frcm  an  enemy.  On 
either  side  of  the  median  line,  within  the  pallial-cavity  also,  are  the  gills, 
either  two  or  four  in  number  and  foliobranchiate  in  type.  The  heart  has  a 
corresponding  number  of  auricles  ard  a  ventricle,  -whilst  the  blood  is  largely 
confined  to  veins  and  arteries,  so  that  nearly  the  whole  of  the  blood  return- 
ing from  the  body  passes  through  the  gills.  The  nervous  system  is  highly 
concentrated,  whilst  the  ganglia  around  the  ossophagus  are  fused  together 
into  a  ring  of  nervous  tissue.  This  nerve-collar  in  Nautilus  is  partly,  and  in 
the  other  Cephalopoda  completely,  enclosed  by  a  cartilage  called  the  cfphalic 
cartilage.  There  are  other  cartilages  present,  except  in  Nautilus,  in  different 
parts  of  the  body,  that  serve  as  points  of  attachment  for  the  larger  muscles. 

The  faculty  which  Cephalopods  possess  of  changing  their  colour  is  one  of 


NAUTILUS,  CUTTLE-FISH,  ETC. 


645 


considerable  interest.  Scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  body,  and  just 
beneath  the  outer  layer  of  the  skin,  are  a  number  of  pigment  cells  called 
chromatophores,  and  it  is  by  the  contraction  and  expansion  of  these,  which 
are  partly  under  the  control  of  the  animal,  that  the  changes  of  colour  are 
effected. 

The  class  is  divided  into  two  orders,  according  to  the  number  of  gills 
present,  viz.: — Tetrabranchiata  and  Dibranchiata. 

ORDER  I. — TETRABRA.NCHIATA 

Is  represented  at  the  present  day  by  a  single  genus  Nautilus;  but  in  past 
times  there  were  many  other  very  strange  forms  whose  shells  were  either 
uncoiled  or  curved  or  quite  straight. 

The  shell  of  Nautilus  is  entirely  external  and  coiled  forwards  over  the 
animal's  back ;  the  aperture  of  the  shell  of  the  male  is  proportionately  wider 

than  that  of  the  females. 
Its  outer  layer  is  porcella- 
neous, the  inner  nacreoua, 
Inside,  when  neatly  cut  in 
half,  it  is  seen  to  be  divided 
off  by  a  number  of  shelly 
partitions  into  a  series  of 
chambers  (Fig.  23).  The 
reason  for  these  lies  in  the 
fact  that  the  animal  does  not 
occupy  the  hinder  part,  which 
it  shuts  off  each  time  that 
growth  compels  it  to  con- 
struct a  wider  and  more 
commodious  portion  in  front. 
The  first  chamber  of  all,  or 
protoconch,  being  horny,  is 
never  preserved  in  the  Nau- 
tiloidea.  Running  right 
through  these  chambers  to 
the  last  one  is  a  small  tube, 
the  walls  of  which  are  pervious  and  lined  with  a  black  horny  layer.  It  is 
occupied  by  a  backward  extension  of  the  mantle  called  the  siphunde.  What 
the  function  of  this  siphuncle  may  be  is  still  unknown,  nor  is  it  yet 
ascertained  for  certain  whether  the  untenanttd  chambers  are  filled  wkh  gas 
or  water,  though  the  latter  appears  more  probable. 

The  animal  of  Nautilus  is  rare,  and  differs  conspicuously  from  other 
Cephalopods  in  that  it  has  no  long  arms  furnished  with  suckers;  the  mouth 
is,  instead,  surrounded  by  numerous  suckerless  tentacles  which  can  be 
retracted  into  special  sheaths.  The  margins  of  the  lobes  which  form  the 
funnel  are  not  united.  There  is  no  ink-bag.  The  gills  are  four  in  number. 

The  eye  is  remarkable  for  being  of  the  simplest  description :  it  consists  of 
a  cup-shaped  depression  lined  by  the  retina  and  covered  with  an  outer  layer 
of  the  skin,  save  for  one  small  aperture  in  the  centre.  The  sea-water  fills  the 
cavity  when  the  animal  is  alive,  and  the  whole  apparatus  must  work  on  the 
principle  of  a  pin-hole  camera. 

Four  species  of  Nautilus  are  known — from  the  Gulf  of  Persia,  the  Indian 
Ocean,  the  China  Sea,  and  the  Pacific  Ocean. 


Fig.  23.— NAUTILUS. 


646 


MOLL USC A—  CLASS  V.— CEPHALOPODA. 


To  the  Tetrabranchiata  probably  also  belongs  the  fossil  group  Ammonea, 
in  which  the  shell  was  external  and  of  various  shapes,  but  retained  the 
protoconch. 

ORDER  II. — DIBRANCHIATA 

Characterised  by  the  possession  of  a  single  pair  of  gills.  The  funnel  is 
complete.  The  eye  is  highly  developed,  having  both  lens  and  cornea.  The 
shell,  when  present,  is  internal. 

Sub-order  1. — DECAPODA.  The  members  of  this  sub-order  have  ten  arms. 
Eight  of  these,  often  shorter  than  the  body,  are  tapering  and  armed  with 
rows  of  suckers.  Each  sucker,  or  a^cetabulum^  is  on  a  short  stalk  or  pedicle, 
and  strengthened  by  a  horny  rim  which  is  frequently  toothed.  The  horny 
rim  is  sometimes  replaced  by  a  hook  which  is  retractile  like  the  claw  of  a  cat. 
The  other  two  arms,  called  the  "prehensile  tentacles "  or  ''tentacular  arms," 
placed  one  on  either  side,  are  longer  than  the  rest  and  cylindrical  in  form, 
with  expanded  ends  armed  with  suckers,  or  with  hooks.  Just  beneath  the 
expanded  tips  there  is  sometimes  an  arrangement  of  suckers  enabling  the 
two  to  lock  together  and  act  in  concert.  These  arms  are  retractile,  and  in 
the  cuttle-fish  can  be  withdrawn  into  special  pouches. 

The  shell  is  concealed  beneath  the  mantle  on  the  side  of  the  body  opposite 
to  the  pallial  cavity.  It  is  generally  more  or  less  rudimentary,  but  is  most 
developed  in  the  cuttle-fish  (Sepia)  in  which  the  "cuttle-bone"  or  "sepion" 
occupies  the  whole  length  and  nearly  the  width  of  the  body.  In  another 
form,  Loliyo,  the  shell  is  reduced  to  a  horny  "pen"  or  "gladius."  Spirilla 
(Fig.  24),  however,  has  a  spirally- coiled  chambered  shell  in 
which  the  whorls  are  widely  separated.  This  shell  lies  in  the 
hinder  extremity  of  the  body,  and,  in  the  few  specimens  of  the 
animal  that  have  been  obtained,  is  not  completely  concealed  by 
the  mantle,  though  whether  this  is  the  natural  state  or  due  to 
injury  is  not  yet  clearly  ascertained.  It  is  thus  strikingly  different 
from  the  shells  of  other  living  Decapoda ;  the  gap  between  them 
is,  however,  supplied  in  fossil  forms.  In  some  of  these,  the 
Belemnites,  the  apex  of  the  shell  is  enclosed  in  a  calcareous 
sheath  called  the  guard,  or  by  quarrymen  "thunderbolts.''  The 
shell  of  Spirula  is  common  enough  and  frequently  cast  up  on 
our  shores,  but  the  animal  is  an  inhabitant  of  deep  water  and 
rarely  obtained.  The  other  members  of  the  group  frequent  the 
open  sea,  and  often  have  lateral  expansions  of  the  mantle  that 
act  as  fins. 

Fig.  24.—  The  Decapoda  are  divided  into  two  sections : — OIGOPSIDA,  in 

SPIRULA.  which  the  sea-water  has  access  to  the  space  between  the  cornea 
of  the^heli  an(*  lens  of  the  eye,  and  MYOPSIDA,  in  which  the  cornea  is 
is  indicated  entire  and  water  is  not  admitted. 

through        ^^e  Bowing  are  the  principal  families:— A,  OIGOPSIDA — 

the  skin.         Families — Thysanoteuthidae,  Ommastrephidae,  Onychoteuthidae, 

Gonatidae,  Chiroteuthidae,  Cranchiadae,  Spirulidae,  and  the  fossil 

Decapods   with    "guarded"    shells.       B,    MYOPSIDA — Families — Sepiolidse, 

Sepiadariidae,  Idiosepiidae,  Sepiidee,  and  Loliginidse. 

Sub-order  2. — OCTOPODA.  The  members  of  this  sub-order  have  short  bag- 
like  bodies  without  tentacular  arms,  only  the  eight  tapering  ones,  which  are 


CUTTLE-FISH  AND  PAPER-NAUTILUS. 


647 


always  longer  than  the  body,  and  the  suckers  of  which  have  no  horny  rings. 

In  many  the  arms  are  connected  by  a  web,  the  umbrella,  which  may  exist 

only  at  their  base  or  extend  almost  to  their  tips,  as  in  Cirroteuthis ;  it  is 

probably  of  assistance  in  swimming. 

There  is  no  shell  except  in  the  famous  "  Paper-Nautilus  "  (Argonauta),  and 

then  it  is  not  a  true  shell  but  a  secondary  one.     This  is  carried  by  the 

females  only,  and  is  formed  after  the 
animal  is  hatched.  It  consists  of  a 
thin,  white,  perfectly  open  shell,  which 
is  slightly  coiled  towards  the  back ;  its 
corrugated  walls  are  formed  of  three 
layers — the  outer  ones  prismatic,  the 
inner  fibrous.  The  animal  nestles  in 
the  boat-like  shell,  which  is  in  nowise 
attached  to  the  body,  and  holds  it  in 
place  with  the  two  front  arms.  The 
ends  of  these  arms  are  curved  round 
and  sustain  thin  membranes,  vela, 
which  cover  the  exterior  of  the  shell 

on  either  side  (Fig.  25).     Whether  the  mantle  takes  part  in  the  secretion  of 

this  shell,  or  whether  it  is  wholly  formed  by  the  "vela,"  is  not  yet  quite 

clear ;  its  function,  however,  is  probably  less  to  protect  the  animal  than  to 

serve  as  a  receptacle  for  the  eggs. 

The   following   families  are   included   in   the  Octopoda : — Cirroteuthidse, 

Amphitretidoe,  Argonautidte,  Tremoctopodidse,  Allopsidoe,  and  Octopodidse. 


Fig.  26. -ARGONAUT. 


SUB-KINGDOM  IV.— BRACHIOPODA. 

LAMPSHELLS,  ETC. 
BY  F.  A.  BATHER,  M.A.,  F.G.S.,  ETC. 

THE  Brachiopoda  are  marine  animals  which,  like  some  Mollusca,  form  ex- 
ternal shells  ;  but  they 
differ  from  the  Mollusca 
in  many  points. 

The  shell  consists  of 
two  valves,  which  lie  on 
the  back  and  front  of  the 
animal,  not  on  its  sides 
as  in  bivalve  Mollusca. 
Each  valve  is  symmetri- 
cal in  itself,  which  is  very 
rarely  the  case  in  Mol- 
lusca ;  but  one  valve  is 
nearly  always  larger 
than  the  other.  By  this 
larger  valve  the  adult 
animal  is  usually  at- 
tached to  rocks  or  other 
objects,  either  by  the 
direct  growth  of  the 

valve  to  the  rock  (e.</.,  Crania,  Fig.  1),  or,  as  is  more  usual,  by  means  of  a 


Fig.  I.— A  SESSILE  BRACHIOPOD  (Crania)  ;  attached  to  a 
piece  of  oyster-shell  ;  d.v.,  dorsal  valve;  v.v.,  ventral 
valve  ;  e.d.,  exterior  of  dorsal  valve ;  i,v.,  interior  of 
ventral  valve.  Twice  natural  size. 


Fig.  2. — A  PEDUNCULATE  BRACHIO- 
POD  (Lingtda)  The  animal  lives 
in  the  mud  (m.)  in  a  tube,  the 
bottom  of  which  is  lined  with 
cemented  sand-grains  (£.).  The 
shell  (s.)  is  attached  to  this  by  a 
peduncle  (p.),  which  can  con- 
tract, a.  and  b.,  the  peduncle 
outstretched;  c.,  the  peduncle 
contracted  ;  rf.,  the  opening  of 
the  tube  from  above.  Greatly 
reduced. 


HIIIIIIIIIII 

iiiiiiitiiiin 

iiiiciiiiiiiniij 


Fig.  3.— Shell  structure  of,  A,  a  calcareous 
shelled  Brachiopod;  B,  a  horny  shelled; 
TO.,  mantle,  which  sends  processes  (p.m.) 
through  the  prisms  of  carbonate  of  lime 
that  make  up  most  of  the  shell;  p.,  outer 
imperforate  layer  ;  I.,  line  of  growth  ;  h., 
horny  layers ;  c.,  calcareous  layers  with 
vertical  canals.  Greatly  magnified. 


648 


649 


long  muscular  stalk,  called  the  peduncle  (Tig.  2).  This  larger  valve  is  there- 
fore often  called  the  *'  peduncle  valve  "  ;  by  English  writers  it  is  called  the 
"  ventral  valve,"  although  in  the  natural  position  of  stalked  forms  it  is  always 
the  uppermost.  The  smaller  valve  is  called  the  "brachial"  or  "dorsal" 
valve.  In  microscopic  structure,  also,  the  shell  differs  from  that  of  the 
Mollusca  (Fig.  3).  The  two  valves  may  be  united  by  a  hinge  at  the  hinder, 
or  umbonal  end  (ARTICULATA,  Fig.  4),  or  they  may  not  (INA&TICULATA, 
Fig.  5). 

The  shell-valves  are  lined  by  two  mantle-folds,  or  extensions  of  the  body- 
walls,  which  contain  prolongations  of  the  body-cavity  ;  and  in  them  the 
generative  products  are  formed.  The  free  margins  of  the  mantle-folds  are 
beset  with  bristles  (setae,  shown  at  6.  in  Fig.  2).  Muscles  pass  across  the  body 
of  the  animal  from  one  valve  to  the  other;  they  serve  to  open  and  to  close 
the  valves,  and  to  move  them  sideways.  The  imprints  of  these  muscles 
on  the  shell  are  important  in  the  study  of  fossil  brachiopods  (Fig,  5). 


fig,  *.— A  HINOED  BRACHIOPOD  (Ra^nesquina  alternatd). 
~  The  upper  figure  shows  the  hinge  from  outside;  the 
lower  figures  show  the  inside  of  the  valves,  p.v., 
peduncular  or  ventral  valve;  ~b.v.,  brachial  or  dorsal 
valve ;  h.,  hinge-line  ;  d.,  deltidium  ;  /.,  foramen  ;  a., 
area;  i.a.  ando.a.,  its  inner  and  outer  portions;  t., 
tooth;  d.s.,  socket  in  which  tooth  works;  c.p.,  car- 
dinal process ;  m.c.,  muscle  scars.  Two-thirds  natural 
size. 

The  viscera  (Fig.  6)  lie  near  the  hinder  umbonal  part  of  the  shell,  and  the 
mouth  is  directed  towards  the  fore-part  or  opening  of  the  shell.  Around 
the  mouth  is  a  somewhat  horseshoe-shaped  disc,  bearing  ciliated  tentacles, 
and  called  the  lophophore  (tuft-bearer).  It  is  often  produced  into  two 
processes  or  "arms,"  which  fill  the  fore-part  and  sides  of  the  shell-cavity, 
and  are  often  spirally  coiled.  From  these  "arms"  is  derived  the  name 
'*  Brachiopoda  "  (fyaxiu*,  an  arm,  and  *6vs,  a  foot) ;  they  are  often  sup- 
ported by  a  calcareous  skeleton,  the  shape  of  which  is  of  great  import- 
ance in  classifying  fossil  forms.  The  movement  of  the  cilia  of  the  lopho- 
phore serves  to  drive  to  the  mouth  currents  of  water  containing  food- 
particles.  A  lophophore  is  also  found  in  the  Bryozoa,  and  in  a  few  other 
sessile  marine  animals  (Phoronis,  Bhaldopleura,  Cephalodiscus).  The  mouth 


650 


BRACHIOPODA. 


leads  to  a  slightly-coiled  intestine,  which  may  have  an  anus  (TJLIETESTERATA), 
or  may  not  (CLISTEKTEIIATA). 


D 

7.  5;— A  NON-HINGED  BRACHIOPOD  (Lingula  anatina).  In- 
terior of  ventral  (F.)  and  dorsal  (D.)  valves,  showing  muscle 
gears,  named  as  follows  :  u.,  umbonal;  p.s.,  parietal;  <.?«,., 
transmedian  ;  e.-L,  externo-lateral ;  m.-l.,  medio-lateral ;  c., 
centra? ;  a.-Z.,  antero-lateral.  Natural  size. 


The  Brachiopoda  possess  a  system  of  blood-vessels,  with  a  contractile  heart, 
a  distinct  nervous  system,  and  a  pair  of  excretory  organs  (nephridia),  which 

serve  also  for  the  transmission  of  the 
generative  products.  The  sexes  are 
usually  separate,  But  Lingula  is 
hermap  hrodite. 

The  Brachiopoda  are  found  in 
seas  all  over  the  world,  and  usually 
at  depths  of  less  than  100  fathoms, 
but  they  have  been  dredged  at  a 
depth  of  2,900  fathoms.  A  few 
(e.{/.,  Livujula,  Fig.  2)  bury  them- 
selves in  mud  ;  but  most  attach 
themselves  to  rocks.  They  occur  in 
great  numbers  wherever  found. 
Their  shells,  which  are  easily  pre- 
served, abound  in  strata  of  all  ages, 
so  that  a  knowledge  of  them  is  of 
great  assistance  to  the  geologist. 

The  simplest  form  of  Brachiopod 
known  occurs  in  the  Lower  Cambrian 
rocks    of    America,    and     is    called 
Pater ina  (Fig.    7).      Its  valves  are 
oval  in  outline,  with 'one  side  truncated  by  a  straight  hinge-lino.     Concentric 


Fig.  6.  —  Internal  organs  of  a  Brachiopod 
(Rhynchonclla  psittacea).  p.,  peduncle; 
D.  V. ,  dorsal  valve,  and  V.  V. ,  ventral  valve, 
of  the  shell,  which  are  broken  away  on  one 
side,  exposing — L.,lophophore;  M,,  median 
partition  ;  Oe.,  oesophagus,  leading  from  a 
mouth  between  the  coils  of  the  lophophpre 
to  the  stomach,  S.;  C.,  the  coecum,  or  blind 
end  of  the  gut,  which  has  no  anus. 


LAMPSHELLS,  ETC. 


651 


Fig.  T.-THE  AN- 
CKSTOK  OF  THE 
BRA.CHIOPOIM. 
(Paterina).  En- 
larged. 


lines  of  growth  run  parallel  to  the  curved  margin  of  the  shell,  and  up  to  the 
hinge-line,  whence  we  see  that  at  all  stages  of  its  growth  the 
shell  was  of  the  same  shape.  A  very  large  number  of  the 
genera  of  the  Brachiopods  pass  through  a  stage  in  early 
youth  in  which  both  valves,  or,  more  generally,  the  dorsal 
valve  alone,  are  of  the  same  shape  as  the  adult  Paterina. 
But  during  growth,  changes  in  the  shape  of  the  valves 
take  place,  chiefly  produced  by  the  enclosure  of  the 
peduncle  in  the  walls  of  the  ventral  valve,  and  by  the 
formation  of  a  definite  hinge.  In  the  simple  types  of 
Brachiopoda,  such  as  Paterina  and  Lingula  (Fig.  5),  the 
peduncle  passes  out  freely  between  both  of  the  valves  ;  such  forms  are  known 
as  ATREMATA. 

Next,  the  peduncle-opening  is  restricted  to  the  ventral  valve,  where  it  lies 
in  a  slit,  which  may  become  transformed  into  a  round  opening  by  growth  of  shell 
substance,  a  stage  that  is  still  seen  in  the  modern  Discing  and  Discinisca  (Fig. 
8).  Such  forms  are  known  as  NEOTREMATA.  The  two  orders,  Atremata  and 
Neotremata,  are  equivalent  to  the  old  order,  Inarticulate  or  Tretenterata. 

In  the  next  order,  the  PROTREMATA,  the  peduncle  lies  at  the  apex  of  a  trian- 
gular fissure  (delthyrium).  This  is  partially  closed  in  early  life  by  a  single 
shelly  plate  (pseudo-deltidium),  as  in  Clitambonites  (Fig.  9).  This  plate  is 
secreted  by  the  peduncle  and  posterior  part  of  the  body  itself,  and  lies 
towards  the  apex  of  the  delthyrium.  In  the  adult,  the  pseudo- delthyrium 
becomes  fused  to  the  ventral  valve,  and  often  decreases  in  size. 

The  last  order  is  the  TELOTREMATA,  in  which  the  delthyrium  becomes  closed 
by  tho  development  of  a  pair  of  shelly  plates  (deltidial  plates).  These  are 


Fig  9.  —  Clitambonites  ddscan- 
dens-        '     dr*  £or 


Fifj.  S.-Disciniscd.   D.  ,  dorsal,  and 

^^atSS''^^0016 

sht.    Natiualsize.  dium    of    dorgal 

(chilidium)  ;  V.A.  and 
D.  A  .  ,  areas  of  ven  tral  an  d 
dorsal  valves.  Natural 
size. 

secreted  by  tho  edges  of  the  mantle,  and  may  fuse,  either  in  the  adult  or 
from  their  earliest  appearance,  to  form  a  single  plate  (deltidium).  (See  Fig.  10.) 
Some  of  the  earliest  forms  of  this  order  are  the  EhynchonettidcR,  which  occur 
early  in  palceozoic  times.  Subsequently,  we  find  two  main  branches  of  the  order, 
in  which  the  lophophore  is  borne  either  by  simple  loops  of  shelly  substance 
(e.{/.,  Tcrebratula  and  Magdlania\  or  by  coiled  spires  (e.g.,  Spirifer  and 
Atrypa)  respectively  (Fig.  ll).  The  two  orders  Prolremata  and  Telotremata 
together  correspond  to  the  old  order,  Articulata  or  Clistcntcrata. 


612 


BRACHIOPODA. 


The  Brachiopoda,  which  were  formerly  very  numerous,  both  in  genera, 
species,  and  individuals,  are  now  represented  by  a  little  over  a  hundred 
species,  distributed  among  some  fifteen  or  sixteen  genera. 


Fig.  lO.—Spirifer  sulcatus.  A  specimen,  natural 
size,  atid  an  enlargement  of  the  middle  part 
of  the  hinge-area  (A.)  of  the  ventral  valve, 
showing  the  delthyrium  almost  closed  by 
two  deltidial  plates  (£.)>  so  that  only  a  small 
foramen  (F.)  remains. 


r.  11  —Lophophore  supports  in  Mayel- 
lania(m.)&nd  Atrypa(a.).  m.s., median 
septum;  c.,  crura;  c.p.,  crural  processes; 
j.p.,  jugal  processes;  d.l.,  descending 
'lamella  a.l.  ascending  lamella  ;  p.l., 
primary  lamella  ;  s.c.,  spiral  coils. 


The  Brachiopoda  have  often  been  grouped  together  with  the  other  forms 
that  have  a  lophophore  (Bryozoa,  etc.)  under  the  name  Molluscoidea  (mol- 
lusc-like). But,  while  they  certainly  are  not  related  to  the  Mollusca,  it  is 
very  doubtful  how  far  they  are  allied  to  these  other  forms.  It  is  therefore 
safer  to  keep  them  as  a  separate  group  of  the  animal  kingdom. 


SUB-KINGDOM  V.— ECHINODERMA. 


STAX-FISH,  ETC. 

BY  F.  A.  BATHER,  M.A.,  F.G.S.,  ETC. 

THIS  is  one  of  the  main  groups  of  the  animal  kingdom,  and  the  animals 
contained  in  it,  such  as  the  star-fish  (Figs.  1,  2),  brittle-stars  (Figs.  5,  6), 
sea-urchins  (Figs.  7,  8),  feather-stars  (Figs.  13,  15),  and  sea-cucumbers  (Figs. 
9-12),  are  well  marked  off  from  all  other  animals  by  certain  well-defined 
characters.  The  first  is  the  feature  that  has  suggested  the  name  of 'the 
group,  namely, 
the  deposition  in 
the  lower  layers 
of  the  integu- 
ment of  a  crystal- 
line deposit  of 
carbonate  of 
lime.  This  may 
be  in  the  form  of 
minute  spicules 
(Fig.  11,  s),  of 
separate  plates, 
or  of  larger 
plates  and 
ossicles  closely 
joined  together 
into  a  more  or 
less  rigid  test 
(Figs.  7  and  13). 
In  all  cases  it  is 
characterised  by 
its  trellis  -  work 
structure,  and  by 
the  ease  with 
which  it  may  be 

split  in  certain  definite  directions.      Such  deposition  of  carbonate  of  lime 
may  also  take  place  among  the  internal  organs  of  the  animal. 

The  second  feature  is  the  radiate  structure  so  obvious  in  the  ordinary 
star-fish  (Fig.  1).  The  number  of  rays  is  generally  five,  and  the  external 
and  internal  organs  of  the  animal  are  variously  affected  in  the  various  classes 
of  echinoderms  by  this  five-rayed  symmetry.  The  Echinoderma  resemble  the 
Mollusca,  the  Arthropoda,  the  Vertebrata,  and  many  other  groups,  in 
possessing  a  separate  gut,  shut  off  from  the  rest  'of  the  body-cavity,  as  well 

653 


Fig,  1.— A  STAR-FISH  (Asterias  rubens)  FROM  UPPER  SURFACE. 
Two  thirds  natural  size. 


654  ECHINODERMA. 


as  a  system  of  branched  tubes  which  convey  blood  through  the  body ;  and  in 
these  respects  they  differ  from  the  jelly-fish,  with  which  their  radiate 
symmetry  has  often  caused  them  to  be  allied. 

A  system  of  tubes  conveying  water  from  the  exterior  throughout  the 
body,  and  serving  as  a  hydraulic  system,  is  characteristic  of  the  echinoderms. 
On  the  under  side  of  the  rays  in  a  living  star-fish  may  be  seen  a  number  of 
small  cylindrical  processes  which  wave  about  gently  like  trees  in  a  wind 
(Fig.  1,  P).  They  lie  in  each  ray  along  two  rows  with  a  clear  space 
between,  as  trees  on  either  side  of  an  avenue;  hence  the  whole  band  of  them 
in  each  ray  is  called  an  ambulacrum  (garden-walk).  In  the  sea-urchin 
similar  rows  of  the  tube-like  processes  are  seen  passing  from  the 
summit  down  to  the  base,  dividing  the  test  into  five  equal  portions. 
In  the  star-fish  and  sea-urchin  these  processes  end  in  sucker-like  discs. 
The  tubular  process  can  be  extended  to  a  considerable  length  and 
its  disc  attached  to  some  neighbouring  object.  The  contraction  of  the 
process  then  draws  the  animal  along  ;  hence  in  these  animals  the  processes 
are  called  tube-feet.  Similar  processes  occurring  in  the  brittle-stars  and 
crinoids  have  no  suckers  at  the  end,  and  serve  only  for  purposes  of  respira- 
tion and  not  for  locomotion.  The  processes  in  general  may  therefore  be 
called  podia.  Their  movements  are  caused  by  the  squeezing  of  water  into 
them  from  the  internal  water-vessels  ;  for  each  podium  is  like  an  indiarubber 
tube,  closed  at  one  end,  passing  through  the  test  to  join  with  one  main  tube 
which  runs  along  under  the  ambulacrum  in  a  radial  direction  (Fig.  3,  W), 
and  before  it  joins  this  radial  canal,  each  podium  gives  off  a  small  swelling 
likewise  filled  with  fluid,  so  that  when  this  swelling,  or  ampulla  (Fig.  3,  Amp.), 
is  contracted,  all  the  fluid  is  squeezed  up  into  the  podium,  and  pushes  it  out 
like  the  finger  of  a  glove  when  one  blows  into  it.  All  the  radial  canals 
meet  in  a  ring-canal  surrounding  the  mouth,  and  this  is  connected  with  the 
outside  water  by  a  canal  that  passes  right  across,  the  body-cavity  to  the 
other  side  of  the  animal,  where  it  opens  to  the  exterior  through  a  sieve-like 
plate  called  the  madreporite  (Fig.  1,  M).  The  walls  of  this  canal  are  often 
hardened  by  limy  deposits,  whence  it  is  known  as  the  stone-canal.  Some 
such  system  of  water-canals  occurs  in  all  echinoderms,  but  in  the  sea- 
cucumbers  the  madreporite  that  should  connect  it  with  the  exterior  is  sunk 
inward,  and  hangs  in  the  fluid  of  the  general  body-cavity.  Direct  com- 
munication with  the  exterior  is  perhaps  not  so  necessary  with  these  animals 
since  their  flexible  muscular  walls  enable  them  to  drive  the  fluid  of  the  body- 
cavity  in  any  desired  direction. 

There  are  three  main  systems  of  nerves  found  in  echinoderms,  one  supply- 
ing the  skin,  the  podia,  and  the  gut,  and  consisting  of  a  nerve-ring  round 
the  mouth,  with  radial  nerves  passing  from  it  beneath  the  ambulacra  ;  the 
second,  with  a  similar  arrangement,  but  placed  deeper,  and  supplying  the 
internal  muscles  of  the  body  wall  ;  the  third,  which  is  best  seen  in  crinoids, 
starts  from  the  other  side  of  the  body,  opposite  to  the  mouth,  and  supplies 
the  muscles  that  work  the  arms  and  stems. 

In  the  star-fish  the  generative  glands  are  orange- coloured  tubes  somewhat 
branched  and  knotty,  which  pass  down  the  sides  of  the  rays  and  communi- 
cate with  the  exterior  at  the  angles  between  the  rays  (Fig.  2,  G)  ;  they  have 
a  similar  position  in  the  sea-urchins;  in  crinoids  they  extend  right  down  the 
arms,  at  the  extremities  of  which  the  generative  products  are  produced,  In 
the  sea-cucumber,  however,  there  is  but  a  single  much-branched  generative 
gland. 


STAR- FISH,  SEA-URCHINS,  ETC. 


655 


The  echinoderms  now  living  are  divided  into  five  classes — Asteroidea,  star- 
fish ;  Ophiuroidea,  brittle-stars ;  Echinoidea,  sea-urchins ;  Crinoidoa,  sea- 
lilies,  feather-stars  ;  and  Holothuroidea,  sea-cucumbers.  There  are  two 
extinct  classes — first,  the  Cystidea,  which  are  closely  allied  to  the  ancestors  of 
all  echinoderms  ;  and  second,  the  Blastoidea,  which  are  perhaps  nothing 
more  than  an  offshoot  from  the  crinoids.  In  the  star-fish  and  brittle-star 
the  mouth  (see  Fig.  6)  is  in  the  centre  of  the  under  side  of  the  body,  directed 
towards  the  sea-floor  ;  while  the  anus  (Fig.  2,  As),  when  it  exists,  is  on  the 
other  side  and  directed  upwards.  In  a  regular  sea-urchin  (Fig.  7)  the  mouth 
and  anus  are  in  a  similar  position,  but  in  the  irregular  sea-urchins  (Fig.  8) 
the  body  has  become  somewhat  elliptical  in  shape  and  the  mouth  has  moved 
a  little  forward  ;  while  the  anus  has  moved  down  from  the  top  of  the  body 
to  its  lower  surface,  so  that  both  mouth  aud  anus  lie  on  the  under  surface  at 
either  end  of  the  long  axis.  In  a  holothurian  (Fig.  9)  the  body  is  cucumber- 
shaped,  with  the  mouth  at  one  end  and  the  anus  at  the  other,  and  the  animal 
usually  crawls  along  on  one  side  of  its  body.  In  the  crinoids  both  mouth 
and  anus  are  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  body,  the  mouth  usually  in  the 
centre  (Fig.  15,  M)  and  the  anus  (Fig.  15,  As)  a  little  on  one  side,  and  both 
are  directed  upwards  ;  while  the  opposite  or  under  side  of  the  body  is  pro- 
longed into  a  stem 
(Figs.  13,  14)  by  which 
the  animal  is  generally 
attached  to  the  sea- floor 
or  some  other  object. 

Echinoderms  cannot 
live  on  land,  since  they 
require  water  to  work 
their  hydraulic  appar- 
atus, neither  can  they 
live  in  fresh  water, 
where  they  would  net 
find  enough  lime-salts 
from  which  to  build 
their  skeletons:  in  the 
sea,  however,  they  have 
a  universal  distribution. 
Hence  their  calcareous 
remains  have  often 
been  preserved  as 
fossils,  and  are  found 
in  the  rocks  from  the 
earliest  period  in  which 
animals  are  known  to 
have  existed.  Echino- 
derms move  little  from 
place  to  place  during 
adult  life  ;  many  of 
them,  however,  have 
rather  larger  powers  of 
locomotion  in  the  lar- 
val stage,  and  the  free-swimming  larvae  are  occasionally  carried  to  consider- 
able distances  by  ocean- currents. 


Fig.  2.— DISSECTION  or  COMMON  CRC«S-FISH  (Asterias  rubens 
Two-thirds  natural  size. 


656 


ECHINODERMA— CLASS  ASTEROIDEA. 


ASTEROIDEA  (Star-fish). 

The  common  cross-fish,  Asterias  rubens,  is  perhaps  the  commonest  ex- 
ample of  an  echinoderm,  known  to  all  visitors  to  the  sea-side.  Fig.  1  shows 
it  from  the  upper  surface,  one  of  the  arms  being  slightly  turned  over  so 
as  to  show  the  ambulacral  grooves  with  the  tube-feet  (P)  on  either  side. 
Towards  the  middle  of  the  body,  at  the  junction  of  two  of  the  rays,  is  seen 
the  madreporite  (M).  These  two  rays  are  known  as  the  bivium,  while  the 
other  three  rays  form  the  trivium.  A  line  drawn  between  the  two  rays 
of  the  bivium,  through  the  madreporite  and  down  the  central  ray  of  the 
trivium,  would  divide  the  star-fish  into  two  equal  and  symmetrical  portions. 
In  Fig.  2  the  same  animal  is  shown,  also  from  the  upper  surface,  but  partly 
dissected.  In  the  ray  marked  IV.  the  rough  spiny  skin  has  been  left 
on,  while  it  has  been  removed  over  the  middle  of  the  body  from 
portions  of  rays  II.  and  ILL,  and  from  the  whole  of  the  upper  surface 
of  the  ray  marked  I.  In  the  middle  is  seen  the  stomach  (S),  which 
sends  into  the  rays  the  pouch-like  extensions  (D).  At  F  part  of  the 
roof  of  the  stomach  has  been  removed  to  show  the  folded  arrangement  of 
its  walls.  Near  the  centre  is  the  anus  (As).  From  the  stomach  there  pass 
down  in  the  rays  blind,  much-branched  outgrowths  (C),  known  as  pyloric 
caeca,  which  have  been  dissected  out  in  the  ray  marked  I.  Underneath 
these,  on  either  side  of  each  ray,  are  the  generative  glands  (G),  which  are 
seen  in  ray  II.  In  rays  I.  and  II.  the  central  line  of  plates  (Ao)  separating 
the  ray  is  exposed.  On  either  side  of  these  there  are  shown  in  ray  I.  the 
little  swellings  or  ampullae  (P)  at  the  inner  ends  of  the  tube-feet. 

Fig.  3  is  a  diagram  showing  the  arm  of  a  star-fish  in  section.  Here  the 
same  organs  may"  be  seen,  namely,  the  pyloric  caeca  (PC),  the  blind  processes 
from  the  stomach,  the  generative  glands  (G),  which  open  to  the  exterior 


Fig  3. — I>T  AORAMATIC  IROSS  SPCTION  OF 
STAR-KISII  ARM.    Natural  size. 


Pig.  4.— DUGRAMATIC  CPOSS  SKCTION  OF  OPIIIUHID 
ARM.     Much  enlarged. 


through  a  pore  (GP)  which  is  situated  near  the  junction  of  two  adjacent 
rays,  and  the  ampullae  (Amp),  from  which  the  tube-feet  (P)  pass  through  the 
ambulacral  ossicles  (AO).  In  the  groove  (A)  on  the  under  side  of  the  arm, 
formed  by  the  ambulacral  ossicles  and  lying  between  the  tube-feet,  there  are 
shown  the  following  structures  :  close  to  the  surface,  the  radial  nerve  (N) ; 
below  this,  the  radial  blood-vessel  (B) ;  and  below  this  again,  the  radial  water- 
vessel  (W).  All  of  these  give  off  side  branches,  those  from  the  latter  going 
to  the  ampullae.  The  arm  is  encased  in  an  external  skeleton  of  irregular 
limestone  plates  (SK) ;  some  of  these  support  spines  (S),  and  others  support 


STAR- FISH.  657 


curious  kinds  of  spines  with  branched  heads,  known  as  paxillae  (Px). 
Between  the  plates  there  pass  out  thin-walled  processes  (Rsp),  which  serve 
for  respiration  by  bringing  the  fluid  of  the  body-cavity  into  the  proximity  of 
the  outer  water.  Besides  the  paxillae,  there  occur  on  the  outer  surface  of  a 
star-fish,  as  well  as  on  that  of  a  sea-urchin,  small  pincer-like  organs  called 
pedicellariae.  These  resemble  little  pincers  supported  at  the  end  of  a 
movable  stalk,  and  they  have  probably  been  evolved  from  the  smaller  spines 
that  cover  the  test  of  these  animals.  They  move  with  extreme  rapidity,  and 
catch  hold  of  any  minute  object  that  is  brought  into  contact  with  their  inner 
surfaces.  They  are  variously  supposed  to  hold  small  particles  of  food,  to 
clean  the  test  of  dirt,  and  to  catch  hold  of  fronds  of  sea- weed  for  the  steady- 
ing of  the  animal  ;  while  the  fact  that  in  the  sea-urchin  they  are  sometimes 
provided  with  poison-glands  seems  to  show  that  they  serve  also  as  weapons 
of  offence.  At  the  extremity  of  each  arm  is  a  single  tube-foot,  with  no 


Fig.  5.— A  BRITTLE-STAR  (Ophiopholis  aculeata).    Two-thirds  natural  size. 

sucker  at  the  end  :  this  is  always  stretched  straight  out,  and  is  known  as  the 
unpaired  tentacle.  Immediately  above  it  is  a  small  eye  coloured  with  red 
pigment,  and  protected  by  small  tentacles. 

Star-fish  are  sluggish  animals,  rarely  moving  of  themselves,  and  staying  for 
days  in  the  same  position.  They  can,  however,  travel  at  a  fair  pace  when 
disturbed.  When  turned  over  on  their  backs,  they  are  able  to  right  them- 
selves, but  some  of  them,  which  have  very  stiff  skeletons,  take  much  longer 
over  the  process  than  those  that  are  able  to  twist  their  arms  about  in 
acrobat  fashion.  They  are,  like  most  echinoderms,  a  sociable  class,  living 
usually  in  swarms.  Some  species  of  shallow-water  forms  have  been  observed 
to  pair  during  the  breeding  season.  They  are  voracious  animals,  eating  all 
kinds  of  food,  and  taking  plenty  at  a  time.  The  stomach  can,  in  most  cases, 
be  extruded  through  the  mouth,  and  can  enfold  such  articles  of  food  as  an 
oyster  ;  star-fish  are,  in  fact,  dangerous  enemies  to  oysters,  and  also  attack 


658  ECHINODERMA-CLASS  OPHIUROIDEA. 


the  bait  of  fishermen,  whence  they  are  regarded  by  that  class  with  a  holy 
horror,  and  the  cross-fish  sometimes  is  called  by  them  "Devil's  fingers." 
To  their  credit  it  must  be  said  that  they  serve  as  the  scavengers  of  the  sea, 
and  that  they  make  excellent  manure. 

OPHIUROIDEA  (Brittle-stars). 

The  brittle-stars  and  sand-stars,  which  may  often  be  found  hiding  under  the 
rocks,  or  in  the  sea-weed,  or  in  pools  at  low  tide,  resemble  the  ordinary  star- 
fish in  having  five  distinct  arms.  These,  however,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
5,  are  long  and  serpent-like,  and  are  attached  to  a  relatively  small  body 
or  disc  (D,  in  Fig.  5).  There  are  other  differences,  as  may  be  seen 
by  a  comparison  of  the  section  shown  in  Fig.  4  with  that  of  the  star- 
fish in  Fig.  3.  Here  it  is  seen  that  the  digestive  and  generative  systems 
do  not  extend  to  the  arms  but  are  confined  to  the  body.  The  arms 
are  cylindrical  and  have  no  groove  on  the  under  side,  such  as  exists 
in  star-fish,  but  they  have  little  openings  through  which  the  tube-feet 
P  pass.  In  this  class,  however,  it  is  the  arms  that  are  used  for  locomotion 
and  not  the  tube-feet,  so  that  the  latter  have  no  terminal  suckers.  The 
greater  part  of  each  arm  is  formed  by  a  central  axis  of  successive  calcareous 
ossicles  not  unlike  the  vertebrae  of  a  backbone.  Each  arm-ossicle  (AO)  is 
composed  of  two  parts — one  on  either  side  and  united  in  the  middle  line. 
The  successive  ossicles  are  connected  by  pairs  of  straight,  muscular  bundles, 
and  articulate  with  one  another  by  tenon-and-mortise  joints,  according  to 
whose  degree  of  development  the  arms  vary  in  their  power  of  coiling.  The 
arm-ossicles  are  encased  in  the  tough  outer  skin  of  the  arm,  in  which  are 
developed  plates  (U,  upper,  and  S,  side — arm-plates  in  Fig.  4).  Spines  (Sp) 
are  borne  by  these  plates,  and  these  are  clearly  shown  in  Fig.  5  (S) ;  they 
aid  the  animal  in  locomotion.  The  integument  of 
the  disc,  as  shown  in  Figs.  5  and  6,  also  bears 
small  plates  which  are  often  covered  with  minute 
spines.  Returning  to  the  section  of  the  arm,  we 
see  on  its  under  side  between  the  tube-feet,  the 
nerve,  blood-vessel,  and  water-vessel,  which  give 
off  branches  just  as  in  the  star-fish,  the  difference 
being  that  they  are  here  enclosed  by  the  integu- 
ment of  the  arm.  The  mouth  is  shown  in  Fig.  6 
on  the  under  surface  of  the  disc.  Around  the 
mouth  are  a  number  of  short,  flat  processes,  the 
mouth  papillae,  which  serve  as  strainers.  Inside 
the  mouth  are  seen  the  five  tooth-plates. 
Fig.  G.-UNDKR  SURFACE  OF  OpHi-  .  Ophiuroids  are  found  in  all  seas,  usually  occur- 
URID  Eom  (Ophiopkolis  acu-  ring  in  quantities.  They  are  most  abundant  in 
leata).  Natural  size.  the  rock-pools  of  the  tropics.  They  gather  their 

food  to  them  by  sweeping  their  arms  over  the 

sea-bottom,  and  thus  conveying  any  suitable  substances  to  the  mouth. 
Figs.  5  and  6  represent  a  daisy  brittle-star,  Ophiopholis  aculeata,  which 
occurs  all  round  the  British  coast.  The  colloquial  name  is  due  to  the 
resemblance  to  a  daisy  caused  by  the  intermingling  of  spines  and  plates  on 
the  surface  of  the  disc.  The  popular  name,  brittle-star,  applied  to  the 
ophiuroids  is  due  to  their  fragile  nature  and  their  habit,  so  distressing  to 
the  collector,  of  breaking  themselves  into  small  portions  when  touched. 


SEA-URCHINS. 


659 


Fig.  7.— A  REGULAR 
SHA  -  URCHIN  (Cidaris 
papillata).  One-half 
natural  size. 


ECHINOIDEA  (Sea-urchins). 

The  sea-urchins  are  the  best  known  and  most  numerous  of  echinoderms. 
They  are  divided  into  two  groups — regular  and  irregular  sea-urchins.  Fig.  7 
shows  the  test  of  a  regular  sea-urchin,  Cidaris  papillata, 
which  is  called  the  Piper  from  the  supposed  resemblance 
of  its  spines  to  the  drones  of  a  bagpipe.  In  the  figure 
most  of  the  larger  spines  have  been  removed,  but  three 
or  four  have  been  left  on  (S).  Several  of  the  plates  of 
the  test  are  seen  to  bear  a  rounded  tubercle  (T),  and  it 
is  to  these  that  the  large  spines  are  attached  by  a  ball- 
and-socket  joint,  which  is  surrounded  by  muscles  that 
can  move  the  spines  in  any  direction.  The  bases  of  the 
large  spines  are  protected  by  smaller  spines  (s1) — see  figure 
— which  are  similarly  attached  to  smaller  tubercles.  The 
spine-bearing  tubercles  do  not  cover  the  whole  test,  but 
are  disposed  chiefly  in  five  broad  zones,  interambulacra 
(I A),  which  extend  from  one  pole  to  the  other.  Alter- 
nating with  these  are  the  narrower  ambulacra  (A).  In 
these  can  be  seen  the  holes  through  which  the  tube-feet 
pass.  At  the  summit  of  the  test,  where  these  zones 
converge,  is  a  star-shaped  space  covered  with  mem- 
brane, and  in  the  middle  of  this  is  the  anus.  Regularly 
placed  round  this,  at  the  summit  of  the  interambulacral 
zones,  are  five  conspicuous  plates,  each  pierced  by  a 
hole  (G),  which  is  the  duct  of  the  underlying  generative  gland.  One  of  the 
plates  (M)  is  also  pierced  by  a  number  of  small  water-pores,  and  is  the 
madreporite.  Outside  these  five  plates,  end  alternating  with  them,  are  five 
other  plates,  each  at  the  top  of  an  ambulacrum,  and  each  pierced  by  the 
unpaired  tentacles  which  terminate  the  water-canals,  and  represent  the 
unpaired  tentacles  near  the  eye  at  the  end  of  the  star-fish  arms.  These 
plates,  marked  O,  are  therefore  called  oculars  ;  in  a  few  cases  they  do  actu- 
ally bear  eyes.  The  mouth  is  at  the  other  pole  of  the  body,  and  is  therefore 
not  shown  in  the  figure.  It  is  surrounded  by  an  elaborate  arrangement  of 
teeth,  found  in  all  regular  urchins,  and  com- 
pared by  Aristotle  to  a  lantern.  The  gut, 
which  passes  from  the  mouth,  coils  round 
inside  the  test.  Such  a  sea-urchin  as  Cidaris, 
or  the  common  egg-urchin,  Echinus,  shows 
most  clearly  the  five-rayed  symmetry  that 
has  been  impressed  upon  the  echinoderms. 
In  the  irregular  sea  -  urchins,  however, 
one  of  which,  Echinocardium  cordatum, 
is  shown  in  Fig.  8,  the  animal  has  become 
elongated  along  one  of  the  axes  so  as  to  have 
a  superficial  two-sided  symmetry.  This  is 
connected  with  constant  movement  in  one 
direction,  and  such  modification  is  found 
among  those  urchins  that  live  on  muddy 
bottoms,  and  especially  in  those  from  con- 
siderable depths.  Not  only  is  the  test  elon- 
gated, but  the  mouth  moves  forward  to  the 


AI 


Fig.  8.  —  IRREGULAR  SEA  -  URCHIN 
(Echinocardium  cordatum).  Two- 
thirds  natural  size. 


66o 


ECHINODERMA— CLASS  ECHINOIDEA. 


front  margin,  while  the  anus  moves  downwards  to  the  hinder  margin,  and 
eventually  comes  to  lie  on  the  under  side  of  the  test.  These  heart-urchins, 
as  they  move  along  through  the  sand  and  mud,  scoop  it  up  into  their  mouths, 
and  pass  it  through  the  gut,  extracting  from  it  on  its  passage  such  nutriment 
as  the  minute  organisms  in  it  can  afford.  Urchins  of  this  type  have  short 
delicate  spines,  as  shown  on  the  left  side  of  Fig.  8.  They  move  almost 
entirely  by  stretching  out  their  long  tube-feet.  It  is,  perhaps,  the  hair-like 
spines  that  have  caused  the  urchin  here  figured  to  be  popularly  known  as 
Mermaid's  head,  Child's  head  urchin,  and  Hair  sea-egg. 

The  sea-urchins,  like  the  star-fish,  have  pedicellarioe.  In  the  regular 
urchin  locomotion  is  chiefly  effected  by  means  of  the  spines,  which  are  used 
like  crutches;  they  can  also  be  used  like  chop-sticks  for  prehension.  The 
spines  also  serve  as  organs  of  protection,  but  their  efficacy  varies  much  in 
different  forms.  In  Diadema  setosum  the  spines  reach  a  length  of  10  in., 
and  are  so  fine  that  one  is  pricked  by  them  before  one  can  see  them.  A 
few  urchins,  such  as  Asthenosoma  urens,  have  poison-glands  attached  to  their 
spines.  On  the  other  hand,  the  large  spines  of  the  Piper  appear  to  be  very 
small  protection  against  its  natural  enemies,  fish  and  star-fish ;  it  is  only  the 
small  spines  that  have  any  defensive  value,  and  they  are  placed  for  this  purpose 
near  the  main  openings  and  organs  of  the  body.  Some  sea-urchins  cover 
themselves  with  dead  shells,  sea-weed,  and  similar  objects,  which  they  hold 
on  by  their  tube-feet  and  so  move  about  unobserved.  Other  sea-urchins  do 
not  move  about  but  live  in  holes  in  the  rocks,  which  in  some  cases  they  can 
be  proved  to  have  bored  for  themselves.  The  sea-urchins  here  figured  have 
a  rigid  test;  but  there  are  others  in  which  the  plates  are  not  so  closely  joined 
together,  and  the  test  is  flexible.  Fossil  examples  of  such  leathery  urchins 

have  long  been  known  from  the  Chalk,  but  were 
not  found  in  the  living  state  before  the  dredging 
expedition  of  the  Porcupine.  The  regular  sea- 
urchins  breathe  by  ten  thin-walled  extensions  of 
the  body-cavity  which  are  protruded  around  the 
mouth.  In  the  irregular  urchins  some  of  the 
tube-feet  are  modified  for  respiration. 

Sea-urchins  live  on  both  animal  and  vegetable 
food,  and  even  on  one  another.  They  them- 
selves are  often  eaten  by  fish,  and  some  are 
thought  delicacies  by  man.  The  ovaries,  when 
in  the  spring  they  are  full  of  eggs,  are  said  to 
equal  the  best  fish-roe. 

HOLOTHUROIPEA  (Sea-cucumbers). 
A    typical    example    of     the    sea-cucumber, 
Cucumaria   planci,   is    represented    in   Fig.    9. 
The  body,  as  already  said,   is  elongated,  with 
a   mouth   (M)   at   one   end,    and   an   anus   (A) 
at  the  other.      Around  the  mouth  is  a  fringe 
of     branched    tentacles     connected     with     the 
Fig.  9.-A  SEA-CTTCUMBER  water- vascular  ring.  ^    Two   of   these  tentacles, 

(Cucumaria planci).  Natural  size-     those   in   the   direction   of    the   letter   M,    are 

shorter  than  the  others.  Five  rows  of  tube- 
feet  pass  from  the  mouth  to  the  anus,  and  under  them  lie  radially-disposed 
nerves  and  muscles.  In  no  holothurian,  however,  does  the  radial  arrange- 


HOLOTHURIANS  OR  SEA-CUCUMBERS. 


661 


Fig.   10.—  PlMTKD   HOLOTRURIAN  (Ps<.lll8 

diomediae).    3-2  natural  size. 


rnent  affect  any  portion  of  the  digestive  or  generative  systems.      In  most 
other  echinoderms,  it  will  be  remembered,  a  canal  passes  from  the  water- 
vascular   ring,   and    opens   to   the   exterior  by  a  madreporite.      In   a  few 
holothurians  of  primitive  structure  this  is 
similarly  the  case,  but  in  Cucumaria,  as  in 
most,  the  connection  with  the  exterior  is 
lost,   and  the  canal  with  its   madreporite 
hangs   down   into   the   body-cavity.      The 
skin  is  leathery,  and  contains  a  compara- 
tively small  amount  of  calcareous  matter. 
What    there    is    occurs   usually   in    small 
spicules,  which  assume  very  definite  shapes, 
such  as  anchors  in  Synapta,  or  wheels  in 
Chiridota.      Such  spicules  are  represented 
in  Fig.  11  (S1  and  J>2).     In  such  forms  as 

10),  the  spicules  increase  in  size  so  as  to  form 
there  may  also  often  be  a  ring  of  calcareous 
plates  round  the  gullet  and  round  the  anus  (M  and 
As  in  Fig.  10).  The  tentacles  of  Cucumaria  and 
some  other  forms  are  used  like  a  net  to  intercept 
floating  organisms  in  the  surrounding  water.  Many 
holothurians  take  a  good  deal  of  sand  into  the  gut 
and  the  intestines  ;  those  that  live  near  coral  reefs 
generally  contain  fragments  of  coral.  They  usually 
attach  themselves  by  their  tube-feet  to  rocks  or  sea 
weed,  and  wave  the  tentacles  around.  The  food- 
Inden  tentacles  are  thrust  one  after  the  other  into 
the  circular  mouth.  Some  curious  modifications  of 
form  have  taken  place  among  the  Holothuroidea. 
In  Psolus  the  animal  has  become  flattened,  and  the 
tube-feet  restricted  to  three  out  of  the  five  ambulacra, 
and  by  these  three  the  animal  creeps  about  or  holds 
itself  fixed  to  the  rock.  The  species  shown  in  Fig. 
10  is  one  of 


Psolus,    however  (Fig. 
plated    integument ; 


those  that 
were  dredged 
by  the  U.S. 
steamer  Al- 
batross, and 
occurs  near 
the  Cocos 
Islands  at  a 
depth  of  G6 
fathoms,  ad- 
hering to  the 

rocks  like  a  limpet.     It  represents  a 
highly  specialised  form  of  the  genus. 

The  tube-feet  (P)  are  seen  on  its  under  side,  forming  a  somewhat  irregular 
ring.  The  curious  form,  Psychropotes  raripes,  shown  in  Fig.  11,  is  one  of 
the  deep-sea  forms  known  as  Elasipoda.  It  also  was  dredged  by  the 
Albatross,  and  cornea  from  a  depth  of  1,573  fathoms,  south  of  Cape  San 
Francisco.  The  left-hand  figure  shows  the  under  side  of  it,  with  the  mouth 


Fig.  11.  —  DBUP-SEA  HOLO- 
THURIAN  (Psychropotes 
raripes).  Two  -  ninths 
natural  size. 


Fig.  12.— A  FREK-SWIMMING  HoLOTHriUAN  (Pela- 
gothuria  natatrix).    O^e-hal(  natural  size. 


662 


ECHINODERMA— CLASS  HOLOTHUROIDEA, 


(M)  at  the  anterior  end,  and  the  anus  (As)  at  the  posterior.  The  row  of 
tube-feet  passes  down  the  middle  of  the  under  surface,  between  the  mouth 
and  anus.  On  either  side  of  these  tube-feet,  and  well  seen  in  the  side-view, 
is  a  row  of  podgy  stumps,  by  which  the  animal  moves  as  a  centipede  moves 
by  its  legs.  Behind  the  anus  a  part  of  the  body  is  prolonged  into  a  flat  tail. 
These  animals  live  on  the  ooze  of  the  abyssal  ocean,  gorging  themselves 
therewith.  Some  of  the  holothurians  that  live  in  the  sand  of  the  deep  sea, 
by  constantly  keeping  both  mouth  and  anus  above  the  surface  of  the  mud, 
have  had  their  bodies  curved  in  U-fashion,  and  in  one  genus  the  two  openings 
have  come  to  lie  close  together  at  the  top  of  a  thick  stalk,  so  that  one  may 
compare  the  animal  to  a  conjuror's  bottle  with  a  divided  mouth.  A  yet 
stranger  modification  of  the  holothurian  type  is  the  beautiful  Pelagothuria, 
represented  in  Fig.  12  ;  this  lives  in  the  East  Pacific  on  the  surface  of  the 
ocean.  It  has  no  calcareous  spicules,  and  the  longitudinal  muscles  are  mostly 
changed  into  a  jelly  tissue.  Around  the  mouth  is  a  circlet  of  short  tentacles 
(T)  ;  and  from  these  radiate  thirteen  to  sixteen  long  feelers  (R),  the  bases 
of  which  are  united  by  a  web  forming  a  disc,  by  which  the  animal  swims  in 
much  the  same  way  as  a  floating  jellyfish.  The  rest  of  the  body,  with  the 

anus  (As)  at  the  end  of  it,  hangs  vertically 
downwards.  In  life  the  semi-transparent 
body  is  tinged  a  purplish  red. 

Holothurians  are  of  interest  to  men, 
especially  Chinamen,  as  furnishing  a  food 
known  as  Trepang,  which  ranks  with  edible 
birds'  nests  among  the  delicacies  of  the  celes- 
tial table.  The  fishing  for  this  takes  place  in 
the  East  Indies  and  along  the  Barrier  Reef 
of  Australia.  Only  those  species  that  have 
few  calcareous  spicules  are  of  value  for  this 
purpose,  while  others  are  rejected  because, 
when  caught,  they  get  rid  of  all  their  insides. 


CEINOIDEA  (Sea-lilies). 

The  echinoderms  that  we  have  hitherto 
discussed  have  all  availed  themselves,  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  of  their  power  of  free 
locomotion.  The  crinoids,  on  the  other  hand, 
together  with  the  extinct  blastoids  and  some 
of  the  cystids,  are  for  the  most  part  attached, 
either  during  youth  or  for  the  whole  of  their 
existence,  to  the  sea-floor  by  means  of  a  jointed 
stem  (Fig.  13).  The  body  of  the  crinoid,  which 
is  relatively  small,  is  placed  on  the  top  of 
this  stem,  and  from  it  there  extend  long  arms 
which  are  usually  branched  and  often  provided 

CRINOID  FROM  THE  WENLOCK  LIMB-  with  yet  smaller  branches  regularly  arranged 
along  them,  and  called  pinnules.  Each  of 
the  pinnules,  or  each  of  the  finer  divisions  of 
the  arms,  is  provided  on  the  upper  side  with  a  sroove,  carpeted  by  the 
minute  rapidly  waving  processes  known  as  cilia.  These  constantly  drive  a 
stream  of  water  down  the  groove  towards  the  main  arm,  which  is  provided 
with  a  similar  groove.  The  water  itself  passes  down  the  arms  towards 
the  body,  and  is  then  carried  down  five  similar  grooves,  one  leading  from 


Fig,  13. — RESTORATION  OF  A  FOSSIL 


CRINOIDS  OR  SEA-LILIES.  663 


each  arm  to  the  mouth,  which  is  placed  at  or  near  the  centre  of  the  upper 
surface  of  the  body.  The  stream  of  water,  containing  numerous  animalculae 
and  food  particles,  passes  through  the  mouth  into  the  gut,  which  is  coiled  round 
the  inside  of  the  body,  and  passes  out  again  at  the  anal  opening.  This  latter 
is  often  raised  on  a  small  eminence  or  papilla  (Fig.  15,  As).  In  some  forms, 
especially  in  some  extinct  genera,  this  papilla  was  extended  into  a  long  tube, 
so  that  the  excrement  was  carried  far  away  from  the  food-grooves  of  the  arms 
(Fig.  13).  Ranged  along  the  sides  of  the  food-grooves  are  the  tube-feet,  which, 
however,  are  not  provided  with  suckers,  but  probably  serve  as  respiratory 
processes.  The  small  size  of  the  body  is  perhaps  to  be  accounted  for  by  the 
fact  that  the  generative  glands  do  not  develop  within  the  body,  but  extend 
along  the  arms  underneath  the  food-groove  into  the  pinnules.  Here  the 
generative  products  become  ripe  and  swell  up  the  pinnules,  from  which  they 
ultimately  burst.  The  calcareous  case  that  encloses  the  organs  of  the  body  is 
known  as  the  calyx;  it  may  be  regarded  as  composed  of  a  cup  supported  like 
a  wine-glass  on  a  stem,  from  the  edges  of  which  cup  the  arms  originate  ; 
while  it  is  covered  by  a  lid  in  which  are  the  openings  for  the  mouth  and 
anus.  The  lid  is  pierced  by  pores  which  put  the  water-vascular  system  in 
connection  with  the  exterior.  These  may  either  be  dispersed  over  the 
surface  of  the  lid,  or,  as  in  other  echinoderms,  collected  in  one  plate — the 
madreporite.  This  plate,  when  it  exists,  lies  between  the  mouth  -and  the 
anus.  In  the  crinoids  now  living  the  cup  is  composed  of  only  two  or  three 
circlets  of  plates,  with  no  more  plates  than  five  in  each  circlet,  and  in  many 
cases  the  two  lower  circlets  are  hardly  to  be  distinguished.  In  some  ancient 
crinoids,  however,  the  organs  of  the  body  take  up  much  more  room, 
and  to  accommodate  them  the  cup  had  an  increase  in  size.  This  was 
effected,  not  by  the  plates  becoming  larger,  but  by  the  lid  being,  as 
it  were,  raised  up  the  arms,  so  that  the  lower  plates  of  the  arms  were 
included  in  the  walls  of  the  cup.  At  the  same  time,  further  plates  were 
intercalated  between  the  arms  and  their  branches,  binding  them  all  into 
a  plated  integument,  which  looked  like  a  tesselated  pavement. 

The  stem  is  perhaps  the  most  interesting  part  of  the  crinoid  anatomy.  All 
echinoderms,  and  many  other  animals,  including,  oddly  enough,  some  which 
are  generally  reckoned  by  zoologists  among  the  ancestors  of  the  Vertebrata, 
have  in  their  youngest  stages  a  small  process  or  lobe  extending  in  front 
of  the  mouth,  by  which  lobe  they  are  accustomed  to  attach  themselves  as 
though  by  a  sucker.  In  many  cases  the  attachment 
lasts  but  a  short  period ;  but  in  the  crinoids,  at  all 
events,  it  persists  for  some  time,  and  the  lobe 
becomes  extended,  while  rings  of  calcareous  sub- 
stances are  deposited  in  its  integument.  The 
increase  of  these  rings  in  number  and  in  size 
gradually  produces  a  stem  or  column  formed  of 
superposed  ossicles,  perforated  by  a  canal  which  is 
an  extension  of  the  original  body-cavity.  In  the 
crinoids  this  canal  contains  extensions  of  blood- 
vessels  and  also  of  a  sheath  of  nervous  substance 
surrounding  the  blood-vessels.  These  extensions 
pass  from  a  central  five-chambered  organ  placed 
at  the  bottom  of  the  cup,  just  at  its  junction 

with  the  stem.  From  this  strands  of  the  same  nervous  substance  also 
pass  in  criss-cross  fashion  through  all  the  plates  of  the  cup,  and  finally  join 


664 


ECHINOD.ERMA— CLASS  CRINOIDEA. 


together  and  pass  up  the  ossicles  of  the  arms.  These  are  motor  nerves,  and 
the  central  organ  controls  the  movements  of  the  arms,  the  stem,  and  all 
appendages  of  the  crinoid. 

Although  crinoids  are  typically  fixed  by  this  stem,  and  although  the 
ancestors,  at  least,  of  all  crinoids  have  been  fixed  by  such  a  stem,  still 
there  are  some,  both  living  and  extinct,  in  which  the  stem  has  entirely 
or  almost  entirely  disappeared,  leaving  the  crinoid  with  powers  of  free 
locomotion.  There  are  some  four  or  five  living  genera  in  which  this 
has  taken  place ;  the  most  familiar  instance  is  the  rosy  feather- star 
of  our  own  seas,  shown  in  Fig.  15.  In  its  younger  stages,  however  (see  Fig. 
14),  the  animal  is  provided  with  a  stem.  From  this  it  ultimately  breaks  off, 
retaining  but  a  few  of  the  ossicles.  These  ossicles  become  fused  together, 
and  form  a  thick  knob  at  the  base  of  the  cup.  From  this  knob,  which  is 
called  the  centrodorsal,  there  pass  small  branches  called  cirri  (C,  Fig. 
15)  ;  by  these  cirri  the  animal  can  hold  on  to  stones  or  other  objects  at 
the  bottom  of  the  sea,  so  that,  although  able  to  move  at  will,  it  can  save 
itself  from  being  swept  away  by  storms  or  currents.  Fig.  15  shows  one 
of  these  creatures  in  the  act  of  crawling  away  frc  m  the  stone  to 
which  it  WiS  attached.  The  arm  towards  the  spectator  is  stretched  out  and 
slightly  curved  back,  the  pinnules  at  its  extremity  being  bent  right  back  like 
the  barjbs  of  a  fish-hook.  By  these  it  will  hook  on  to  the  rough  surface  of 
the  sea-floor,  and  the  arms  will  then  bend  and  the  animal  be  dragged  along. 

At  the  same  time 
the  opposite  arms 
are  bent  down- 
wards and  their 
pinnules  are 
pushed  in  the  op- 
posite direction. 
This  shortening 
of  the  stem  and 
power  of  locomo- 
tion has  been  a 
gradual  develop- 
ment. The  Pen- 
tacrini,  which  are 
among  the  com- 
monest of  living 
stalked  crinoids, 
have  their  stem 
beset  at  intervals 
with  whorls  of 
cirri.  The  joints 
of  the  stem  just 
below  each  whorl 
are  not  muscular, 
but  brittle,  so 
that  the  crinoid 


Fig.  15.— A  FEATHER-STAR  CRAWLING  (Antedon  rosacea).    Natural  size. 


can  easily  break  its  stem  at  those  joints,  and  after  moving  away  a  short 
space,  can  again  affix  itself  by  the  whorl  of  cirri  remaining  at  the  broken 
end.  In  this  way  Pentacrini  have  been  found  attached  to  telegraph  cables 
but  a  short  time  after  they  had  been  laid  down, 


SUB-KINGDOM    VI.— BRYOZOA 

[OR   POLYZOA]. 
MOSS     ANIMALS. 


BY   R.    KlEKPATRICK. 

IF  the  sea-weeds  and  shells  cast  up  on  the  sea-shore  be  carefully  examined, 
some  of  these  objects  will  probably  be  found  overgrown  by  encrustations  and 
patches,  which,  viewed  through  a  lens,  resemble  fine  lacework  or  tracery  of 
varying  pattern.  Probably,  also,  some  of  the  supposed  sea- weeds  themselves 
will,  on  closer  inspection,  prove  to  be  wholly  different  from  plants,  and  to 

be,  in  fact,  Bryozoa.  One  of  the  commonest  of 
these  plant-like  animals  is  the  Sea  Mat  or  Broad- 
leaved  Hornwrack  (Flustra  foliacea),  (Fig.  1), 
found  all  round  the  shores  of  Great  Britain, 
growing  in  shallow  water, 
attached  to  shells  and  rocks. 
It  is  often  found  in  atun- 
dance  amongst  the  sea- 
weeds cast  up  on  shore, 
especially  after  a  gale. 

The  Sea  Mat  forms  thin 
brown  strap-shaped  or  fan- 
shaped  fronds,  expanding 
upwards  from  a  flat,  narrow 
stem  to  a  height  of  four  to 
six  inches,  and  branching 
A  very  fine  reticuhte  pattern  is  visible 
Under  a  low  magnifying  power  this 
appearance  (Fig.  2)  is  seen  to  be  due  to  the  raised 
margins  of  oblong  boxes  arranged  in  longitudinal  rows ; 
two  spines  rise  from  the  margin  on  each  side  of  the 
rounded  and  expanded  upper  end,  and  frequently 
a  fifth  spine  between  and  above  the  lateral  pairs. 
The  front  of  each  box  is  covered  with  a  roof  of  mem- 
brane. On  examining  a  fresh  leaflet  in  sea-water, 
crowns  of  very  slender  tentacles  will  be  seen  to  be 
extruded  through  the  upper  ends  of  the  front  of  the 
boxes,  a  thin,  horny,  semi-circular  lid  being  pushed  up 
during  the  process  ;  on  the  slightest  alarm  the  ten- 
tacles are  rapidly  withdrawn.  It  is  also  possible  to  see  a  bent  tube  beneath 
the  membranous  roof.  Each  box  or  cell  (Fig.  2)  is  the  home  of  a  polypide, 
which  has  formed  the  cell.  The  tentacles  of  the  polypide  arise  in  a  circle 
from  a  platform,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  an  orifice,  the  mouth. 

665 


Fig.  1.— FLUBTRA  FOLIACEA. 


in  one  plane, 
on  both  surfaces. 


Fig.  2.— FLUSTRA  (magni- 
fied), showing  polypiuea. 

a,  Horny  lid. 

b,  Avicularium. 

c,  Egg  capsule. 


666  BR  YOZOA  —INFUNDIB  ULA  TA. 


The  circle  of  tentacles  surmounts  a  conical  proboscis,  which,  together  with 
the  tentacles,  can  be  completely  withdrawn  into  a  sheath  cavity,  over  which 
there  falls  a  horny  lid.  The  proboscis  is  merely  a  part  of  the  cell  wall,  which 
always  remains  flexible  and  capable  of  being  rolled  in  or  out.  The  horny  lid 
is  a  specialised  fold  of  the  wall,  and  is  characteristic  of  the  order  of  Bryozoa 
(Chilostomata,  lip-mouthed)  to  which  Flustra  belongs.  A  glove-finger,  with 
a  hole  in  the  top,  surrounded  by  a  crown  of  bristles  to  represent  the  mouth 
and  tentacles,  will  convey  an  idea  of  the  arrangement  of  the  tentacular  sheath  ; 
when  the  top  is  rolled  in,  a  fold  or  lid  must  be  supposed  to  fall  over  the  cavity 
thus  formed.  The  tentacles  are  hollow,  and  each  is  provided  with  a  double 
row  of  cilia,  by  whose  motion  currents  are  set  up,  which  converge  to  the 
mouth.  This  opening  leads  into  a  pharynx  and  gullet 
(Fig.  3),  and  the  latter  opens  into  the  stomach,  which 
forms  the  bend  of  the  bent  tube;  the  stomach  is  continued 
into  the  intestine,  which  opens  to  the  exterior  outside  the 
circle  of  tentacles.  The  U-shaped  intestinal  tract  is  sus- 
pended in  the  cavity  of  the  cell,  and  is  separated  from  the 
walls  by  a  space  filled  with  fluid  and  continued  up  into  the 
interior  of  the  tentacles ;  the  latter  organs  thus  have  a 
respiratory  function,  since  the  peri-visceral  fluid  is  brought 
into  close  proximity  to  the  sea-water.  Further,  the  ten- 
tacles are  sensory  organs  capable  of  perceiving  tactile  and, 
i  — FLUSTRA  perhaps,  other  sensations.  A  nerve  ganglion  is  situated 
Poljpide  remold'  afc  tne  upper  end  of  the  cell  between  the  pharynx  and 
from  cell.  intestine.  In  the  walls  of  each  cell  are  round  sieve-like 

B'GuHetDX'  areas,  through  which  the  inner  linings  of  adjacent  cells 

C,  stomach.  become   continuous,    so    that    an    organic    and,    perhaps, 

D,  intestines  nervous    continuity   exists    between   all    the    cells    of   a 

£j«    VClit.  i 

colony. 

Passing  down  from  the  stomach  to  the  base  of  the  cell  is  a  cord,  in  which 
the  eggs  and  male  cells  are  formed.  The  fertilised  eggs  pass  up  to  a  hemi- 
spherical brood-chamber,  which  forms  a  hood  over  the  top  of  some  of  the 
cells,  and  there  develop  into  embryos,  which  swim  away  from  the  parent. 
The  embryos  are  minute,  nearly  spherical,  bodks,  flattered  at  each  pole,  and 
with  a  broad  zone  of  cilia  round  the  equator.  At  one  pole  is  the  mouth  and 
intestine,  and  at  the  other  a  flattened  disk,  wherewith  the  embryo,  after  a 
short  free  life,  fixes  itself,  and  gives  lise  to  the  first  polypide;  the  latter 
produces  buds  which  develop,  and  in  their  turn  produce  other  buds,  with 
the  result  that  a  colony  is  formed. 

Scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  frond,  and  interpolated  among  the  ordi- 
nary cells,  are  small  oval  shallow  cells  -with  large  thick  lids ;  here  the  polypide 
has  degenerated,  and  a  muscular  apparatus  for  opening  and  shutting  the  lid 
alone  remains.  The  purpose  served  by  these  modified  cells  is  the  retention 
of  prey,  and  probably  the  motion  of  the  lid  also  serves  to  frighten  away  un- 
desirable intruders.  In  some  species  of  Bryozoa  these  metamorphosed  cells 
have  an  extraordinary  resemblance  to  birds'  beaks,  and  hence  were  named 
"avicularia"  (avicula,  a  bird's  beak),  this  name  being  applied  to  all  such 
cases  of  metamorphosis,  whatever  the  shape  of  the  modified  cell  may  be. 

In  all  Bryozoa  we  find  an  approximately  U-shaped  intestinal  tract  contained 
in  a  sack  or  box.  The  mouth  is  either  surrounded  by  a  circular  or  horse- 
shoe shaped  crown  of  tentacles,  or  the  area  surrounding  the  mouth  is  drawn 
out  into  processes  provided  with  tentacles,  and  the  vent  opening  is  on  about 


FLUSTRA,  BUGULA,  LEPRALIA, 


667 


Fig.  4.— BUGULA  TUR- 

BINATA. 


the  same  level  as  the  mouth  opening.  Further,  all  Bryozoa  (excepting  the 
doubtful  Phoronis)  produce  buds,  which  (excepting  in  Loxosoma)  remain  con- 
nected so  as  to  form  colonies.  The  colonies  vary  greatly  in  their  composi- 
tion, texture,  and  outward  appearance.  They  may  be  stony,  horny,  and 
flexible ;  gelatinous,  fleshy,  or  like  leather  or  paper.  They  may  form  crusts 
and  patches,  hard  or  flexible  leaves,  bushy  or  shrubby  growths,  stony 
nodules,  branches  or  plates,  shapeless  fleshy  masses,  etc.  In  all,  we  have  as 
the  unit  the  polypide  in  its  cell.  Often  the  same  species  occurs  as  a  crust,  or 
in  plates  of  single  or  double  lamellae,  the  identity  being  revealed  by  the 
characters  of  the  individual  cells  composing  the  colony.  A  few  typical  and 
interesting  species  will  now  be  briefly  referred  to. 

The  Birds'  Head  Coralline  (Bugula  turbinata,  Figs.  4,  5)  forms 
brownish  horny  tufts  about  two  inches  in  height ;  the  branches,  which  are 
arranged  spirally  round  the  stem,  are  very  slender.  The 
cells  are  boat-shaped,  and  expand  at  the  upper  end. 
The  upper  three-fourths  of  the  front  surface  is  mem- 
branous, the  rest  of  the  cell  being  composed  of  hard, 
horny  material.  At  the  upper  part  of 
the  membranous  area  is  the  lid,  which 
is  pushed  up  when  the  tentacles  are 
extruded.  The  animal  owes  its  popular 
name  to  the  remarkable  avicularia 
which  arise  from  the  edges  of  the  cells ; 
these  organs  consist  of  a  short  stalk, 

a  curved  head  and  beak,  and  a  horny  mandible.  The 
"head"  is  filled  with  powerful  muscles,  which  keep  the 
mandible  continually  snapping,  the  whole  presenting  a 
ludicrous  resemblance  to  a  bird's  beak  (Fig.  5). 

In  the  Creeping  Coralline  (Scrupocellaria  reptans)  a 
further  modification  of  the  cell  is  seen.  Ab  the  back  of 
each  ordinary  cell  is  a  very  minute  tubular  cell  known  as  a 
vibraculum  (bristle  cell),  with  a  cleft  at  the  top  in  which 
a  long  fine  bristle  is  hinged.  Sometimes  the  bristles  are 
all  kept  moving  together  like  oars,  or,  again,  individual 
bristles  may  sweep  round  the  front  of  the  cells  to  clear 
away  debris  or  frighten  trespassers.  The  cell  and  its 
contained  polypide  are  here  reduced  to  a  tubular  cell 
and  muscular  apparatus,  while  the  lid  of  the  ordinary  cell 
has  become  lengthened  out  and  changed  into  a  bristle. 

Bryozoa  are  perhaps  most  commonly  met  with  in  the  form  of  crusts  and 
patches  on  stones,  shells,  and  sea-weeds.  The  Lepralia  of  Pallas  (Lepralia 
pallasiana  (Figs.  6,  7)  forms  circular  reddish-white 
or  vitreous  patches  on  shells,  etc.  The  cells  are 
arranged  in  radiating  lines,  each  cell  being  a  stony  box 
with  a  punctured  pattern  on  the  front  surface.  At 
the  outer  end  of  the  front  surface  is  a  square  aperture, 
surrounded  by  an  elevated  rim  and  closed  by  a  horny 
lid.  One  of  the  cells  in  the  figure  shows  a  lid  partly 
pushed  up  by  the  tentacles  of  the  polypide  in  the 
interior. 
Fig.  6.-LBPRALIA  PAL-  A11  the  species  hitherto  referred  to  belongto  theorder 


Fig.  5. — BUQULA 

(magnified). 
A,  Avicularia. 


LASIAMA    (encrueting     a 
shell). 


Chilostomata  (lip-mouthed),  which  is  characterised  by 


668 


BR  YOZOA—LOPHOPODA. 


Fig     7.— LEPRALI\    PAL- 
LASIANA  (magnified). 


the  presence  of  the  horny  lid  covering  the  tentacle  sheath.     A  second  order, 

the  Cyclostomata  (circular-mouthed),  commonly  form  white  circular  or  fan 

shaped  stony  crusts,  plates,  or  branches,  the  component  cells  being  tubular, 

and  without  horny  lids.      The  tubes  are  frequently 

arranged    in  single   or  double    rows.       In   a   third 

order,     the     Ctenostomata     (comb  -  mouthed),     the 

colonies   are  horny  or  fleshy,  never  stony.      When 

the     tentacles     are     extruded,    a    comb-like    circle 

of     fine    bristles    is    seen    arising     from    the    pro- 
boscis  near   the  base   of   the   tentacles ;    when   the 

tentacles  are  retracted  the  bristles  form  a  kind  of 

operculum.      The  gelatinous  Alcyonidium,  so  called 

from    its   resemblance    to   the   zoophyte  Alcyonium 

("dead  men's  fingers"),  forms  fleshy  masses  or  long 

cylindrical   branches.     The   polyps,    which   are   em- 

b  ddtd   near   the   surface,    extrude    their    tentacles 

when   undisturbed.      The    Nit    Coralline   (Amathia 

lendigera)  forms  little  dark  brown   bushy  tufts,  the 

ce'ls  being  arranged  on  the  branches  in  double  rows  of  small  horny  cylinders 

like  Pan's-pipes. 

The  three  orders  above  mentioned  are  included  in  one  group,  the 
Infundibulata  (infundibidum,  a  funnel),  in  which  the 
tentacles  form  a  funnel-like  circle  round  the  mouth. 
The  rest  of  the  Bryozoa  are  included  under  the  group 
Lophopoda  (crest  foot),  in  which  the  tentacles  are 
arranged  in  a  horse-shoe  shaped  zone  round  the  mouth. 
Nearly  all  the  fresh- water  Bryozoa  belong  to  this  group. 
LopJwpus  crystallinus  (Figs.  8,  9)  is  found  in  the  form  of 
little  jelly-like  blobs  on  the  stems  of  Duck-weed  (Fig.  8). 
The  polypides  can  be  seen  as  yellowish  red  streaks  in  the 
interior  of  a  blob ;  when  the  horse-shoe  plumes  of 
tantacles  are  expanded  the 
animal  presents  a  beautiful 
appearance.  Lophoptis  and 
other  fresh-water  Bryozoa 
commonly  propagate  them- 
selves by  means  of  peculiar 
internal  buds,  termed  "  stato- 
blasts  "  (Fig.  10),  which  arise 
in  the  cord  passing  from  the 

stomach  to  the  base  of  the  cell. 

In  Lophopus  each  statoblast  is  a  flat,  elliptical, 

seed-like  body  about  T\>  in.  in  diameter,  pointed  at 

each  end,  and  with  a  dark-brown  oval  centre  sur- 
rounded by  a  broad  band  with  a  reticulate  pattern . 

In  the  autumn  the  central  part  opens  like  a 

watch,  and  a  young  polypide  half  emerges  and 

forms  the  nucleus  of  a  colony.     The  remarkable 

Cristatetta  miicedo  forms  pale-green  worm-like 

colonies    averaging    about    an    inch    in    length 

and  one-sixth  of  an  inch  in  breadth ;  the  animal 

creeps  about  on  the  stems  of  water  weeds.     The  polypides  are  arranged  in 


Fig.  8.-LOPHOPTJ8 
CRYSTALLINUS  ON 
DUCK-WEKD. 


Fig.  9. — Loruorus  (magnified) 


LOPHOPUS,  A^LC  YON  ELLA.  669 


three  concentric  series  on  the  upper  convex  surface,  the  lower  flat  surface,  on 
which  the  colony  moves  along,  being  devoid  of  polyps.  The  statoblasts  are 
provided  with  a  double  circle  of  long  slender  spines,  ending  in  recurved  hooks. 
Alcyoneila  fungosa  is  a  species  commonly  found  in  streams  and  ponds  in  the 
form  of  brown  clumps  and  nodules  on  floating  timber,  stems,  sticks,  etc. 

In  the  Pedicellinidre,  which  are  mostly  marine,  the  polypides  are  stalked, 
the  stalks  arising  from  a  creeping  stolon;  the  tentacles,  which  form  an 
almost  complete  circle  round  the  mouth,  are  not  capable  of  being  retracted 
into  a  sheath.  In  the  aberrant  genus,  Rhabdopleura,  the  platform  round  the 
mouth  is  drawn  out  into  two  long  tentacle-bearing  arms.  In  Cephalodiscus, 
dredged  up  in  the  Straits  of  Magellan  by  the  Challenger,  the 
oral  platform  is  drawn  out  into  twelve  processes — six  on  each 
side,  armed  with  plumes  of  tentacles ;  the  colony,  which  re- 
sembles a  branching,  spiny,  gelatinous  sea- weed,  is  permeated 
by  canals  along  which  the  polypides  can  wander  freely.  In 
most  of  the  Lophopoda  a  lobe  projects  over  the  mouth;  the 
presence  or  absence  of  this  character  was  made  use  of  by 
Allman  for  the  purpose  of  classifying  Bryozoa  into  two  groups 
— Phylactolsemata  (guarded  throat)  and  Gymnolsemata  (un- 
protected throat). 

The  Bryozoa  are  found  in  the  Palaeozoic  rocks,  and  occur 
in  great  abundance  in  the  Chalk,  the   Cyclostomatous  group       (magnified), 
prevailing  in  the  earlier  formations.     A  classification  is  here 
appended  for  reference  : — 

Sub-class  I. — Infundibulata — with  a  circle  of  tentacles,  a,  Chilostomata — 
with  a  horny  lid  shutting  down  over  the  tentacle  sheath  (Flustra, 
Bugula,  Lepralia,  etc.).  b,  Cyclostomata — all  calcareous;  without  a 
horny  lid  ;  without  avicularia  (Crisia,  Tubulipora).  c,  Ctenostomata — 
with  a  circle  of  bristles  forming  a  kind  of  operculum ;  never  calcareous 
(Amathia,  Alcyonidium,  etc.). 

Sub-class  II. — Lophopoda — with  horse-shoe  shaped  plume  of  tentacles  or 
arm-like  processes  bearing  tentacles  (Alcyoneila,  Pedicellina,  etc.). 

[Note. — The  name  Polyzoa  is  often  used  by  English  zoologists  in  place 
of  Bryozoa,  but  the  latter  term,  definitely  employed  as  a  class  name  by 
Ehrenberg  in  1834,  apparently  has  greater  claims  to  acceptance.  Biblio- 
graphy—  Johnston's  "British  Zoophytes;"  Hincks*  "  British  Marine 
Polyzoa;"  Allman!s  "  Fresh-  water  Polyzoa  j "  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica," 
Polyzoa  (Lank ester). 


SUB-KINGDOM  VII.— VERMES. 

THE     WORMS. 

BY  R.  I.  POCOCK. 

To  give  a  concise  diagnosis  of  the  Vermes  is  a  matter  of  no  small  difficulty, 
for  the  different  classes  that  are  discussed  in  this  chapter  are  merely  grouped 
together  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  since  they  present  few  features  in  com- 
mon to  justify  their  association,  apart,  that  is,  from  the  negative  fact  that 
they  do  not  possess  the  characters  by  which  the  rest  of  the  sub-kingdoms 
may  be  recognised.  From  the  Echinoderms  (star-fish,  sea-urchins,  etc.)  and 
Coelenterates  (corals,  jelly-fish),  for  example,  they  may  be  distinguished  by 
beng  bi-laterally  and  not  radially  symmetrical;  bi-laterally  symmetrical 
anmals  being  those  in  which  the  right  and  left  halves  of  the  body  are  alike. 
From  the  Arthropoda  (insects,  spiders,  etc.)  they  may  be  recognised  by  the 
abisence  of  jointed  limbs  and  of  limbs  modified  to  act  as  jaws ;  from  the 
Chordata  (Vertebrates  and  Ascidians)  by  the  absence  of  the  cartilaginous 
doirsal  chord  (notochord)  and  of  slits  in  the  walls  of  the  gullet ;  and  from  the 
Mollusca  (snails,  cuttle-fish,  mussels)  by  the  absence  of  the  gland  for  pro- 
ducing the  shell,  and  of  the  muscular  foot,  which  subserves  locomotion.  In 
addition,  however,  to  these  negative  features,  it  may  be  said  that  the  body  is 
soft,  usually  long,  and  often  jointed ;  the  alimentary  canal,  when  present, 
usually  traverses  it  from  end  to  end ;  but  in  the  lowest  forms  it  has  no  pos- 
terior outlet,  and  in  some  of  the  parasitic  species  has  entirely  disappeared. 
In  the  simpler  types  the  nervous  system  consists  of  two  chords,  one  running 
along  each  side  of  the  body,  and  uniting  in  the  head  to  form  the  brain,  which 
is  placed  just  above  the  gullet.  But  in  the  higher  groups  these  chords  are 
united  throughout  their  length,  and  form  a  double  chain,  traversing  the  body 
from  end  to  end  beneath  the  alimentary  canal.  In  the  higher  forms,  again, 
there  is  a  highly  developed  circulatory  system,  consisting  of  longitudinal  and 
transverse  vessels,  but  no  such  organs  have  been  observed  in  the  less  higTily 
organised  types.  Very  characteristic,  too,  of  all  the  classes  are  the  excretory 
vessels,  consisting  of  tubes  that  open  to  the  exterior,  and  at  their  inner 
end  communicate  with  the  body  cavity. 

A  bond  of  union,  however,  between  some  of  the  classes,  which  in  the  adult 
stages  are  very  dissimilar,  may  perhaps  be  sought  in  the  similarity  that  is 
observable  in  their  larval  forms.  For  example,  in  the  groups  known  as 
Polychreta,  Gephyrea,  Nemertinea,  and  Turbellaria,  in  addition  to  some 
others  of  less  importance  and  extent,  the  young  is  an  active  larva  furnished 
with  cilia,  or  vibratile  hairs,  arranged  in  one  or  more  definite  belts  around 
the  body,  by  the  movement  of  which  it  is  enabled  to  swim  freely  through  the 
water.  These  groups  would  thus  seem  to  have  at  least  a  common  starting- 
point  in  development,  from  which  they  have  diverged  in  different  directions. 

670 


ANNELIDS— BRISTLE-FOOTED   WORMS.  671 


But  too  much  stress  must  not  be  laid  upon  this  circumstance,  seeing  that  other 
marine  groups  of  invertebrated  animals,  like  the  Mollusca  and  Hemichordata, 
may  also  be  developed  from  ciliated  larvae  not  very  different  in  structure  from 
those  that  are  met  with  in  the  Vermes. 

The  Vermes  may  be  divided  into  the  following  six  classes  : — 1.  Annelida 
(earthworms,  leeches,  etc.);  2.  Gephyrea  ;  3.  Nematohelminthes  (thread- 
worms) ;  4.  Rotifera  (wheel-animalcules) ;  5.  Nemertinea ;  6.  Platyhelminthes 
(flat-worms). 

THE  RINGED  WORMS. 
CLASS  ANNELIDA. 

To  this  class  belong  those  highly  specialised  worms  whose  organisation  has 
been  briefly  referred  to  above.  The  body  consists  of  a  series  of  rings  or 
segments,  each  of  which  is  substantially  similar  to  the  one  behind  and  the 
one  in  front  of  it.  The  alimentary  canal  traverses  the  body  from  end  to  end, 
and  beneath  it  lies  the  nerve-chord,  consisting  of  a  double  thread  united  in 
each  segment  to  form  a  ganglion  or  swelling,  and  connected  in  front  with  the 
brain,  one  of  the  threads  passing  on  each  side  of  the  oesophagus.  Each  seg- 
ment, too,  typically  contains  a  pair  of  excretory  tubes  or  nephridia,  and  the 
circulatory  system  consists  of  longitudinal  vessels,  connected  by  transverse 
branches.  The  most  highly  organised  members  of  this  class,  namely,  the 
Chretopoda,  are  structurally  not  very  far  removed  from  the  Arthropoda 
(crustaceans,  insects,  centipedes,  etc.).  The  chief  distinctions  between  the 
two  groups  are,  however,  three  in  number.  In  all  the  Arthropods,  except 
Peripaius,  the  legs  are  jointed,  and  at  least  one  pair  of  them  has  become 
modified  to  act  as  jaws.  But  in  the  Chsetopoda,  although  there  may  be 
distinct  leg-like  processes,  these  are  never  jointed,  and  the  jaws,  when 
present,  are  merely  horny  teeth  developed  in  the  mouth.  Again,  in  the 
Arthropods  the  walls  of  the  heart,  or  dorsal  blood-vessel,  are  perforated  by 
slits,  by  means  of  which  the  blood  makes  its  way  back  to  that  organ, 
whereas  no  such  slits  are  present  in  the  corresponding  blood-vessels  in  the 
Annelids.  The  Annelida  are  divisible  into  the  CHJETOPODA  and  HIRUDINEA  . 

THE  BRISTLE-FOOTED  WORMS — SUB-CLASS  CH^TOPODA. — At  the  head 
of  the  Vermes  stand  the  species  known  as  the  Bristle-Footed  Worms 
or  Chsetopoda,  which  in  many  details  of  their  organisation  approach  the 
Arthropoda.  For  example,  in  the  typical  members  of  the  class  the  body 
consists  of  a  series  of  approximately  similar  segments,  each  of  which  is 
furnished  at  the  sides  with  two  rows  of  bristles,  and  very  often  with  limb- 
like  prominences,  known  as  a  parapodia.  There  is  a  distinct  head,  bearing 
above  the  mouth,  a  prostomium  or  kind  of  enlarged  upper  lip,  and  often 
furnished  in  addition  with  one  or  more  pairs  of  tentacles.  The  alimentary 
canal  traverses  the  body  from  end  to  end  ;  and  beneath  it  lies  the  double 
nerve  chord,  which  is  in  front  connected  with  the  brain,  placed  in  the  head 
above  the  mouth. 

Leaving  aside  for  the  moment  some  of  the  less  important  types,  the 
Chsetopoda  may  be  said  to  fall  into  two  orders,  known  as  the  POLYCH^ETA 
and  the  OLIGOCH^TA. 

The  Polychseta  have  a  conspicuous  head,  usually  bearing  feelers  and 
gills,  and  the  segments  of  the  body  are  furnished  at  the  sides  with 
limb -like  processes,  usually  supplied  with  a  rich  armature  of  bristles. 


672 


VERMES—  CLASS  ANNELIDA. 


Nearly  all  the  species  are  marine,  and  many  of  them  are  of  considerable 
size  and  great  beauty.  According  to  structuie  and  mode  of  life,  they  are 
divided  into  two  sub-orders  —  (1)  the  SEDENTARIA  or  TUBICOLA  and  (2)  the 
ERRAJSTIA. 

The  typical  members  of  the  Sedentaria  live 
in  tubes  of  sand,  mud,  or  pieces  of  shell  glued 
together  by  the  slimy  secretion  of  their  skins, 
or  composed  of  a  dense,  shelly,  chalk-like 
substance.  The  worm  known  as  Terebella 
constructs  a  dwelling-place  of  the  former 
kind,  gathering  together  the  particles  by 
means  of  long  flexible  tentacles  placed  on 
its  head  ;  while  tubes  of  cement  are  built  by 
such  forms  as  Serpula  and  Spirorbis.  The 
latter  is  the  maker  of  those  tubes  so  much 
resembling  a  snail-shell,  which  are  common 
on  our  coasts  ;  while  Serpula  makes  the  long, 
sinuous,  serpent-like  tubes  which  may  be 
often  found  in  interlacing  clusters  encrusting 
stones  and  shells  of  various  kinds.  When 
undisturbed  these  worms  may  be  seen  pro- 
truding from  their  tubes  and  waving  in  the 
water  their  gills  and  tentacles,  which  are 
affixed  to  the  head,  but  upon  the  slightest 
alarm  they  shoot  back  like  a  flash  out  of 
harm's  way,  and  remain 
securely  concealed  within 
their  homes  until  the  danger 
is  overpast.  To  render  it- 

self still  safer  within  its  retreat,  the  worm  called  Serpula 
has  one  of  its  tentacles  transformed  into  a  veritable 
stopper,  which  exactly  fits  the  mouth  of  the  tube  and 
completely  closes  it  up  when  the  worm  has  withdrawn 
itself. 

Although  differing  from  the  Serpula  and  Terebella,  and 
approaching  the  Errant  Polychseta  in  many  characters,  the 
common  Sand-worm  or  Lug-worm  (Arenicola  marina),  so 
much  sought  for  on  our  coasts  as  bait,  also  belongs  to  the 
group  of  Ssdentaria.  In  this  species  the  gills  are  repre- 
sented by  plumes  situated  on  the  middle  segments  of  the 
body.  At  low  water  on  the  sandy  shores  of  northern  Europe 
the  Lug-  worm  may  be  found  at  times  in  great  quantities, 
the  position  of  its  burrows  being  easily  detected  by  the 
little  heaps  of  sand  that  accumulate  at  the  entrance.  For, 
like  the  Earth-worm,  the  Lug-worm  swallows  large 
quantities  of  sand,  in  order  to  extract  for  its  nourishment 
any  organic  matter  it  may  contain  ;  and  it  ccmes  to  the 
surface  to  unburden  its  body  of  the  sand  that  has  passed 
through  it. 

To  the  section  Errantia  belong  the  most  highly-organised  species  of  the 
class.  They  lead  a  free  predatory  life,  wandering  hither  and  thither  in 
search  of  food,  which  consists  almost  exclusively  of  animals  more  defenceless 


Fig.  1.—  TUBE-MAKING  ANNKLID 
(Serpula  contortuplicaia). 

a>   GrprotrudiDtUbeS   Wlth 
b,    Worm  removed  from  tube. 


Fig.  2.  —LUG-WORM 
(Arenicola  marina). 


PREDATORY  ANNELIDS. 


673 


than  themselves.  For  this  purpose  they  are  fitted  with  organs  of  locomotion 
in  the  form  of  prominent  limb-like,  bristle-bearing,  processes  (parapodia); 
the  conspicuous  head  is  supplied  with  tentacles  of  various  kinds,  and 
generally  with  eyes,  while  the  gullet,  which 
is  protrusible,  is  armed  with  horny  teeth. 
Many  of  these  worms  are  of  large  size  and 
are  composed  of  a  long  series  of  segments, 
a  species,  for  example,  named  Eunice 
(jigantea,  is  said  to  have  over  400  of  them, 
and  to  be  upwards  of  four  feet  in  length. 
But  one  of  the  commonest  forms  upon  our 
coast,  known  as  the  Sea-mouse  (Aphrodite 
acuteatct),  is  a  very  different  looking 
animal,  with  a  short,  broad,  more  or  less 
oval  body,  convex  above  and  flat  below, 
like  that  of  a  Slug.  Its  sides  are  orna- 
mented with  the  most  beautifully  iridescent 
hairs,  and  with  barbed  retractile  spines, 
which  serve  as  a  protection  against  carnivo- 
rous fish  or  other  enemies. 

An  interesting  feature  connected  with 
some  of  these  Bristle-worms,  is  that  their 
method  of  development  takes  place  by 
means  of  what  is  called  an  alternation  of 
generations.  In  Autolytus,  one  of  the 
Syllidse,  for  example,  the  worm  that  is 
hatched  from  the  egg  and  grows  to  maturity 
is  a  neuter,  and  is  consequently  quite  in- 
capable of  reproducing  its  kind  in  the 
ordinary  way.  But  the  difficulty  is  over- 
come by  the  formation  of  a  new  worm,  the  hinder  end  of  the  old  one 
breaking  off  and  turning  either  into  a  male  or  a  female.  In  some  cases 
more  than  one  individual  is  produced  at  a  time  by  this  process  of  division, 
so  that  before  they  sever  themselves  from  the  parent  stock  a  regular  chain 
of  worms  is  formed.  In  another  member  of  this  family,  namely,  the 
Branched  Syllis  (Syllis  ramosa),  which  lives  in  certain  sponges,  new  individuals 
are  produced  as  lateral  branches,  as  well  as  one  behind  the  other.  Very 
exceptionally  in  the  Polychseta  the  young  are  born  alive.  In  the  majority  of 
cases  the  eggs  give  rise  to  a  free  swimming  larva ,  the  Trochophore  or  Trochosphere, 
characterised  by  the  presence  of  one  or  more  belts  of  long  vibratile  cilia 
encircling  the  body.  According  to  the  number  and  disposition  of  these  belts 
the  larvse  have  been  named ;  those  that  possess  several  of  them  being  known, 
for  example,  as  Polytrochous.  Sometimes  there  is  but  one  belt,  which  may 
be  in  the  middle  of  the  body  {Mesotrochous),  or  in  front  of  the  mouth 
(Monotrochous),  while  not  infrequently  the  Monoirochous  larva  has  a  second 
belt  surrounding  its  posterior  end,  when  it  is  known  as  Telotrochous.  Some- 
times, again,  there  is  no  definite  belt  (Atrochous),  the  larva  being  uniformly 
covered  with  short  cilia,  bearing,  in  addition,  a  special  tuft  of  them  at  the 
front  end  of  the  body.  Somewhat  similar  larvae  are  found  in  other  groups 
of  Vermes,  and  are  of  special  interest,  as  showing  possible  relationship 
between  them  and  the  Annelida. 

The  second  order  of  Bristle- footed  worms  is  named  Oligochseta,  on  account 
44 


Fig,  3.— THE  PEARLT  NEREIS 
(Nereis  margaritacea). 

a,  Entire  worm. 

b,  Head  with  jaws,  feelers,  and  eyes. 


674 


VERMES—  CLASS  ANNELIDA. 


of  the  relatively  poor  development  of  the  armature  of  bristles  as  compared 
with  the  Polychseta.  In  other  respects  they  are  less  highly  organised,  as  is 
shown  by  the  absence  of  tentacles  and  gills  and  teeth,  and  by  the  fact  that 
the  sexes  are  united  in  one  individual.  The  best-known  members  of  this 
order  are  the  familiar  earth-worms,  belonging  to  the  families  Lumbricidce, 
etc.  Most  people  are  probably  of  opinion  that  but  one  species  of  this  animal 
occurs  in  Great  Britain;  but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  there  are  about  twenty 
belonging  to  three  distinct  genera.  Another  popular  belief  connected  with 
them  is,  that  if  a  couple  of  specimens  be  cut  in  two,  and  the  head  end 
of  one  be  applied  to  the  tail  end  of  the  other,  the  two  parts  will  grow 
together  and  form  a  complete  individual.  In  fact,  the  curious  swelling 
which  may  be  observed  in  the  fore  part  of  the  body  of  a  full-grown  worm  is 
often  regarded  as  the  point  of  union  of  two  such  separate  pieces.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  this  swelling,  called  the  clitellum  or  cingidum,  is  an  organ 
used  in  the  formation  of  the  cocoons  in  which  the  eggs  are  laid. 

Although  occasionally  seen  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  during  the  day- 
time, Earth-worms  are  for  the  most  part  strictly  nocturnal  and  subterranean, 
burrowing  into  the  soil  in  all  directions,  and  devouring  any  animal  or 
vegetable  refuse  it  may  contain.  In  connection  with  food  they  swallow 
large  quantities  of  earth,  and  when  this  has  passed  through  their  bodies,  it 
is  voided  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  forming  the  so-called  vegetable  mould. 
During  spells  of  dry  weather  they  bury  themselves  deep  in  the  earth  in 
search  of  moisture,  without  which  life  is  an  impossibility  ;  and  in  the 
winter  months  they  descend  to  the  lower  layers  of  the  soil  so  as  to  be  out 
of  reach  of  the  frost.  These  animals  are  subjected  to  ruthless  persecution 
at  the  hands  of  farmers  and  gardeners  on  account  of  their  propensity  for 
pulling  shoots  of  young  corn  and  blades  of  grass  beneath 
f  the  surface.  But  it  is  doubtful  if  the  harm  done  in 

this  respect  is  not  more  than  counteracted  by  the 
benefit  that  plants  derive  from  the  ceaseless  tunnelling 
of  the  soil,  the  loosening  of  its  particles,  and  the 
porterage  of  the  lower  layers  to  the  surface,  to  be 
deposited  as  castings.  In  fact,  so  extensively  is  this 
work  carried  on  by  earth  worms,  that  Mr.  Darwin  has 
compared  their  action  to  that  of  a  plough,  and  adds 
that  it  is  doubtful  whether  many  other  animals  have 
played  so  important  a  part  in  the  history  of  the  world. 
Earth-worms  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world  in 
spots  suitable  for  their  existence,  and  in  some  countries 
they  reach  an  enormous  length  as  compared  with  the 
common  species  with  which  we  are  familiar.  In  South 
Africa,  for  instance,  there  is  a  species  called  Microchceta 
Rappi,  which  attains  a  length  of  about  five  feet.  It  is, 
however,  by  no  means  frequently  seen,  rarely  appear- 
*n^  °n  surface>  and  then  only  after  heavy  rains. 

Other  worms,  however,  besides  the  earth-worms, 
belong  to  the  Oligochseta.  Many  representatives  of 
this  group  live  in  fresh  water  streams  and  ditches, 
as  well  as  in  the  sea.  For  example,  the  common  Tubifex 
rivulorum,  a  long,  slender,  reddish  worm,  may  be  found 
in  quantities  in  the  muddy  bottom  of  ponds,  where  it 
constructs  long  tubular  burrows.  When  undisturbed  it  has  the  peculiar 


Fig.  4.— SNOUTED  NAIS 
(Nais  proboscidea). 


PREDA  TOR  Y  ANNELIDS- LEE  CHES.  67  5 


habit  of  projecting  the  hinder  part  of  its  body  from  its  burrow  and  waving  it 
incessantly  in  the  water.  But  one  of  the  best  known  of  these  aquatic  worms 
is  the  species  called  Nais  proboscidea,  which  has  long  hair-like  bristles  jutting 
out  from  the  sides  of  its  body,  and  a  proboscis-like  feeler  projecting  from 
the  forepart  of  its  head.  This  worm  may  be  regarded  as  more  highly 
organised  than  the  earth-worm,  as  is  indicated  by  the  presence  of  a  couple 
of  eyes  upon  its  head.  Like  some  of  the  Polychaata,  too,  it  possesses  the 
power  of  reproducing  by  fission.  Between  two  of  the  segments  in  the 
posterior  half  of  the  body  a  mass  of  tissue  appears,  and  from  the  front  part 
of  this  a  new  tail  is  formed  for  the  original  piece  bearing  the  head,  while 
from  its  hinder  part  a  new  head  develops  for  the  part  that  was  primarily 
the  tail-end  of  the  parent  form.  It  not  infrequently  happens  that  several 
new  worms  start  almost  contemporaneously  in  this  way  one  behind  the 
other,  and  before  the  severance  between  them  is  effected,  they  appear  as 
a  chain  of  individuals,  exactly  as  described  above  in  the  case  of  Autdytus, 
one  of  the  Polychceta. 

In  addition  to  the  Polychaeta  and  Oligochseta  a  third  group,  called  Archi- 
annelida,  is  now  referred  to  the  Chaetopoda,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the 
integument  bears  no  bristles,  and  the  only  external  signs  of  segmentation 
are  shallow  grooves  in  the  skin  and  serially  arranged  rows  of  cilia  (fine  hairs). 
The  head  is  furnished  with  tentacles,  but  there  are  no  parapodia.  This 
group,  lying  in  some  respects  midway  between  the  Chaetopoda  and  the  Flat- 
worms  of  the  sub-class  Turbellaria,  contains  several  marine  forms,  of  which 
the  best  known  are  Protodrilus  and  Polygordius.  The  young  of  the  Archi- 
annelida  are  developed  from  Trochophore  larvae  of  the  type  known  as 
Telotrochous  (see  p.  673). 

Usually  now  regarded  as  aberrant  members  of  the  class  Chaetopoda  are 
the  remarkable  species  belonging  to  the  genus  Myzostoma,  of  the  family 
Myzostomidse.  These  degraded  creatures  live  parasitically  upon  the  Sea- 
lilies  (Crinoidea),  their  presence  giving  rise  to  tumours  or  various  irregularities 
of  growth.  The  body  is  oval  and  flattened  and  unsegmented,  and  its  margins 
are  produced  into  a  number  of  short,  prehensile  filaments  ;  while  on  the 
lower  surface  near  the  edge  are  four  pairs  of  suckers,  and  on  the  inner  side 
of  these  five  pairs  of  conical,  foot-like  processes,  each  of  which  is  provided 
with  a  pair  of  retractile  bristles.  But  in  spite  of  the  anomalous  structure 
of  the  adult,  these  parasites  are  developed  from  free-swimming  larvae 
furnished  with  ciliated  bands,  and  calling  to  mind  the  Trcchophore  of  the 
Annelida. 

THE  LEECHES— SUB-CLASS  HIRUDINEA.— The  Leeches,  or  Hirudinea  (Latin, 
hirudo,  a  leech),  sometimes  called  the  Discophora  (disc-bearers),  on  account 
of  the  suckers  with  which  they  are  furnished,  are  not  unlike  earth-worms  in 
general  appearance,  and  also  in  many  points  of  structure.  The  integument 
is  divided  by  shallow  transverse  grooves  into  a  multitude  of  rings,  a  varying 
number  of  which  (five  to  three)  correspond  to  each  true  segment  of  the  body. 
There  are  no  bristles  nor  organs  of  locomotion  in  the  form  of  parapodia, 
movement  from  one  spot  to  another  being  effected  by  means  of  swimming 
or  by  crawling,  with  the  aid  of  the  suckers,  after  the  manner  of  the  "  looper '' 
caterpillars.  There  is  always  a  large  sucker  situated  at  the  hinder  end  of 
the  body,  and  usually  a  second  at  the  opposite  extremity,  with  the  mouth 
placed  in  its  centre. 

The  Leeches  are  divisible  into  two  families— the  Gnathobdellidce.,  or  jaw- 


676 


I TERMES— ANNELIDA. 


bearing:  species,  and  the  Rhynchobddlidce,  or  proboscis-bearing  species.  Of  the 
Gnathobdellidse,  the  medicinal  leech  (Hirudo  medicinalis)  is  a  well-known 
example.  This  animal  is  usually  of  a  blackish  colour,  and  ornamented  witli 
longitudinal  bands  of  yellow  spots.  It  is  somewhat  scarce  in  England, 
and  in  the  days  when  blood-letting  was  extensively  practised  by  doctnis 
the  demand  for  it  was  met  by  the  importation  of  large  quantities 
from  £he  Continent,  where  it  is  not  only  more  abundant  than  with 
us,  but  was  artificially  cultivated  on  a  large  scale  in  especially-constructed 
tanks.  The  power  of  these  animals  to  pierce  the  skin  and  draw  blood,  upon 
which  their  value  as  blood-letters  depends,  is  due  to  the  presence  in  the 
mouth  of  three  semi-circular  jaws,  each  of  whk-h 
is  studded  with  a  series  of  minute  horny  teeth.  By 
means  of  a  set  of  powerful  muscles  these  j  iws  are 
capable  of  being  worked  backwards  and  forwards 
after  the  manner  of  a  saw,  while  by  aid  of  the 
sucker,  the  mouth  is  kept  closely  applied  to  the 
wounded  spot  and  the  blood  is  drawn  into  the 
worm's  stomach.  This  is  a  capacious  sac,  consisting 
of  no  fewer  than  eleven  pairs  of  pouches,  capable  of 
considerable  distention,  and  occupying  the  greater 
part  of  the  space  between  the  walls  of  the  body. 
When  the  leech  has  pumped  itself  full  of  blood,  but 
not  before,  it  relaxes  its  hold ;  and  it  has  been 
affirmed  that  the  amount  thus  imbibed  will  be 
sufficient  for  a  whole  year. 

In  a  natural  state  these  leeches  are  found  in 
ponds,  marshes,  or  sluggish  brooks  with  a  bottom 
of  mud  or  clay.  Out  of  water  they  cannot  live  for 
any  length  of  time,  since  they  speedily  succumb  to 
the  drying  effects  of  the  atmosphere.  During  the 
day,  especially  if  the  weather  be  warm  and  bright, 
they  may  be  seen  swimming  about  with  liveliness, 
but  in  cold  or  dark  days  and  at  night-time  they  lose  their  activity,  and  remain 
curled  up  with  head  and  tail  closely  applied.  In  the  autumn  they  bury  them- 
selves deep  in  the  mud.  Their  food  consists  of  the  blood  of  fishes  or  aquatic 
amphibians,  or  of  terrestrial  vertebrates,  that  visit  their  haunts  to  bathe  or 
drink.  Like  earth-worms,  leeches  are  hermaphrodite,  and  after  pairing  in  the 
spring  they  creep  up  the  banks  of  the  pond  or  ditch  above  the  surface  of  the  water 
and  dig  burrows  in  the  soft  damp  soil,  and  in  these,  like  the  earth-worms  again, 
they  construct  for  the  reception  of  their  eggs  elliptical  cocor  ns,  formed  of  a 
secretion  from  certain  skin-glands,  which  afterwards  hardens.  Externally, 
the  cocoons  are  covered  with  a  layer  of  spongy  material,  while  the  inside  is 
filled  with  aibumen,  in  which  the  small  eggs,  usuallv  about  twenty  in  number, 
are  embedded.  When  the  eggs  are  hatched,  the  young  float  in  the  albumen, 
and  obtain  their  nourishment  from  it.  Upon  quitting  the  cocoon  after 
several  weeks'  residence  therein,  the  young  leeches  resemble  their  parents  in 
form,  though  they  are  not  dark -coloured.  Growth,  however,  is  a  slow  pro- 
cess, maturity  not  being  reached  until  five  years  have  passed,  and  life  endur- 
ing, under  favourable  conditions,  for  about  twenty  years. 

A  far  commoner  species  in  England  than  the  medicinal  leech  is  the  so-called 
Horse-leech  (Aulostomiim,  gitlo),  which  may  be  distinguished  from  the  former 
by  the  absence  of  the  bands  of  yellow  spots,  the  skin  being  of  a  uniform 


Fig.  5.  —  MEDICINAL   LEECH 
(Hirudo  medicinalis). 


LEECHES.  677 


greenish-black,  and  by  the  fact  that  its  jaws  are  furnished  with  fewer  and 
blunter  teeth.  This  difference  of  dentition  is  evidently  correlated  with  the 
difference  in  the  feeding  habits  of  the  two  animals,  the  food  of  the  Horse- 
leech, in  spite  of  its  name,  consisting  of  such  soft-bodied  creatures  as  earth- 
worms and  snails. 

It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  all  leeches  are  inhabitants  of  fresh 
water.  In  many  countries,  indeed,  especially  in  the  tropics,  land  leeches  are 
abundant,  as  many  a  traveller  knows  to  his  cost.  They  inhabit  jungle  and 
forest  land,  where  the  vegetation  in  the  wet  season  is  saturated  with  moisture; 
but  in  the  dry  season  they  entirely  disappear,  presumably  burying  themselves 
deep  in  the  earth.  According  to  the  accounts  of  those  who  have  had  practical 
experience  of  them,  these  animals  are  a  terrible  plague.  Gifted  with  the 
power  of  perceiving  the  presence  of  prey  at  some  distance,  they  hasten 
towards  it  in  crowds  from  all  quarters,  or  collect  in  the  herbage  bordering 
the  forest  paths,  with  head  extended,  ready  to  seize  hold  of  any  passing  man  or 
beast.  To  protect  themselves  from  their  attacks,  Europeans  are  compelled 
to  wear  leather  or  closely-woven  cloth  gaiters,  tied  tightly  round  the  knee, 
while  the  natives  rub  their  bare  legs  with  oil  or  lemon  juice. 

The  leeches  of  the  second  family  (the  Rhynchobdellidoe)  differ  from  those 
belonging  to  the  Gnathobdellidre,  that  have  been  hitherto  discussed,  in 
having  the  front  of  the  body  furnished  with  a  protrusible  proboscis  at  the  end 
of  which  the  mouth  is  situated.  To  this  family  belongs  the  fresh  water  leech 
Clepsine.  This  animal  is  yellow,  grey,  or  whitish  in  colour,  occurs  on  the 
leaves  of  plants  or  on  the  lower  side  of  stones,  and  feeds  apparently  upon 
water-snails  and  the  young  of  fresh  water  mussels.  The  eggs,  in  number 
about  200,  are  not  embedded  in  albumen  as  is  the  case  in  the  medicinal 
leech,  but  are  of  larger  size  and  contain  their  own  food-yolk.  They  are  laid 
in  flattish  cocoons  which  are  attached  to  some  stone  or  water-plant,  and  the 

leech    curls    itself     round    the 

^^ ___       cocoon   to   protect    it.       More- 
over,    when     the     young     are 
hatched,   the  mother  still  con- 
tinues to  look  after  them,  carry- 
ing them  about/with  her  attached 
to  the  lower  surface  of  the  body. 
Also  belonging  to  this  family 
is  the  Warty  Sea-leech  (Pontob- 
deUa  muricata)  which  is  common 
on  our  coasts,  and  may  be  readily 
Fig.  6.— WARTY  SKATE-LEECH  recognised  by  its  greenish  grey 
(Pontobdella  muricata).  colour,     cylindrical    body,    and 

tough   knobby  integument.     It 

is  found  mostly  on  fishes  of  the  skate  tribe,  and  hence  is  sometimes  called 
the  skate-sucker. 

THE   GEPHYREAN   WORMS. 
CLASS  GEPHYREA.. 

The  worms  of  this  class  are  all  marine,  and  although  more  or  less  cylindrical 
in  shape,  show  scarcely  any  traces  of  segmentation.  The  front  of  the 
body  is  furnished  with  a  large  proboscis,  and  the  integument  is  covered 
with  warts. 


6;8 


VERMES—  CLASS  GEPHYREA. 


The  species  fall  into  two  well-marked  orders  known  as  the  Chsetifera  and 
the  Achseta.  The  Chsetifera,  or  bristle-bearing  Gephyrea,  show  strong  indica- 
tions of  affinity  with  the  Chsetopoda,  and  are  by  some  authors  considered  to 
belong  to  that  class.  In  the  young  the  body  is  partially  segmented,  and 
in  the  adult  is  furnished  below  with  a  pair  of  hooked  bristles.  The  alimen- 
tary canal  terminates  at  the  hinder  end  of  the  body,  and  the  proboscis,  which 
is  ciliated  and  often  of  enormous  length  as  compared  with  the  size  of  the 
animal,  appears  to  be  nothing  but  an  enlargement  of  the  prostomium  or  region 
in  front  of  the  mouth,  the  latter  being  situated  at  its  base.  The  best-known 
members  of  the  group  are  Bonellia,  Echiurus,  and  Thalassema.  They  are  to 

be  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  or  beneath 
stones  in  pools,  and  appear  to  be  gifted  with 
but  little  activity. 

The  Achoeta  have  no  bristles,  as  their  name 
indicates ;  there  is  no  sign  of  segmentation 
at  any  period  of  life  ;  the  alimentary  canal  is 
twisted  upon  itself,  and  terminates  in  the 
front  half  of  the  body  ;  and  the  proboscis 
carries  the  mouth  at  its  tip,  and  can  be  re- 
tracted inside  the  body  by  muscles  specially 
set  apart  for  the  purpose.  In  some  of  these 
worms  —  in  those,  for  example,  known  as 
Sipunculus,  Phascolosoma,  and  Phymosoma — 
the  tip  of  the  proboscis  is  furnished  with  a 
circlet  of  tentacles  surrounding  the  mouth. 
These  animals  live  on  the  sea-bottom  in  de- 
serted univalve  shells,  closing  up  the  mouth 
of  the  shell  with  sand  grains  cemented  to- 
gether with  slime,  but  leaving  an  aperture 
just  large  enough  to  allow  the  extensible 
proboscis  to  be  thrust  in  and  out  with  ease. 
A  British  representative  of  this  group  is 
Sipunculus  bernhardus.  A  still  more  curious 
form  is  Priapidus,  found  in  deep  water  in  the 
North  Atlantic.  This  worm  burrows  in  the 
sand,  and  is  furnished  with  a  stout  probocis 
armed  with  horny  teeth,  but  without  the 
circlet  of  tentacles  observable  in  Sipunculus. 
In  both  groups  of  the  Gephyrea  occur  ciliated  larval  forms  which  present 
a  close  resemblance  to  the  Trochophore  of  the  Polychseta. 


Fig.  7.— GKPHYREAN  WORMS. 

A,  Bonellia  viridis  (with  proboscis 

distended). 

B,  Priapulus  caudatus, 

C,  Echiurus. 


THE    THREAD-WORMS. 
CLASS  NEMATOHELMINTHES. 

As  implied  by  their  name,  the  worms  of  this  class  are  mostly  long,  slender, 
and  more  or  less  thread-like.  The  body  is  usually  pointed  at  both  ends,  and 
it  presents  at  most  but  slight  external  indications  of  segmentation,  and  none 
of  that  serial  repetition  of  internal  organs  which  is  so  characteristic  of  the 
highly  organised  Annelida.  The  skin,  moreover,  instead  of  being  furnished 
with  bristles  or  the  delicate  hairs  known  as  cilia,  is  protected  by  a  smooth 
and  relatively  tough  cuticle.  In  all  the  typical  members  there  is  a  distinct 


THREAD-WORMS.  679 


alimentary  canal  traversing  the  body  nearly  from  end  to  end,  and  there  is 
an  excretory  system,  consisting  of  tubes  lying  lengthwise,  which  com- 
municate with  each  other  in  the  fore  part  of  the  body  and  open  upon  its 
lower  surface  by  a  single  pore.  The  sexes  are  generally  distinct. 

Although  a  large  majority  of  the  species  of  this  class  are  parasitic,  spending 
the  whole  or  part  of  their  lives  within  the  bodies  of  other  animals,  a  few, 
nevertheless,  are  to  be  found  on  plants,  on  fresh  water  or  damp  earth,  or  even 
in  the  sea.  But  amongst  the  parasitic  forms  we  meet  with  species  that  are 
free  during  a  part  of  their  existence  ;  that  is  to  say,  either  during  the 
immature  stages  of  life  or  after  maturity  is  attained .  Such  species  as  these 
thus  show  an  interesting  gradation  in  habit  between  those  kinds  that  are 
wholly  independent  and  those  that  live  permanently  in  other  organisms. 

One  of  the  best  known  of  the  free  living  species  is  the  Vinegar  or  Paste- 
eel  (Anguillula  aceti),  which  feeds  upon  the  minute  fungi  found  growing  in 
these  substances.  Allied  forms,  known  as  Leptodera  and  Pelodera,  occur  in 
water  or  damp  earth  ;  but,  unless  supplied  with  plenty  of  nitrogenous  food 
in  the  form  of  decaying  animal  or  vegetable  matter,  they  remain  in  the 
larval  stage,  a  supply  of  food  of  this  nature  being  necessary  for  the  attainment 
of  maturity. 

Before  passing  to  the  most  interesting  members  of  this  class,  namely,  those 
that  are  parasitic  in  animals,  and  especially  in  mankind,  brief  reference  may 
be  made  to  a  couple  of  species  which  infest  plants  and  are  of  considerable 
economic  importance  on  account  of  the  damage  done  by  their  agency  to  corn 
crops  and  vegetables  of  the  turnip  kind.  Adult  examples  of  the  Wheat-eel 
(Tylenchus  tritici)  attack  developing  ears  of  wheat,  converting  them  into  a 
kind  of  gall.  Here  the  young  are  hatched,  ultimately  reaching  the  ground 
by  the  falling  of  the  grain.  They  are  then  set  free  in  the  moist  earth,  and 
wander  hither  and  thither  in  search  of  the  young  shoots  of  growing  corn.  If 
successful  in  their  quest  they  ascend  the  stalks,  and,  finally  reaching  the 
summit,  take  up  their  abode  in  the  blossom  of  the  wheat ;  and,  nourishing 
themselves  upon  it,  arrive  at  maturity  and  then  produce  new  generations. 
The  second  vegetable  pest  to  be  noticed  is  the  Turnip  Thread-worm 
(Heterodera  schachti),  which  gives  rise  to  swellings  on  the  roots  of  the  sweet 
turnip  or  sugar-beet.  These  swellings  are  caused  by  the  expansion  of  the 
female  worm  into  a  spherical  body  owing  to  the  quantity  of  nourishment 
she  absorbs.  Here  the  eggs  are  laid,  and  after  being  retained  for  a  time  in 
a  special  brood-pouch,  pass  to  the  outer  world,  and  undergo  the  first  stages 
of  their  development.  Subsequently  the  females  bore  their  way  into  the 
turnip  roots  by  means  of  a  special  instrument  with  which  the  throat  is  fitted 
fur  the  purpose. 

Passing  now  to  the  species  that  live  parasitically  in  other  animals,  we  find 
the  simplest  life-history  in  such  kinds  as  Ascaris  lumbricoides  and  Oxyuris 
vermicularis,  known  to  medical  men  respectively  as  the  "  round- worm  ''  and 
the  **  thread- worm,"  and  occurring  not  infrequently  in  the  human  intestine, 
especially  during  childhood.  The  eggs  of  these  worms  are  discharged  from 
the  alimentary  canal  of  their  host,  and  make  their  way  back  again  through 
the  mouth  in  connection  with  food  or  impure  water.  In  addition  to  man- 
kind, species  of  thread- worms  allied  to  those  just  mentioned  infest  the 
intestines  of  horses,  pigs,  dogs,  cats,  and  a  variety  of  other  animals. 

In  addition,  however,  to  the  alimentary  canal,  other  organs  of  man  are 
liable  to  the  attacks  of  various  Thread- worms.  The  Guinea  or  Medina-worm 
(Dracunculus  medinensis),  for  example,  reaches  maturity  in  the  subcutaneous 


68o 


VERMES—  CLASS  NEMA  TOHELMINTHES. 


tissue  of  man  in  the  tropical  countries  of  the  Old  World,  measuring,  when 
adult,  many  inches  in  length.  It  is  usually  extracted  by  being  carefully 
wound  round  a  small  roller,  an  operation  which  often  occupies  several  days, 
owing  to  the  precautions  that  are  taken  not  to  fracture  the  animal.  But  if 
allowed  to  remain  beneath  the  skin,  the  worm  effects  its  escape  to  the  outer 
world  through  the  abscess  to  which  its  presence  gives  rise.  Then  the  young 
with  which  the  females  are  laden  make  their  way  into  fresh  water  streams  or 
lakes,  and  falling  in  with  minute  water-fleas  of  the  family  Cyclopidye,  bore 
their  way  into  the  interior  of  these  crustaceans,  which  are  swallowed  by 
mankind  in  connection  with  drinking-water  ;  and  so,  by  means  of  an  inter- 
mediate host,  the  young  Guinea-worms  are  introduced  into  their  final  place  of 
abode.  A  similar  transference  of  parasitic  worms  from  one  host  to  another  is 
of  common  occurrence  in  this,  as  in  other,  groups  of  entozoic  vermes,  and  we 
meet  with  it  again  in  another  thread-worm  ( FUaria  sanguinis-hominis)  which, 
in  various  parts  of  the  Old  World,  infests  the  blood  system  of  man,  giving 
rise,  by  the  stoppage  of  the  circulation  in  the  small  vessels,  to  the  disease 
known  as  elephantiasis.  In  this  case  the  embryos  are  sucked  from  the 
vascular  system  by  mosquitoes  or  other  suctorial  diptera,  and  so  become 
scattered  abroad,  making  their  way  in  all  probability  back  again  into  the 
human  body  along  with  drinking  water. 

To  the  genera  Gordius  and  Mermis  belong  the  horse- hair  worms,  so  named 
on  account  of  their  length,  slenderness,  and  colour,  which  recall  the  form  of 
a  long  hair  from  a  horse's  mane  or  tail.  In  Gordius,  which  is  found  in  fresh 
water  streams  and  ponds,  the  alimentary  canal  is  functionless  and  the  mouth 

closed.  The  eggs,  deposited  in  clusters 
and  glued  together  by  an  adhesive  sub- 
stance, sink  to  the  bottom  of  the  water, 
and  there  remain  until  the  hatching  of 
the  young.  These  are  armed  in  front  with 
a  sharp  proboscis  and  circles  of  hooks,  by 
means  of  which  they  bore  their  way  into 
the  bodies  of  aquatic  insect  larvee,  such 
as  gnats  and  mayflies,  and  there  remain 
encysted  until  the  host  is  devoured  by  a 
fish  or  carnivorous  insect.  Thus  intro- 
duced into  the  alimentary  canal  of  a 
fresh  host,  the  young  Gordius  subse- 
quently penetrate  into  the  body-cavity, 
and  undergo  the  semi-final  stages  of  their 
development,  acquire  the  form  charac- 
teristic of  the  adult,  and  then  making 
their  escape  into  the  water  become  fully 
adult  (see  Fig.  8, 6).  The  other  hair-worm 
known  as  Mermis  lives  in  damp  earth. 
Here  the  eggs  are  laid,  and  the  young 
penetrate  the  skin  and  take  up  their 
abode  in  the  bodies  of  caterpillars  or  other  insects,  whence,  after  a  prolonged 
residence,  they  escape  again  to  the  ground,  become  mature,  and  lay  their 
eggs. 

The  descriptions  that  have  hitherto  been  given  of  the  life-histories  of  the 
parasitic  thread-worms  deal  with  species  which  lead  a  free  existence,  at  all 
events  during  a  part  of  life.  But  the  last  of  the  species  that  we  have 


Fig.  8.— THREAD-WORMS. 

a,  Trichinosis-worm    (Trichina    spiralis) 

encysted  in  muscle. 

b,  Horse-hair   worm    (Gordius)   escaping 

from  an  insect  (Mantis). 


THREAD-  WORMS. 


681 


space  to  notice  is  of  special  interest,  not  only  on  account  of  its  being  one  of 
the  most  dangerous  of  parasitic  worms  to  mankind,  but  also  because  it 
spends  the  whole  of  its  existence  within  the  bodies  of  two  hosts,  carrying 
the  parasitic  habit  to  a  greater  extreme  than  is  met  with  elsewhere  in  the 
group.  This  is  the  worm  called  Trichina  spiralis,  which  gives  rise  to  the 
dreaded  disease  trichinosis.  In  the  adult  or  sexually  mature  stage  this 
worm  lives  in  the  intestine  of  various  carnivorous  mammals,  man  being 
amongst  the  number.  But  the  minute  young,  which  are  born  alive,  instead 
of  making  their  way  to  the  outer  world  in  connection  with  excrementitious 
matter,  bore  through  the  wall  of  their  host's  alimentary  canal  and  entering 
the  blood-stream  are  carried  by  the  circulation  to  various  parts  of  the  body, 
ultimately  coming  to  a  standstill  in  the  muscles.  Here  the  little  creatures 
begin  to  grow  and  form,  for  themselves  a  protective  capsule  or  cyst  between 
the  fibres  of  the  muscular  tissue.  Meat  infested  with  these  encysted  worms 
is  said  to  be  "  trichinised  "  (Fig.  8,  «).  In  this  state  the  Trichinae  remain 
without  attaining  maturity  until  the  meat  in  which  they  have  taken  up  their 
abode  is  eaten  by  another  animal,  whereupon  the  action  of  the  digestive 
juices  of  the  new  host,  dissolving  away  the  muscular  fibres  and  the  capsule, 
set  free  the  worms,  which  in  their  new  surroundings  quickly  become  adult, 
and  each  female  gives  birth  to  thousands  of  new  individuals.  Man  as  a  rule 
contracts  "trichinosis  "  through  eating  "  trichinised  "  pork  in  an  underdone 
state.  But,  happily,  since  the  discovery  of  the  source  of  infection  some  fifty 
years  ago,  and  the  introduction  of  stringent  laws  against  the  sale  of  unhealthy 
pork,  the  disease  has  become  far  less  common  than  in  former  times. 

Usually  classified  with  the  thread-worms,  though  differing  from  them  in 
the  absence  of  mouth  and  alimentary  canal,  and  in 
other  anatomical  details,  are  the  parasitic-worms, 
known  as  Ecliinorhynchus,  belonging  to  the  group 
Acanthocephali.  These  two  names — the  former  mean- 
ing "spiny-beaked  "  and  the  latter  "thorny-headed  " 
— refer  to  the  presence  on  the  worm's  head  of  a  retrac- 
tile proboscis,  armed  with  rows  of  backwardly  directed 
hooks.  The  various  species  of  Echinorhynchus  are 
internal  parasites,  the  mature  stages  being  found 
in  vertebrata  of  different  kinds,  and  the  immature 
stages  in  certain  invertebrated  animals.  For  ex- 
ample, a  species  known  as  Echinorhynchus  gigas,  which 
infests  the  alimentary  canal  of  the  pig,  passes  the 
earlier  part  of  its  life  in  the  intestine  of  the  larvse  of 
various  kinds  of  chafers,  such  as  the  cock-chafer 
(Melolontha  vulgaris)  or  the  rose-chafer  (Cetonia 
aurata).  The  migration  from  the  one  host  to  the 
other  is  effected  in  the  following  manner : — The 
embryos  of  the  worm,  invested  in  a  protective  membrane, 
after  passing  out  of  the  pig's  alimentary  canal  in  con- 
nection with  excrementitious  matter,  are  devoured  by 
the  beetle-larvse  along  with  their  food.  In  the  stomach 
of  the  new  host  the  investing  membrane  becomes 
dissolved,  and  the  worm,  thereby  set  free,  bores  into 
the  intestinal  walls  of  the  larvae.  These  in  turn  are 

rooted  up  and  swallowed  by  the  pigs,  and  the  young  a,  Echinorhynchus  gigas. 
Echinorhynchi  thus  become  transferred  again  into  the  b,  Sagitta  Mpunctata. 


Fig.  9. 


682         '  VERMES—  CLASS  ROTIFER  A. 


alimentary  canal  of  the  animal  from  which  they  set  out.  The  migrations 
of  other  species  is  substantially  similar  to  that  of  E.  gigas.  For  instance, 
E.  polymorphiis  lives  as  a  mature  animal  in  the  intestine  of  ducks  or  other 
water-fowl,  while  in  the  immature  stage  it  occurs  in  the  little  fresh-water 
crustacean  (Gammarus  pulex).  This  amphipod  (G.  pulex)  is  also,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  fresh-water  wood-louse  (Asellus  aquaticus),  the  intermediate 
host  of  two  other  species,  E.  anyustatus  and  E.  proteus,  which,  when 
mature,  infest  the  alimentary  canal  of  fresh-water  fish.  Instances  of  the 
occurrence  of  worms  of  this  group  in  mankind  have  been  recorded,  but, 
happily,  such  cases  are  rare. 

Although,  probably,  more  nearly  related  to  the  Thread-worms  than  to  any 
other  group  in  the  animal  kingdom,  the  Arrow-worm  (Sagitta)  presents  so 
many  peculiarities  of  organisation  that  its  true  systematic  position  is  still  a 
matter  of  doubt,  and  it  forms  the  sole  type  of  an  order  known  as  Chsetognatha. 
This  name,  meaning  "bristle- jawed,"  is  given  to  it  in  allusion  to  the  fact 
that  the  head  is  armed  with  a  number  of  strong,  movable,  horny  spikes  which 
act  as  jaws.  The  body  is  long,  slender,  and  unsegmented,  with  a  rounded, 
blunt  head,  bearing  eyes,  and  a  narrow-pointed  tail ;  but  the  tip  of  the  tail 
and  the  sides  of  the  body  in  its  hinder  half  are  furnished  with  horizontally- 
projecting  fins  (Fig.  9,  b). 

The  Arrow-worms,  so  called  from  their  arrow-like  shape,  are  not  parasitic 
like  the  Thread-worms,  but  are  to  be  found  swimming  in  numbers  on  the 
surface  of  the  ocean  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

THE  WHEEL-ANIMALCULES. 

CLASS  ROTIFERA. 

The  Rotifera,  or  "  Wheel-animalcules,"  as  they  were  formerly  called,  on 
account  of  the  appearance  in  the  water  of  a  rapidly  rotating  wheel,  to  which 
the  movement  of  the  circlet  of  hairs  on  their  heads  gives  rise,  are  all 
small,  aquatic  animals,  varying  in  length  from  \  to  5^  of  an  inch,  and  found 
universally  in  marine  and  fresh  water,  but  most  abundantly  in  stagnant 
pools. 

The  front  end  of  the  body  is  usually  broader  than  the  opposite  extremity, 
and  is  shaped  like  a  disc,  the  trochal  disc,  which  is 
fringed  with  long  vibratile  hairs  or  cilia.  By  means 
of  the  currents  of  water  set  up  by  the  movement  of 
these  cilia,  particles  of  food  are  swept  into  the  mouth, 
a  wide  aperture  placed  in  the  middle  or  at  the 
sides  of  the  trochal  disc.  The  mouth  passes  into 
the  stomach,  which  is  supplied  with  a  complicated 
armature  of  teeth,  and  by  means  of  these  the  food  is 
crushed  and  divided.  In  the  females  the  alimentary 
canal  passes  right  through  the  body,  but  in  the  males, 
Fig.  13.— WHEEL-ANIMAL-  strange  to  say,  it  has  ceased  to  be  functional,  and  is 
CULES.  reduced  to  a  solid  chord-like  organ.  Apart  from  the 

a,  floscularia  coronetta.       cilia  of  fche  trocnal  disc,  the  integument  of  the  body 
6,  Pedalion  mirum.  ig  g^^h,  and  the  only  signs  of  segmentation  that  it 

C>  ^Stefnudsonf  ^        Presents  are  a   few   weak    wrinkles.      The  tail-end, 
or   the    foot,    as    it    is    called,    varies    considerably 
in  structure  according  to  the  habits  of  the  species.      In  some  forms  that  are 


NEMERTINE  WORMS.  683 


fixed  (Floscularia),  it  ends  in  an  adhesive  disc  or  cup,  and  is  not  wrinkled  nor 
retractile  ;  imt  in  most  of  the  free-living  species  the  foot  is  retractile  within 
the  body  and  terminates  in  a  couple  of  nippers  which  serve  to  anchor  the 
body  in  place.  In  other  forms  (Pedalion  and  Hexarthra),  the  body  is  pro- 
vided with  pairs  of  limb-like  processes,  ending  in  a  fan-shaped  tuft  of  cilia. 
These  two  are  free-living  forms,  skipping  through  the  water  by  means  of 
their  limbs  and  swimming  by  means  of  the  ciliary  wreath. 

The  habitat  of  the  "  Wheel-animalcules  "  is  tolerably  varied.  They  may  be 
found  in  ditches,  gutters,  ponds,  and  streams  ;  sometimes  attached  to  stems 
and  leaves  of  plants  ;  sometimes  creeping  upon  them  ;  sometimes  roving 
through  the  water.  Some  species,  again,  are  parasitic.  A  species,  for 
instance,  named  Drilophaga  bucephala,  holds  by  means  of  its  jaws  to  a  water- 
worm,  Lumbriculus,  and  sucks  the  animal  it  clings  to.  Again,  Callidina 
parasitica  is  always  found  adhering  to  the  limbs  of  the  fresh-water  shrimp 
(Gammarus  pulex),  and  merely  creeps  about  the  body  of  its  host.  And 
lastly,  the  genus  named  Albertia  furnishes  an  instance  of  internal  parasitism, 
its  species,  vermiculus,  being  found  living  in  earth- worms  .and  slugs. 

The  true  position  of  the  Wheel-animalcules  amongst  the  Vermes  is  one 
of  some  doubt.  But  it  is  important  to  notice  the  resemblances  that  exist 
between  them  with  their  wreath  of  cilia  and  the  Trochophore  larvae  of  the 
Polychsetous  Annelids. 

NEMERTINE    WORMS. 

CLASS  NEMERTINEA. 

Although  the  members  of  this  division  are  but  little  known  to  the  ordinary 
public,  many  of  them,  so  far  as  length  is  concerned,  are  the  most  striking 
of  all  Vermes.  There  is,  however,  a  most  astonishing  difference  in  size 
between  various  species,  for  while  some  of  those  belonging  to  the  genus 
Linens  may  attain  a  length  of  several  yards,  the  species  of  other  genera  are 
comparatively  of  quite  insignificant  dimensions.  In  other  respects,  however, 
there  is  a  close  similarity  between  the  various  members  of  the  class,  the 
structural  characteristics  of  which  may  be  briefly  summarised  as  follows  : — 
The  body  is  not  segmented,  and  its  integument  is  covered  externally  with 
cilia.  At  the  front  end  a  head-region  may  be  distinguished  by  the  presence 
of  eyes  and  of  a  pair  of  ciliated  pits,  which  are  probably  sense  organs  of  some 
kind.  On  the  lower  side  of  the  head  opens  the  mouth,  and  this  leads  into 
a  spacious  alimentary  canal  which  traverses  the  body  from  end  to  end.  But 
in  addition  to  the  mouth,  the  head  is  also  furnished  with  a  second  aperture, 
from  which  a  retractile  proboscis  can  be  shot  forth.  This  proboscis  is  one  of 
the  most  characteristic  features  of  the  Nemertiries.  When  retracted  it  rests 
in  a  special  sheath  lying  along  the  back,  above  the  alimentary  canal,  and 
reaching  sometimes  to  the  hinder  end  of  the  body.  In  this  state  the 
proboscis  has  been  compared  to  the  finger  of  a  glove  that  has  been  turned 
outside  in  within  the  part  that  covers  the  hand,  the  latter  representing  the 
sheath  ;  but  when  proti  uded,  the  organ  is  comparable  to  the  finger  of  the 
glove  in  its  normal  situation.  This  type  of  proboscis  is  of  not  uncommon 
occurrence  in  the  Vermes,  and  from  its  method  of  protrusion  and  retraction 
is  often  called  an  "introvert."  The  nervous  system  consists  of  a  pair  of 
chords,  one  running  along  each  side  of  the  body  and  uniting  at  its  fore  end 
with  the  brain,  which  lies  above  the  alimentary  canal  and  beneath  the 


684 


VERMES—  CLASS  NEMERTINEA. 


proboscis-sheath — or  rather  round  the  proboscis-sheath  like  a  ring,  for  the 
right  and  left  halves  of  the  brain  are  joined  together  by  a  transverse  band 
which  passes  above  this  sheath.  The  only  other  organs  that  need  be  noticed 
are  the  paired  nephridia  or  excretory  organs  situated  in  the  front  part  of  the 
body  and  the  thin  blood-vessels,  sometimes  containing  red  blood,  which  lie 
just  above  and  at  the  sides  of  the  alimentary  canal  and  unite  at  the  anterior 
and  posterior  ends  of  the  body. 

In  most  Nemertines  the  sexes  are  distinct,  and,  as  a  rule,  the  young  are 
produced  from  eggs  that  are  deposited  by  the  mother  either  singly  or  in 
gelatinous  clusters ;  some  forms,  however,  such  as  Monopora  livijara,  retain 
the  eggs  until  the  development  is  far  advanced  and  the  young  aie  born  alive. 

In  many  species  again,  as  in  Linens t 
the  young  goes  through  a  striking  meta- 
morphosis, the  egg  giving  rise  to  a  free- 
swimming  ciliated  larva  known  as  the 
pilidium  and  consisting  of  an  upper 
bell-shaped  part,  from  the  lower  rim  of 
which  spring  a  pair  of  lobes.  Within  this 
larva  the  young  Nemertine  is  gradually 
formed,  and  when  sufficiently  advanced 
to  lead  an  independent  life  it  breaks  free 
from  its  pilidium-case  and  deserts  it.  In 
other  cases  the  development  is  less  com- 
plicated, conditions  in  different  species 
having  been  observed,  which  lead  from  the 
complete  metamorphosis  by  means  of  the 
pilidium  to  the  direct  development  of  such 
species  as  TetrasUmma  and  Malacobddla. 

The  class  is  usually  divided  into  two 
orders,  the  Enopla  and  the  Anopla,  the 
difference  between  the  two  consisting  in 
the  presence  of  stylets  on  the  proboscis  in 
the  former  and  their  absence  in  the  latter. 
To  the  Anopla  belong  such  genera  as  Polia 
and  Linens,  and  to  the  Enopla  or  Hoplonemertinea,  Malacobdella,  Tetra- 
stemma,  and  Geonemertes. 

All  Nemertines  appear  to  be  carnivorous,  feeding  upon  annelids  or  other 
soft-bodied  living  organisms.  The  great  majority  of  the  species  are  marine, 
occurring  for  the  most  part  amongst  sea-weeds  and  coral  rocks,  in  shallow 
water  ;  a  genus,  however,  called  Pelagoncmertes  is  found  in  the  open  sea. 
Of  the  marine  forms  Malazobddla,  which  was  originally  regarded  as  nearly 
allied  to  the  Leeches,  lives  parasitically  upon  bivalved  Mollusca  of  the  genera 
.Mt/a,  Venus,  and  Cypridina.  The  genus  Tetrastemma  is  interesting  for  the 
reason  that  some  of  its  species  are  marine,  some  fresh  water,  and  some 
terrestrial,  one  fresh-water  species  having  been  found  in  England,  another 
(T.  aquarum-dulcium)  in  North  America  ;  the  two  known  land  species  being 
from  Rodriguez  (T.  rodericanum)  and  the  Bermudas  (T.  agricola).  The  rest 
of  the  land  species  are  furnished  by  the  genus  Geonemertes,  which  has  a 
representative  (G.  australiensis)  in  Australia,  another  in  New  Zealand  (G. 
novce-zelandice),  a  third  in  the  Pelew  Islands  (G.  palaensis),  and  a  fifth,  which 
has  probably  been  introduced,  in  Germany  ;  all  these  land  species  are  found 
in  damp  spots  beneath  logs,  stones,  etc. 


Fig.  11. 
a,  NBMKRTINH  WORM. — Lineus  marinus 

(with  proboscis  protruded). 

b,  Land  Planarian  (Bipalium 

kewense). 


FLAT- WO  RMS.  685 


FLAT- WORMS. 

CLASS  PLATYHELMINTHES. 

Many  of  the  worms  of  this  division  have  been  greatly  modified  by  a  parasitic 
life,  have  lost  all  trace  of  the  mouth  and  alimentary  canal,  and  in  the  case  of 
the  Tape-worms  have  acquired  a  rich  segmentation  of  the  body,  which,  as 
will  be  explained,  is  subservient  to  the  process  of  reproduction  ;  but  the 
forms  that  lead  a  free  existence,  and  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  primitive 
members  of  the  class,  approach  the  Nemertines  in  many  points  of  structure, 
though,  on  the  whole,  they  are  much  less  highly  organised,  there  being  no 
distinct  vascular  system,  no  dorsal  proboscis  and  sheath,  and  the  alimentary 
canal,  when  present,  has  no  posterior  outlet. 

THE  PLANARIAN  WORMS — SUB-CLASS  TURBELLARTA. — To  this  sub-class 
belong  the  free- living  flat- worms  alluded  to  above.  The  flattish  unseg- 
mented  body  is  either  short  and  broad  or  long  and  slender,  and,  as  in 
the  Nemertines,  its  integument  is  covered  with  cilia.  The  mouth,  which 
varies  much  in  position,  being  sometimes  placed  at  the  front  end  of 
the  body  aud  sometimes  in  the  middle  of  its  lower  surface,  leads  into  a 
muscular  pharynx,  and  this  usually  passes  into  a  spacious  digestive  tract, 
upon  the  structure  of  which  the  classification  of  the  group  is  based.  In  the 
first  section,  named  RHABDOCXELA,  for  example,  the  alimentary  canal  consists 
of  a  single  undivided  pouch.  In  the  DENDROCGELA,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
stomach  is  branched,  being  divided  into  three  (Tricladida),  or  a  very  large 
number  of  branches  (Polycladida),  while  in  the  section  known  as  AC(ELA 
there  is  no  true  intestine,  the  alimentary  canal  being  merely  represented  by 
the  mouth  and  the  muscular  pharynx  or  gullet  which  immediately  follows 
it.  In  some  cases,  as  represented  in  our  figure  of  Bipalium  kewense,  one  of 
the  land  Planarians,  the  pharynx  is  capable  of  protrusion  through  the 
aperture  of  the  mouth,  and  of  acting  as  a  sucker.  The  nervous  system  is 
well  developed,  and  consists  of  a  bilobed  mass  or  ganglion  placed  in  the 
head,  and  from  this  a  pair  of  widely-separated  chords  pass  backwards  to  the 
hinder  end  of  the  body,  and  others  go  to  supply  the  head  and  eyes,  of 
which  there  are  sometimes  many,  though  more  usually  only  one  or  two 
pairs.  Sometimes,  too,  ears  of  a  simple  kind  are  found. 

The  habitat  of  Planarian  worms  is  tolerably  varied,  some  species  being 
found  in  the  sea,  others  in  fresh  water,  and  others,  again,  on  the  land. 
Most  of  them  are  free  living.  A  few,  however,  have  taken  to  a  parasitic 
life,  two  of  the  Rhabdocoela,  named  Graffila  and  Anoplodi'\im^  occurring 
respectively  upon  Mollusca  of  the  snail-kind  and  upon  Sea-cucumbers, 
while  Bdellura,  a  Triclad  Dendrocosl,  lives  on  the  king-crab.  All  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Polyclad  Dendrocoels  are  marine,  and  in  this  group  we  meet 
with  a  metamorphosis  in  the  development,  the  young  Planarian,  known 
as  Midler's  larva,  being  furnished  with  eight  ciliated  processes  arranged 
round  the  middle  of  its  body.  Thus  equipped  it  leads  a  free  life,  circling 
about  in  the  water.  In  other  members  of  the  class  the  development  takes 
place  without  the  intervention  of  active  larval  forms.  Usually  the  method 
of  reproduction  offers  nothing  worthy  of  special  comment ;  but  one  of  the 
Rhabdocoels,  known  as  Microstoma,  presents  an  alternation  of  generation  such 
as  has  been  described  in  the  case  of  some  Annelids  (e.g.,  Nereis).  The  hinder 
portion  of  the  body  becomes  divided  by  a  partition  from  the  front  portion ; 


686  VERMES—  CLASS  PLATYHELMINTHES. 


each  part  then  again  divides  into  two,  the  process  being  repeated  until  there 
may  be  as  many  as  eight,  sixteen,  or  thirty-two  divisions.  Each  division 
acquires  a  mouth,  and  when  each  is  sexually  mature,  the  chain  breaks  up 
into  a  number  of  separate  individuals,  which  lay  eggs,  these  ultimately  giving 
rise  to  sexless  individuals,  which  can  only  reproduce  by  fission. 

Many  Planarians  are  elegantly  coloured,  presenting  either  a  tolerably 
uniform  vivid  tint,  or  considerable  diversity  of  pattern.  Two  species, 
namely,  Vortex  mridis  and  Convoluta  tckuUeu,  the  former  belonging  to  the 
RHABDOCCELA  and  the  latter  to  the  ACOSLA,  are  noteworthy  in  this  connection 
as  being  coloured  with  chlorophyll,  the  material  which  imparts  to  plants 
their  characteristic  green  tint,  and  which  enables  them  under  the  influence 
of  sunlight  to  break  up  carbonic  acid  gas  into  its  constituent  chemical 
elements,  oxygen  and  carbon.  Both  of  these  Planarians  are  of  small  size, 
measuring  less  than  half  an  inch  in  length.  Many  other  kinds  are,  however, 
much  larger  than  this,  one  of  the  terrestrial  species,  Geoplaua  australis,  from 
New  Zealand,  being  upwards  of  a  foot  long. 

The  acquatic  forms  swim  by  means  of  the  undulatory  movement  of  the 
body,  aided  by  the  sweeping  action  of  the  multitude  of  cilia  which  clothe  the 
integument.  The  terrestrial  forms  progress  in  the  same  manner,  preserving 
their  moisture  by  the  copious  secretion  of  slime.  Avoiding  the  lighband  living 
under  stones  and  logs  of  wood  during  the  daytime,  they  venture  forth  at  night 
from  their  dark  humid  haunts,  and  crawl  about  with  the  sensitive  head 
raised  and  gently  swayed  from  side  to  side  to  feel  the  way.  Their  food 
consists  of  earth-worms  and  defenceless  insects,  the  soft  parts  of  which  are 
imbibed  by  means  of  the  gullet,  the  prey  being  securely  held  the  while  by 
the  slimy  coils  of  the  Planarian.  The  figure  of  the  Planarian  (Bipalium 
Jcewense)  on  page  684,  represents  one  of  these  terrestrial  leech-like  species, 
which  is  recognisable  by  the  peculiar  shape  of  its  head.  It  was  first 
obtained  in  Kew  Gardens,  and  has  been  introduced  into  many  parts  of  the 
world  in  connection  with  imported  exotic  plants. 

THE  TAPE-WORMS — SUB-CLASS  CESTODA. — Almost  all  the  members  of  this 
class  live,  when  mature,  as  parasites  in  the  alimentary  canal  of  carnivorous 
vertebrated  animals  ;  but  during  the  younger  stages  they  occur  in  different 
parts  of  the  body  of  animals  of  many  kinds,  including  ticks,  fresh- water 
shrimps,  molluscs,  and  water-worms,  as  well  as  fish,  rabbits,  pigs,  etc. 
Unless,  in  fact,  the  worm  is  able  to  change  its  host  it  is  quite  unable  to 
reach  the  adult  state.  The  truth  of  this  is  well  illustrated  in  the  case  of  one 
of  the  commonest  of  mankind's  Tape-worms,  known  as  Tcenia  solium,  which 
may  be  selected  as  a  convenient  type  to  illustrate  the  life-history  and  the 
structure  of  the  other  members  of  the  class. 

Upwards  of  three  yards  in  length,  this  worm  floats  in  the  intestinal  juices, 
maintaining  a  firm  hold  of  the  inner  wall  of  the  gut  by  means  of  its  minute 
pin-sized  head,  which  is  furnished  for  the  purpose  with  a  circlet  of  five  hooks 
and  four  strong  suckers.  Immediately  behind  the  head  comes  a  narrow  part, 
called  the  neck,  which  is  unjointed  and  only  about  half  an  inch  long.  This 
is  continuous  with  the  rest  of  the  body,  which  gradually  expands  into  the 
characteristic  tape-like  form,  and  becomes  divided  into  a  vast  number  of 
segments.  At  first  imperfectly  defined,  these  segments  become  longer  and 
longer  and  more  and  more  distinct  as  they  pass  from  the  neck  to  the  posterior 
end,  the  last  ones  alone  being  what  is  called  "ripe"  and  ready  to  break  off 
from  the  parent  stock.  The  worm  is  furnished  with  a  well-developed  muscular 


TAPE-  WORMS. 


687 


Fig.  12.— TAPE-WORMS. 

a,  Head  of  Tcenia  sagiiiata. 

b,  Head  of  Tcenia  soliurn. 

c,  Head     of     Bothriocephalus 

lalus. 


system,  consisting  of  fibres  that  run  lengthwise  throughout  the  body,  and 
of  others  that  pass  from  wall  to  wall  of  the  segments.  It  also  possesses  a 
nervous  and  excretory  system,  the  former  repre- 
sented by  a  ganglion  in  the  head,  whence  a  pair 
of  nerves  run  backwards  along  each  side  of  the 
segments  to  the  end  of  the  body.  The  excretory 
organs  consist  of  a  circular  canal  lodged  in  the 
head,  from  which  spring  four  branches,  one  cor- 
responding to  each  sucker  ;  two  of  these  traverse 
the  sides  of  the  body,  and,  becoming  united  in 
the  last  segment,  open  by  a  common  aperture  on 
its  hinder  edge.  They  are  also  put  into  com- 
munication with  each  other  in  each  segment  by 
means  of  a  transverse  canal,  which  runs  along  its 
posterior  border.  Of  mouth  and  alimentary  canal 
there  is  no  vestige,  the  animal  gaining  its  nutri- 
ment by  absorbing  the  fluids  in  which  it  floats. 

A  Tape-worm  is  unable  to  propagate  its  kind 
within  the  host  in  which  it  is  lodged.  But 
each  segment  contains  a  complete  set  of  organs 
necessary  for  the  purpose,  and  when  it  is  ripe 
and  breaks  off  in  the  manner  mentioned  above, 
it  is  found  to  be  charged  with  eggs.  Such  a 
segment,  called  a  proghttis,  makes  its  way  to  the 
exterior,  and,  bursting,  sets  free  the  eggs,  which 
are  thus  disseminated.  Sooner  or  later  some  of 
them,  in  connection  with  food  or  water,  are 
swallowed  by  a  pig.  Each  egg  is  then  hatched  and 
gives  rise  to  the  young  known  as  the  proscolex, 
a  minute  organism  provided  with  three  pairs  of  hooks  (Fig.  12,  e).  By 
means  of  its  armature,  the  proscolex  bores  it  way  through  the  coats  of 
the  pig's  alimentary  canal  and  enters  its  blood-vessels.  It  is  then 
carried  by  the  blood  stream  to  some  such  organ  as  the  brain,  lung, 
muscles,  etc.,  where  it  ultimately  becomes  lodged.  Then  growth  sets  in  in 
earnest,  the  proscolex  loses  its  hooks,  and,  enlarging,  becomes  converted  into 
a  bladder.  Pork  thus  infested  is  technically  called  measly  (Fig.  12,  /). 
At  one  point  of  the  bladder  a  deep  depression  arises,  and  at  the  bottom  of 
this  the  hooks  and  suckers  of  the  tape-worm  head  are  developed ;  the 
depression  is  then  pushed  outwards  until  it  becomes  a  process,  carrying  at 
the  tip  the  head  which  is  thus  formed  outside  in.  But  beyond  this  stage, 
known  as  the  Cysticercus  or  Bladder-worm,  the  parasite  cannot  pass  without 
again  changing  its  host.  This  is  effected  when  the  meat  of  an  infested  pig 
is  eaten  in  an  uncooked  state  by  a  human  being,  whereby  the  Cysticercus 
is  introduced  into  the  alimentary  canal,  the  bladder  is  digested,  and  the  head 
or  Scolex,  attaching  itself  to  the  wall  of  the  intestine,  starts  growing  in 
length,  until  it  assumes  the  adult  form  and  breaks  up  into  proglottides. 

Another  tape-worm,  common  in  man,  and  presenting  the  same  cycle  of 
development  as  Tcenia  soliurn,  with  the  exception  that  oxen  are  the  inter- 
mediate hosts,  is  Tcenia  saginata,  which  is  larger  than  the  one  just  described, 
arid  may  be  at  once  recognised  from  it  by  the  absence  of  the  circlet  of  hooks 
on  the  head  (Fig.  12,  a). 

A  third  species  that  infests  mankind,  but  is  of  more  frequent  occurrence 


e,  Hooked  Embryo  of  Tcenia 

solium. 

f,  Measly  Pork  infested  with 

Cysticercus. 


688 


VERMES—  CLASS  PL  A  TYHELMINTHES. 


in  Central  Europe  than  in  England,  is  the  cleft-headed  or  Broad  Tape- worm 
(Bothriocephalus  latus),  which  is  said  to  attain  a  length  of  30  ft.  The 
head  has  neither  hooks  nor  protuberant  suckers,  but  is  furnished  on  each 
side  with  a  deep  groove  (Fig.  12,  c).  The  intermediate  hoats  of  these  worms 
and  of  their  allies,  which  live  in  water-birds,  are  fresh-water  fish  of  various 
kinds,  and  an  interesting  fact  connected  with  their  development  is  the  ability 
of  the  larvae  to  live  for  a  while  an  independent  life,  swimming  about  in  water 
by  means  of  a  set  of  vibratile  hairs  or  cilia  with  which  they  are  furnished. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  supposed  that  man  is  only  infested  with  these 
parasites  in  their  sexual  stage.  There  is  a  kind,  called  Tania  echinococcus, 
found  in  dogs,  which  scatter  the  eggs  broadcast  with  their  dung ;  and  these, 
if  swallowed  by  man  in  connection  with  water  or  unwashed  salad,  are  con- 
verted into  embryos,  which  ultimately,  making  their  way  to  the  liver,  give 
rise  to  cysts  of  large  size,  and  often  cause  the  death  of  the  patient. 

FLUKE  -  WORMS — SUB  -  CLASS  TREMATOPA. — The  Flat  -  worms  belonging 
to  this  section  are  characterised  by  having  smooth  (not  ciliated), 
more  or  less  leaf-like,  shortish,  unsegmented  bodies,  provided  with 
two  or  more  suckers,  by  means  of  which  they  adhere  parasitically  to 
the  hosts  they  infest.  According  to  the  number  of  the  suckers,  these 
worms  are  divided  into  two  sections,  the  Polystomece  and  the  Distomece. 
The  Polystomere  have  two  suckers  in  the  fore  part  of  the  body,  and  one 
large  one  or  several  smaller  ones  at  the  hinder  end ;  not  infrequently, 
too,  they  are  armed  with  hooks  for  clinging.  This  rich  equipment 
of  organs  for  adhesion  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  these  creatures  live 
mostly  as  external  parasites  upon  various  kinds  of  fish,  and  are  thus 
constantly  exposed  to  the  danger  of  being  washed  from  their  moorings 
by  the  water.  Their  development  also  takes  place  directly  and  without 
any  such  curious  metamorphoses  as  obtain  in  many  of  the  entoparasitic 

worms.  The  following  species 
may  be  cited  as  examples  of 
this  order : — Cydatella  anneli- 
dicola  found  upon  annelidan 
worms  ;  Trochopus  tubiporus 
on  the  Gurnet;  and  Aspido- 
gaster  conchicola,  which  lives 
in  the  pericardial  cavity  of 
the  fresh-water  mussel.  Per- 
haps the  most  remarkable 
form  of  all  is  the  one  known 
as  Diplozoon  parddoxum,  the 
double-worm, which  frequents 
the  gills  of  minnow,  gudgeon, 
etc.  The  young  of  this  worm 
is  ciliated  and  leads  a  free 
swimming  life.  It  is  fur- 
nished with  two  eye-spots  and  with  a  small  ventral  sucker  and  a  dorsal 
papilla.  In  this  stage  it  is  known  as  the  Diporpa.  After  a  time  the  Diporpce 
settle  down  upon  the  gills  of  their  host,  and  two  of  them  approaching  each 
other  unite,  the  one  seizing  the  papilla  of  the  other  with  its  sucker,  then 
with  a  dexterous  twist  the  second  similarly  gets  hold  of  the  papilla  of  the 
first,  and,  growing  together,  the  two  become  inseparably  united  (Fig.  13,/). 


Fig.  13. 

a-e,  LIFR  HISTORY  OF  THE  LIVER  FLUKB. 
Free  swimming  larva ;  6,  cercaria  larva  ;  c,   redia 
larva  ;  d,  young  fluke  ;  et  adult  fluke ;  /  Diplozoon 
paradoxum. 


FL  UKE-  WORMS.  689 


The  Distomeae,  as  their  name,  meaning  two-mouthed,  implies,  are  pro- 
vided with  only  two  suckers,  and  have  no  clinging  hooks  ;  for,  being  internal 
parasites,  they  have  no  such  special  need  of  instruments  for  maintaining  a 
secure  hold  as  the  more  highly  organised  species  of  the  previous  group. 
Their  development,  too,  is  often  complicated  by  the  most  extraordinary 
metamorphoses,  and  is  accompanied  by  migrations  from  one  host  to  another. 

A  well-known  example  of  this  section  is  the  Liver  fluke  (Distoma  hepa- 
ticum),  which  lives  parasitically  in  the  liver  of  herbivorous  mammalia — such 
as  sheep.  The  worm  is  less  than  an  inch  long,  and  is  broad  and  flat,  wider 
in  front  than  behind,  and  bearing  on  its  front  end  a  conical  projection  sup- 
porting the  mouth,  which  is  lodged  in  the  centre  of  a  sucker.  The  second 
sucker  is  situated  on  the  ventral  surface  a  short  distance  behind  the  first. 
The  eggs  of  the  Fluke  enter  the  intestines  of  the  sheep  through  the  bile 
ducts,  and  are  thence  discharged  with  the  droppings.  Thereupon  they  hatch; 
but  the  embryo  perishes,  unless  by  chance  it  is  carried  or  washed  into  some 
fresh-water  pond  or  stream.  If  favoured  by  fortune  in  this  particular,  it 
swims  actively  about  by  means  of  its  long  cilia  in  search  of  the  particular 
host  in  which  it  is  forced  for  awhile  to  sojourn.  This  host  is  the  water-snail 
known  as  Limnceus  truncatulus.  Into  the  soft  tissues  of  this  mollusc  the  young 
Fluke  bores  its  way,  and  after  losing  its  cilia  becomes  converted  into  an  oval 
sac  known  as  the  Fporocyst.  Within  this  fresh  individuals,  known  as  Redice, 
are  developed,  the  Redice,  being  short  cylindrical  little  worms,  furnished,  like 
the  parent  form,  with  mouth,  gullet,  and  stomach.  After  making  their  way 
to  the  snails'  liver,  the  Redice  in  turn  take  up  the  process  of  development, 
and  give  rise  to  individuals  as  different  from  themselves  as  they  are  from  the 
ciliated  embryo.  These  new  forms,  known  as  Cercarice,  somewhat  resemble 
a  tadpole  in  shape,  consisting  of  a  flattish,  heart-shaped  body,  furnished  with 
two  suckers,  a  mouth,  a  forked  alimentary  canal,  and  produced  behind 
into  a  long  vibratile  tail.  These  make  their  escape  from  the  body  of  the 
snail,  and,  after  swimming  about  for  a  time,  settle  upon  some  plant,  and 
envelop  themselves  in  a  coating  or  cyst.  In  times  of  flood  this  takes  place 
upon  the  grass  blades  of  some  overflowed  meadow,  and  in  this  case  there  is 
a  chance  that  the  organism  will  be  devoured  by  a  grazing  sheep,  and  will 
become  lodged  in  the  bile  ducts  of  its  new  host,  where  the  development  into 
the  adult  Fluke  will  be  completed  (see  Fig.  13,  a-e). 

To  be  regarded  in  all  probability  as  degenerate  Flat-worms  are  the 
minute  organisms  belonging  to  the  Dicyemidce  and  Orihonedidce,  which  live 
as  parasites,  the  former  in  the  branchial  veins  of  cuttle-fish  and  the  latter 
upon  Planarian  and  Nemertine  worms  and  on  sand-stars.  They  are  ciliated 
vermiform  creatures,  without  trace  of  body  cavity  or  alimentary  canal,  the 
chief  peculiarity  of  their  organisation  consisting  in  the  fact  that  the  solid 
body  consists  of  a  central  mass,  composed  in  the  Dicyemidse  of  one  large 
nucleated  cell,  and  in  the  Orthonectidse  of  a  cluster  of  cells,  surrounded 
externally  by  a  single  layer  of  ectoderm  cells. 


45 


SUB-KINGDOM  VIII. 
THE     COELENTERATA. 

SPONGES,    CORALS,    ETC. 
BY  HENRY  M.  BERNARD,  M.A.,  F.L.S.,  ETC.,  AND  MATILDA  BERNARD. 

THE  Coelenterata  are  to  be  distinguished  from  all  the  animals  hitherto 
described  by  the  fact  that  the  alimentary  canal  no  longer  runs  through  the 
body  as  a  free  tube  suspended  to  its  walls  and  surrounded  by  the  body  cavity. 
Animals  in  which  such  a  closed  alimentary  canal  is  found  are  known  as  the 
Coelomata,  on  account  of  the  spaces  between  the  canal  and  the  body  wall. 
In  contradistinction,  the  Coelenterata  or  hollow-bodied  animals  are  called 
the  Acoelomata,  because  the  digestive  sac  fills  up  the  whole  body  without 
leaving  any  spaces  between  the  digestive  layer  and  the  body  wall.  The  body 
is,  in  fact,  a  more  or  less  simple  sac  into  which  the  mouth  opens. 

The  Coelenterata,  while  thus  distinguished  from  all  animals  higher  than 
themselves,  are  nevertheless  associated  with  them  owing  to  the  multicellular 
c  imposition  of  the  body.  As  Metazoa,  or  many-celled  animals,  they  differ 
from  all  lower  animals  or  Protozoa,  whose  bodies  are  unicellular. 

The  Coelenterata  may  be  divided  into  two  groups — (1)  the  Sponges,  and  (2) 
the  Cnidaria. 

I. — THE  SPONGES. 

The  Sponges,  which  ara  also  known  as  the  Porifera,  on  account  of  the 
pores  that  perforate  their  walls,  are  usually  considered  to  be  Coelenterates  of 
a  very  simple  kind,  although  many  naturalists  place  them  in  a  group  by 
themselves. 

The  Sponges  have  been  the  subject  of  frequent  discussion  among  naturalists 
from  the  time  of  Aristotle  down  to  the  present  day.  Aristotle  was  of  opinion 
that  they  were  animals,  because  they  appeared  to  shrink  when  torn  from  the 
rocks,  and  thus  seemed  to  show  signs  of  sensation,  but  their  real  nature  was 
altogether  misunderstood  by  most  of  the  earlier  naturalists,  some  considering 
them  to  be  plants,  others  congealed  foam  of  the  sea.  Lamarck,  even, 
imagined  the  apertures  on  the  surface  of  a  Sponge  to  be  the  mouths  of  cells 
occupied  by  small  polyps  something  like  the  Coral  polyps,  which,  however, 
could  never  be  discovered  in  their  homes.  Peysonnel,  on  the  other  hand, 
considered  a  large  worm  which  often  lives  in  Sponges  to  be  their  "sole 
fabricant,  the  rest  being  mere  nidus  or  excretion."  About  one  hundred  and 
fifty  years  ago  the  secret  of  Sponge  life  was  revealed  when  the  fact  that 
water  is  drawn  into  the  Sponge  and  expelled  by  it  was  established,  but  the 
various  ways  in  which  the  currents  of  water  pass  through  the  body,  and  their 
relation  to  the  life  of  the  Sponge,  were  not  accurately  investigated  until  about 
seventy  years  ago,  and  are,  indeed,  still  to  a  certain  extent  problematical. 

690 


SPONGES.  691 


In  the  Sponge  we  have  the  very  simplest  type  of  Metazoan  or  multiccllular 
animal.  The  component  cells  of  the  body,  which,  in  the  higher  Metazoa, 
lose  much  of  their  individuality,  functioning  in  masses  (as  tissues  or  organs) 
for  the  good  of  the  whole  complex  organism  rather  than  as  individuals  for 
their  own  benefit,  are  comparatively  little  modified  in  the  body  of  the 
Sponge,  still  acting  individually  almost  more  than  collectively. 

The  body  wall  of  a  Sponge  consists  of  two  layers.     The  outer  layer  is  of  a 
gelatinous  nature,  and  contains  (1)  cells  which,  like  some  of  the  unicellular 
animals  such  as  the  Amoeba  (Fig.l,p.714),can  change  their 
shape,  throwing  out  processes  in  various  directions;  and     Constitution  of  the 
(2)  needle-like  bodies,  called  spicules,  which  are  formed         Sponge  Body, 
by  cells  and  give  firmness  to  the  wall  and  support  the 
apertures  on  its  surface.     The  inner  layer  primarily  consists  of  cells  closely 
resembling  another  form  of  unicellular  organisms,  the  collared  FJagellata 
(Fig.  6,  C,  p.  738).     Each  of  the  collar  cells  in  this  layer  is  provided  with  the 
whip-like  appendage  which  characterises  the  Flagellata,  so  that  the  whole  inner 
surface  of  the  wall  of  the  simplest  Sponge  is  lined  with  fine,  waving  whips. 
The  presence  of  these  "whip  cells"  at  one  time  led  naturalists  to  consider 
the  Sponges  as  mere  aggregates  of  unicellular  animals. 

The  very  simplest  type  of  Sponge,  such  as  the  one  depicted  in  Fig.  1,  is  a 
simple  sac,  generally  more  or  less  cylindrical,  and  attached  by  its  narrowed 
base  to  a  rock  or  some  other  surface.  This  sac,  which  opens  above  by  a 
wide,  circular  orifice,  the  oscule,  consists  of  an  outer  and  an  inner  layer  such 
as  have  just  been  described. 

The  water  necessary  to  the  life  of  the  Sponge  does  not  enter  in  at  the 
oscule,  which  must  not  be  considered  as  a  mouth,  but  through  multitudes  of 
much  smaller  apertures  or  pores  that  perforate  the  wall. 
Within  the  cavity  of  the  sac  the  collar  cells  of  the  lining  laytr 
draw  in  from  the  water,  which  enters  at  the  pores  and  streams 
out  at  the  oscule,  small  particles  of  nourishment,  and  for  this 
reason  this  space  has  been  called  the  "  gastral  cavity."  All 
indigestible  matter,  together  with  the  water  containing  it,  is 
ejected  through  the  oscule.  The  whips  with  which  the  collar 
cells  are  provided  keep  the  water  in  constant  motion,  and  help 
to  draw  it  in  through  the  pores  and  to  eject  it  through  the 
oscule. 

Other  Sponges  are  less  simple  in  structure,  complexity 
being  brought  about  by  the  thickening  of  the  walls  of  the  sac 
and  by  new  arrangements  of  the  whip  cells. 

In  a  rather  more  complicated  type  of  Sponge,  the  wall  is 
bulged  out  in  the  form  of  numbers  of  small  radiating  tubes. 
The  wall  of  each  of  these  tubes  is  perforated  by  pores  through 
which  the  water  is  drawn  by  the  action  of  the  whip  cells,  and 
is  passed  on  into  the  central  cavity  with  which  all  the  tubes       (Ascetta). 
communicate.     It  is  finally  ejected  through  the  oscule,  which 
has  here  the  same  position  as  in  the  simpler  type  of  Sponge.     In  this  second 
type  of  Sponge  the  collar  cells  line  the  tubes  only,  the  central  cavity  being 
lined  with  flat  cells. 

In  still  more  complicated  types  of  Sponges  with  very  thick  walls  an 
elaborate  canal  system  arises,  leading  the  water  through  the  thick  walls  to 
the  central  cavity.  The  collar  cells  here  no  longer  line  either  the  central 
cavity  or  the  canals,  but  form  the  lining  of  a  great  number  of  round 


692  COELENTERATA—I.  PORIFERA. 


chambers  which  may  be  called  "whip  chambers."  The  water,  entering 
through  the  pores  on  the  outer  surface,  passes  through  canals  into  these 
spherical  chambers,  the  whips  of  the  lining  cells  keeping  it  in  movement 

and  sending  it  on  through 
The  Canal  System,  other  canals,  which  unite 
with  those  from  other 
whip  chambers  to  form  large  channels  that 
finally  open  into  the  central  cavity.  When 
such  a  sponge  is  cut  across  and  highly 
magnified  we  see,  as  in  the  diagram  Fig.  2, 
an  elaborate  and  repeatedly  branched  system 
of  canals.  The  whip  chambers  unite  the 
ramifications,  which  come  from  the  outer 
surface  (the  incurrent  canals),  with  those 
that  lead  to  large  trunks  opening  into  the 
gastral  cavity  (the  excurrent  canals).  F{  ^_-DlknM  OP  TIIE  CAKAL 

Ihe  above  descriptions  apply  only  to  what  SYSTEM  OF  A  SPONGE. 

maybe  regarded  as  single  sponge  individuals ; 

but,  by  repeated  budding,  individual  sponges  may,  in  some  cases,  form  colonies 
in  which  the  individuals  are  no  longer  separately  recognisable.  This  bud- 
ding process  giving  rise  to  colonies  is,  however,  not  the 
Development  of  a  only  method  of  reproduction.  In  a  Sponge  whose  life- 
Sponge,  history  has  been  fully  worked  out,  the  process  is  as 
follows  : — Eggs  are  produced  at  certain  parts  of  the  body- 
wall  which,  when  fertilised,  divide  up  and  give  rise  to  small  oval  embryos 
covered  with  cilia.  These  are  either  solid  or  are  provided  with  a  small 
central  cavity.  They  escape  from  the  parent  through  the  oscule,  and  swim 
about  for  a  short  time,  varying  from  a  few  hours  to  a  day  or  two.  During 
this  time  they  change  their  shape,  and  spicules  develop  in  their  walls. 
When  such  an  embryo  attaches  itself  and  becomes  a  sponge,  the  whip  cells 
which  clothed  the  outer  surface  and  rowed  the  tiny  creature  about,  come,  in 
various  ways,  to  line  the  interior  and  set  up  currents  of  water  which  bring 
in  the  necessary  food. 

Although  the  canal  system  is  so  essential  to  the  life  of  the  Sponges,  and  is 
so  typically  developed  in  the  different  kinds,  its  various  modifications  are 
apparently  of  little  use  in  classification.     Those  who  have 
Classification  of       made  Sponges  a  special  study  prefer  to  group  them  accord- 
Sponges,  ing  to  the  structure  of  the  hard  parts  which  support  the 
outer  layer  of  the  body.     These  hard  parts  are  either 
spicules  or  fibres,  and  are  very  rarely  absent. 

In  the  Calcareous  Sponges,  the  skeleton  consists  of  separate  spicules  of 
carbonate  of  lime.  In  the  Siliceous  Sponges,  flinty  spicules  are  found,  which 
either  remain  separate  or  become  united  together  to  form  networks  or  other 
supporting  structures.  There  are,  further,  Sponges  with  skeletons  composed 
of  horny  fibres,  and  besides  the  spicules  or  fibres  secreted  by  the  Sponge 
itself,  foreign  objects  are  sometimes  appropriated  to  assist  in  the  formation 
of  the  skeleton. 

The  spicules  found  in  Sponges  assume  a  vast  variety  of  shapes,  a  few  of 
which  are  given  in  Fig.  3.  Some  are  like  fine  needles  pointed  at  both  ends, 
others  have  several  rays,  the  number  of  these  determining  the  classification 
of  the  Siliceous  Sponges  into  those  with  six  or  four-rayed  or  uniaxial  spicules. 
Other  spicules,  again,  terminate  either  at  one  end  or  both  in  anchor-like 


SPONGES. 


693 


Fig,  3— SPONGE  SPICULES. 


projections,  or  else  resemble   thorny  sticks  ;   others  end  in   lobes   instead 

of  points.      The   spicules   either  lie  embedded   separately  in  the   Sponge 

tissue,  giving  it  firmness,  or  unite  in  many  dif- 

ferent  ways,   forming   rosette-like  or   plate-like 

structures    or    else   delicate    supporting    frame- 

works.    Several  kinds  of  spicules  may  be  found 

in  the  same  Sponge.     Besides  strengthening  the 

body,  they  also  protect  it,  as  is  evident  from 

their  position.     Spicules  of  the  anchor  type  are 

frequently  found  projecting  from  the  outer  sur- 

face, especially  round  the  oacules  and  pores,  and, 

in  some  Sponges,  spicules  stand  out  like  thorns 

all  over  the  surface  of  the  gastral  cavity. 

The   exceedingly   fine    and    brittle   nature   of 

Sponge  spicules  causes  them  to  penetrate  any  soft 

object  that  comes  in  contact  with  them.    If  some 

Sponges  are  handled  carelessly,  a  burning  irrita- 

tion is  set  up  by  the  fine  points,  which  pierce  and 

break  off  in  the  skin.     One  Sponge  has  on  this 

account  received  the  significant  name  of  Agefas 

noli  tangere.       This  peculiarity  no  doubt  efficiently  protects  Sponges  from 

many  enemies  which  might  prey  upon  them. 

In  size,  Sponges  vary  greatly  ;  some  are  minute  objects  only  to  be  distinctly 

seen  under  the  microscope,  others  form  enormous  masses  several  feet  high. 
By  far  the  greater  number  of  Sponges  live  in  the  sea  ;  a  few  species  of 

fresh-water  Sponges,  however,  occur  in  our  own  rivers,  lakes,  and  ponds,  and 

many  others  are  found  in  various  parts  of  the  globe. 

A  considerable  number  of  marine  Sponges  are  to  be  found  in  our  own 

coasts,  but  these  are  less  attractive  in  appearance  than  some  of  the  tropical 
Sponges,  especially  those  with  elegant  framework, 
produced  by  combinations  of  six-rayed  spicules. 
The  skeletons  of  the  Venus's  Flower  Basket  (Fig. 
4,  A),  the  Lacework  Sponge,  and  Bird's-Nest 
Sponge  are  familiar  objects  in  museums.  Below 
the  beautiful  framework  of  the  Sponge  itself,  a 
tangle  of  very  fine  threads  resembling  spun  glass 
is  to  be  seen.  These  are  modified  spicules,  and 
by  their  means  the  Sponges  anchor  themselves  in 
the  mud.  The  Glass-Rope  Sponge  (Fig.  4,  B) 
derives  its  name  from  the  rope-like  appearance  of 
the  anchoring  threads,  which  are  slightly  twisted. 
Among  the  more  massive  Sponges  is  the 
Neptune's  Cup,  which  may  stand  several  feet 
high. 

The  most  familiar  of  all  Sponges,  the  Bath 
Sponge,  has  a  skeleton  of  horny  fibres.  In  a 
living  condition,  it  forms  large 

d«k*  °f  ten  *]m™*  *>lack  ma*ses'    The  Bath  SP°n£e 
the  surface  of  which  is  raised  up    (Euspon 

into  numberless  conical  promin-    nahs). 


F;g.  4.-S.X-RATKD  SPONGES 

(Tlexactinel  Udce). 
A,  Venues  Flower  Basket 


B, 


(Hyalonema). 


,  . 

large  oscules  ;  each  oscule  is  surrounded  by  an 


694 


COELENTERATA—L  PORIFERA—IL   CNIDARIA. 


iris-like  membrane  ;  fine  pores  are  to  be  found  opening  on  the  surface 
between  the  conical  prominences.  Canal  systems  with  whip  chambers  run 
through  the  entire  mass,  all  the  cavities  and  canals  being  lined  with  flat  cells, 
while  the  collar  cells  are  restricted  to  the  whip  chambers.  The  tissue 
through  which  the  canal  systems  run  receives  firmness  from  the  presence 
of  the  horny  fibres,  which  are  specially  plentiful  along  the  chief  canals  and 
round  the  oscules. 

The  Bath  Sponge,  like  most  of  the  other  massive  Sponges,  may  be  regarded 
as  a  colony,  each  individual  of  which  consists  of  a  cavity  opening  through  an 
oscule  and  of  the  canal  system  which  finally  leads  into  that  cavity.  Such 
colonies  arise  by  budding  ;  the  reproduction  of  the  colony  is,  however, 
effected  by  means  of  eggs  which  grow  into  free-swimming  larvse. 

The  Bath  Sponge  flourishes  on  the  coasts  of  the  eastern  half  of  the 
Mediterranean,  in  the  West  Indies,  the  Bahamas,  and  Florida.  The 
sponges  are  fished  for  either  with  harpoons  or  nets,  or  are  obtained  by  means 
of  divers,  and  are  carefully  prepared  for  the  market.  Large  Sponges  are  also 
artificially  produced  from  small  pieces  which,  under  favourable  conditions, 
grow  to  a  marketable  size  in  the  space  of  about  seven  years. 

II. — THE  CNIDARIA. 

The  Cnidaria,  which  form  the  other  great  division  of  the  Coelenterata 
derive  their  name  from  the  peculiar  stinging  cells  with  which  they  are 
provided.  They  have  been  divided  into  : — (1)  The  Hydrozoa,  or  water 
animals,  to  which  all  the  Zoophytes  or  plant-like  animals,  and  some  of  the 
Jelly-fish  belong.  (2)  The  Scyphozoa,  which  include  most  of  the  larger 
Jelly  -  fish,  the  Sea  -  anemones,  and  the 
Corals.  (3)  The  Ctenophora  or  Comb- 
bearers. 

A  short  account  of  one  of  the  simplest 
and  most  easily  accessible  of  the  Hydrozoa 
will  serve  to  give  some  idea  of  the  essential 
features  of  the  Cnidarian  body.  The  Hydra 
is  a  small  fresh-water  Hydrozoan  very 
common  in  ponds  and 
The  Hydrozoa.  aquaria.  As  it  is  from 
£  to  \  an  inch  in  length,  it 
can  easily  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye  hang- 
ing from  the  under  surface  of  some  water 
plant  or  other  submerged  object,  to  which 
it  has  attached  itself  by  a  very  simple  kind 
of  sucker  at  the  lower  end  of  the  body. 
The  free  end  terminates  in  a  mouth  at  the 
tip  of  a  prominence  which  is  surrounded 
by  a  ring  of  long  tentacles.  Both  the  body 
and  the  tentacles  are  exceedingly  contrac- 
tile, so  that  while  the  whole  animal,  when 
retracted,  appears  like  a  gelatinous  ball 
crowned  with  bud-like  knobs,  when  fully 
extended  its  body  is  slender  and  the 
tentacles  thread-like. 

The  walls  of  the  simple  tube-like  body 
of  the  Hydra  consist  of  two  layers  of  cells — an  outer  layer  in  contact  with  the 


Fig.  5. 

THE  FRESH-WATKR  POLYP ( Hydra). 

Stinging  Cells  (Nematocysts),  much 

magnified. 

A,  The  veaicle  with  thread  discharged. 

B,  The  vesicle  containing  coiled  thread. 


THE  FRESH-WATER  POLYP.  695 


surrounding  medium,  and  an  inner  layer  lining  the  tube- like  interior  or 
stomach  cavity.  Separating  these  cell  layers  there  is  a  very  thin  intermediate 
or  supporting  (non-cellular)  layer.  This  supporting  layer  by  itself  might  be 
thought  of  as  a  kind  of  framework  exactly  corresponding  with  the  shape  of  the 
body,  for  it  penetrates  even  to  the  tips  of  the  tentacles,  which  arise  as 
outpushings  of  .the  body  wall,  and  are  therefore  themselves  tube-like.  In 
this  intermediate  layer  are  found  all  the  processes  of  the  cellular  layers 
which  function  as  nerves  and  muscles.  At  the  mouth,  the  outer  and  inner 
cell  layers  pass  into  one  another  ;  this  is  an  important  point,  because,  as  we 
shall  presently  see,  the  arrangement  of  the  layers  at  the  mouth  forms  one  of 
the  chief  distinctions  between  the  Hydrozoa  and  the  Scyphozoa. 

The  cells  of  the  outer  layer  of  the  Hydra  body  are  chiefly  remarkable  for 
their  stinging  apparatus.  The  stinging  cells  contain  minute  vesicles  (Fig.  5), 
many  of  them  measuring  not  more  than  T -^^  of  an  inch,  in  which  are  coiled 
up  stinging  threads,  which  are  very  valuable  weapons  of  attack  and  defence. 
Each  of  these  stinging  cells  is  provided  with  a  minute  projection,  the  cnidocil, 
and  it  appears  that,  when  this  is  touched,  the  vesicle  shoots  out  its  long, 
coiled,  barbed  thread  so  rapidly  that,  delicate  as  it  is,  it  is  able  to  penetrate 
the  body  of  any  creature  rash  enough  to  approach  too  near.  The  poisonous 
effect  of  these  weapons  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  any  small  animal  thus 
attacked  appears  to  be  paralysed;  the  victim  speedily  ceases  struggling  to 
escape,  and  is  drawn  in  by  the  tentacles  to  the  mouth.  It  is  said  that  each 
tentacle  of  a  Hydra  is  provided  with  many  thousands  of  such  weapons, 
which  are  being  constantly  produced  afresh,  new  cells  taking  the  place  of 
those  which  have  been  discharged. 

The  cells  constituting  the  inner  lining  of  the  body  are  provided  with  fine 
hairs  or  whips,  and  are  capable  of  changing  their  shape,  and  of  sending  out 
processes  into  the  cavity  of  the  body  ;  they  are  therefore  called  amoeboid 
cells.  The  simple  crustacean  or  other  prey  which,  caught  and  paralysed  by 
the  stinging  tentacles,  has  been  pushed  through  the  mouth  into  the  cavity  of 
the  body,  is  digested  by  the  cells  of  this  lining  layer.  Whatever  cannot  be 
assimilated  is  thrown  out  again  at  the  mouth,  the  muscles  of  the  body  wall 
and  the  current  of  water  kept  up  by  the  whips  in  the  cavity  assisting  in  this 
process. 

The  Hydra  often  reproduces  itself  by  means  of  buds  which  grow  out  from 
the  parent  body,  and  when  fully  equipped  for  independent  life,  break  off  and 
attach  themselves  near  the  parent.  But,  at  certain  seasons,  a  large  globular 
body  forms  at  some  part  of  the  surface  of  the  fully-grown  Hydra.  This 
represents  an  egg,  and,  when  fertilised,  separates  from  the  parent  and 
develops  into  a  new  Hydra. 

The  Hydra  and  its  allies  have  a  wonderful  power  of  repairing  injuries 
which  the  body  may  suffer.  Almost  any  part  of  the  body,  if  cut  off,  is  able 
to  reproduce  the  rest.  Some  naturalists  have  amused  themselves  by  produc- 
ing monstrous  growths  possessed  of  a  large  number  of  heads,  and  others  have 
tried  the  experiment  of  turning  the  sac-like  body  inside  out,  and  have  even 
asserted  that  the  Hydra  is  able  to  carry  on  its  life  activities  in  such  a  condi- 
tion. It  has,  however,  been  proved  that,  under  such  circumstances,  the 
Hydra  either  manages  to  regain  its  normal  state  or  else  dies. 

In  this  account  of  the  Hydra,  which  is  also  known  as  the  Fresh- water  polyp, 
in  contradistinction  to  other  marine  polyps,  such  as  the  Sea-anemones,  the 
Corals,  and  the  Zoophytes,  we  have  noticed  some  of  the  essential  points  in 
the  structure  of  the  Cnidarian  body.  Among  these  are  the  sac-like  nature 


696 


COELENTERATA—IL  CNIDARIA. 


of  the  body,  the  digestion  of  food  by  the  walls  of  the  body  cavity,  the  capture 
of  prey,  and  defence  against  enemies,  by  means  of  the  formidable  stinging 
threads. 

The  Hydra  we  have  described  is  not  an  entirely  stationary  animal ;  it  can 

detach  its  disc  and  creep  along  by  using  alternately  its  tentacles  and  its  disc,  and 

sometimes  even  casts  its  body  loose,  using  the  expanded 

Hydroid  Colonies      disc  as  a  float  and  the  tentacles  for  swimming.     Most  other 

—Zoophytes,  Hydroids,  however,  unite  to  form  stationary  colonies,  the 
young,  which  bud  from  each  successive  generation,  re- 
maining attached  like  branches,  orby  means  of 
rootlets,  to  the  original  parent  animal.  Such 
colonies  are  often  found  encrusting  empty 
shells,  which  they  sometimes  entirely  cover 
with  branched  growths.  One  of  them  is  re- 
presented in  Fig.  6.  Some  of  the  members 
of  this  colony  (A,  A)  bear  a  great  re- 
semblance to  the  Hydra,  having  the  same 
tube-like  body,  surrounded  at  the  free  end 
by  a  crown  of  tentacles.  But  a  large  colony 
of  such  highly  contractile  creatures  as  the 
Hydra  clustered  together  would  be  un- 
manageable, so,  in  these  cases,  their  trunks 
are  generally  enveloped  in  a  more  or  less 
stiff  covering,  which  protects  and  supports 
the  colony.  The  free  ends  of  the  individuals, 
with  the  mouths  and  tentacles,  however, 
protruding  from  the  open  ends  of  the  en- 
velopes, contract  and  expand  freely. 

In  the  branched  Hydroid  figured,  two 
important  points  are  to  be  noticed.  First, 
the  gastral  cavities  of  all  the  members  of  the 
colony  are  in  communication  with  each  other, 
so  that,  when  one  of  them  captures  food,  the  superfluous  nutritive  fluid 
produced  can  be  passed  on  to  the  other  members  through  the  communicating 
canals  that  run  along  the  trunk  and  stems.  Secondly,  while  most  of  the 
members  of  a  colony  are  Hydra -like,  and  help  to  feed  the  whole,  others 
(Fig.  6,  B)  are  quite  unlike  the  Hydra,  differing  both  in  the  shape  of  the 
body  and  in  the  character  of  the  tentacles.  These,  which  are  called  Medusoid 
individuals  on  account  of  their  resemblance  to  Medusae  or  Jelly-fish,  are  the 
members  in  which  the  reproductive  elements  are  produced.  In  some  cases 
the  inedusoid  buds  remain  attached  to  the  colony,  and  send  forth  ciliated 
larvae,  which  swim  away  and  settle  later  to  start  fresh  colonies  ;  but,  in  the 
colony  depicted,  the  medusoid  individuals  break  loose,  swim  about  freely, 
often  greatly  increasing  in  size,  and  after  a  time  give  rise  to  young  forms 
which  attach  themselves  as  Hydroids. 

Here,  then,  we  have  a  most  interesting  phenomenon.  These  colonies  of 
Hydroids  are  stationary  like  trees  or  bushes,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  trees  or 
bushes,  it  would  be  a  disadvantage  to  them  if  their  young  grew  up  too  close 
around  them;  they  would  crowd  each  other  to  death.  In  the  vegetable  kingdom 
there  are  many  beautiful  arrangements  for  securing  the  scattering  of  the 
seed,  but  surely  none  more  beautiful  than  the  method  adopted  by  some  of 
the  Hyroids.  The  individuals  selected  to  bear  the  young  change  their: 


Fig.  6. — A  HYDROID  COLONY  (Bougain- 
villea  ramosa). 

A,  Hjdra  like  individuals. 

B,  Medusoid  individuals. 


HYDROID  COLONIES. 


697 


shapes,  break  off  and  swim  away  as  minute  Jelly-fish  (Fig.  6,  B),  dispersing 
their  young  as  they  go. 

Before  giving  any  further  account  of  these  reproductive  individuals,  we 
must  describe  the  Hydroid  colonies  a  little  more  closely.  They  frequently 
resemble  delicately  branching  trees  or  bushes,  fine  moss,  or  feathers,  or 
sometimes  form  crusts  over  stones — hence  the  name  of  Zoophytes  or  animal- 
plants.  Such  growths  are  very  common  on  our  coasts,  and  are  still  popu- 
larly considered,  on  account  of  their  plant-like  appearance,  to  be  sea-weeds  ; 
this  deceptive  appearance  being  heightened  by  the  fact  that  the  very  minute 
polyps  forming  the  colony  are,  in  many  cases,  when  contracted,  entirely 
hidden  within  the  protective  framework.  This  common  protective  covering 
is  sometimes  of  a  horny  nature  and  transparent,  sometimes  hard  and  chalky, 
and,  round  the  be  dies  of  the  individuals  of  the  colony,  may  take  the  form  of 
cups  into  which  the  soft  polyps  can  withdraw.  The  Campanularians  received 
their  name  from  their  bell-shaped,  protective  cups.  In  the  Sea-firs  or  Sertu- 
laria,  the  cups  project  from  each  side  of  the  stalk;  in  the  Plumularians,  from 
only  one  side.  In  other  forms,  again,  there  are  no  protective  cups.  The 
Oaten  straw  coralline  (Tubularia)  resembles  a  number  of  closely-packed  straws, 
from  the  ends  of  which  the  beautiful  little  crimson-tentacled  polyps  project. 

Besides  these  colonies  which  invest  themselves  with  hard,  tubular  cover- 
ings, there  are  others  in  which  the  chalky  parts  become  so  greatly  developed 
as  to  form  massive  skeletons  so  like  those  of  Corals  that 
they  were  long  classed  as  such.      These  Hydrocorallia  are  The 

often  found  in  coral  reefs,  and  would  be  taken,  by  the        Hydrocorallia. 
uninitiated,  for  true  coral.     In  one  family,  the  skeleton 
of  which  exactly  resembles  that  of  a  branched,  pink  coral,  the  similarity  is 
even  carried  out  in  the  structure  of  the  polyp.      This  family  has  received 
the  name  of  the  Stylasteridse,  because  of  the  central  style  or  column  which 
seems  to  imitate  the  columella  of  the  true  coral. 

Another  family  of  the  Hydrocorallia,  the  Millepora,  affords  an  interesting 
example  of  the  division  of  the  life-work  of  a  colony  among  its  different 
members.  We  have  already  described 
colonies  in  which  the  feeding  was 
undertaken  by  some  of  the  members 
and  the  reproduction  by  others,  but 
here  we  have  a  more  remarkable  dis- 
tinction between  the  different  members. 
If  we  examine  a  mass  of  skeleton  of 
a  Millepore,  the  minute  apertures  on 
its  surface  are  often  seen  to  be  arranged 
in  groups,  one  larger,  central  aperture 
being  surrounded  by  a  number  of  smaller 
ones.  When  the  surface  of  such  a 
skeleton  is  alive  with  polyps,  the  central 
tube  is  inhabited  by  a  polyp  shorter  and 
thicker  than  its  neighbours,  with  a  mouth 
and  a  few  knob-like  tentacles  (Fig.  7, 
A).  From  the  smaller  tubes,  long  slen- 
der polyps  project,  not  provided  with 
mouths,  but  only  with  tentacles  (Fig.  7, 
B).  The  outer  slender  polyps  keep  up 
a  constant  waving  motion,  bending  from  time  to  time  over  the  central  polyp. 


Fig.  7.— MILLEPORA. 

A,  Gastric  individual 

B,  Teutaculate  individual. 


698  COELENTERATA—IL   CN ID  ARIA. 


With  their  tentacles,  no  doubt  amply  provided  with  stinging  threads, 
they  catch  the  food  which,  being  themselves  unable  to  eat,  they  pass 
on  to  the  mouth  of  the  central  polyp.  Within  the  body  of  this  central 
polyp  the  food  is  digested,  but  not  for  itself  alone,  as  the  products  of 
digestion,  flowing  along  the  many  canals  of  the  colony,  feed  all  its 
members.  There  are  no  free  swimming  Medusae  connected  with  these 
Hydrocorallia. 

We  return  now  to  the  reproductive  individuals,  which,  in  many  Hydroid 

colonies,  carry  and  distribute  the  eggs  (Fig.   6,  B).       These,    when   seen 

swimming  about  independently,  are  so  like  the  larger  Jelly- 

Hydromedusae.    fish  belonging  to  the  Scyphozoa  that  they  were  long  mistaken 

for  them.     The  general  plan  of  the  body,  indeed,  is  very 

similar  and  is  worth  describing,  especially  in  order  to  show  what  changes  are 

necessary  in  the  ordinary  Hydra-like  body  to  produce  a  swimming  bell. 

In  all  Medusae  the  general  shape  of  the  body  is  due  to  the  great  thickening 
of  the  middle  supporting  layer  in  the  body  wall,  which  we  described  in  con- 
nection with  the  Hydra.  Instead  of  a  long  body  like  that  of  the  Hydra, 
running  like  a  tube  from  the  mouth  to  the  bottom  of  the  gastric  sac,  we  have 
one  flattened  out  like  an  umbrella,  the  upper  part  of  the  umbrella  corre- 
sponding with  the  former  closed  end  of  the  tube,  while  the  mouth  is  at  the 
tip  of  a  short  stalk  or  handle  to  the  umbrella.  The  transformation  of  the 
Hydra  into  the  Medusoid  can  be  imagined  by  supposing  the  mouth  pro- 
minence between  the  tentacles  to  be  pushed  down  into  the  body,  which 
expands  laterally,  till  the  whole  forms  a  bowl  with  the  oral  prominence 
rising  up  in  its  base;  the  tentacles  take  up  positions  on  the  rim  of  the  bowl. 
The  stomach  lies  partly  in  the  mouth  stalk  or  manubrium  (handle)  and  partly 
in  the  body  of  the  umbrella.  Here  it  sometimes  forms  a  cavity,  and  a  number 
of  canals  run  from  it  radially  out,  like  spokes,  to  the  edge  of  the  umbrella, 
there  to  meet  a  canal  which  runs  round  the  margin.  When  food  is  taken 
into  the  stomach  the  nutritive  fluid  derived  from  it  passes  through  the  radial 
canals  to  the  circumferential  canal  and  nourishes  the  whole  body.  The 
number  of  these  radial  canals  in  the  Hydromedusse  is  usually  small  (two, 
four,  or  eight),  and  these  are  little  if  at  all  branched.  The  margin  of  the 
body  is  fringed  with  tentacles,  and  carries  the  so-called  "marginal  bodies," 
some  of  which  are  minute  bags  (lithocysts)  containing  bodies  called  otoliths, 
whose  function  is  usually  said  to  be  auditory,  but  is  more  probably  that  of 
regulating  the  position  of  the  animal  in  the  water.  Other  brilliantly  coloured 
bodies,  a<.ain,  have  been  named  "eye-spots."  The  Hydromedusae  were 
formerly  distinguished  from  the  Jelly-fish  proper  as  "naked-eyed "  Medusae, 
because  in  them  these  "eyes"  are  exposed,  whereas  in  the  other  Jelly-fish, 
or  "covered-eyed"  Medusae,  they  are  protected  by  a  hood-like  lappet  of 
gelatinous  tissue.  Simple  tactile  organs  are  also  found  along  the  margin  of 
the  Hydromedusae,  round  which  a  double  nerve  ring  runs. 

Another  characteristic  of  the  Hydromedusae  is  the  velum  (veil),  a  thin, 
muscular  membrane  which  hangs  down  from  the  margin  of  the  umbrella, 
slanting  inward  toward  the  manubrium. 

The  swimming  movements  of  these  animals  also  deserve  notice.  The 
lower  concave  surface  of  the  "  umbrella"  is  supplied  with  a  very  thin  layer  of 
contractile  tissue  or  muscle,  by  the  contraction  of  which  the  umbrella  is 
partially  closed.  This  action,  performed  suddenly,  drives  the  water  out  from 
under  the  umbrella  and  propels  the  Medusa  along. 

The  eggs,  in  the  Hydromedusae,  form  along  the  radial  canals,  or  on  the 


HYDROID  COLONIES— PORTUGUESE  MAN-OF-WAR. 


699 


inner  walls  of  the  manubrium,  and  give  rise  to  ciliated  larvae  which  pass 
through  the  cavity  of  the  umbrella  into  the  open  water,  become  attached,  and, 
by  budding,  produce  new  Hydroid  colonies.  Such  colonies  again  produce 
Medusoids,  and  so  on.  This  process  is  a  simple  case  of  what  is  called 
alternation  of  generations.  The  Hydroid  form  has  been  called  in  German 
the  "nursing"  generation,  as  it  does  not  itself  produce  the  young,  but 
brings  to  perfection  the  individuals  which,  when  free,  become  the  reproduc- 
tive generation. 

Although  most  Hydromedusse  are  the  products  of  a  Hydroid  colony,  and 
their  eggs  develop  again  into  such  colonies,  there  are  others  which  develop 
direct  from  forma  in  every  respect  like  themselves,  i.e.,  the  young  ones  no 
longer  pass  through  any  attached  Hydroid  stage.  On  the  other  hand,  there 
are  Hydroid  colonies  which  never  develop  free  medusoid  forms  to  secure  the 
dispersal  of  their  progeny. 

Leaving  the  fixed  Hydroid  colonies  and  their  free  swimming  members,  we 
come  to  the  one  remaining  group  of  the  Hydrozoa,  the  Siphonophora,  which 
consists  of  large  Hydroid  colonies,  no  longer  attached,  but 
floating    freely    about.        These     are    very    complicated     The  Siphonophora. 
creatures  in  which  the  Hydroid  and  Medusoid  type  of 
body  is  so  curiously  changed  as  to  be  scarcely  recognisable,  and  in  which 
also  division  of  labour  has  reached  an  extreme  point. 

The  Siphonophora  are  exceedingly  striking  and  beautiful  objects,  only  to 
be  seen  in  tropical  seas,  where  they  delight  the  traveller  by  their  exquisite 
shapes  and  brilliant  colouring. 

The  colonies  are  not  branched,  but  the  many  members  are  arranged  round 
a  central  stalk.  The  cavities  of  all  the  members  communicate  as  in  the 
Zoophytes.  The  uppermost  individual  is  turned  into  a  kind  of  air-bladder  for 
floating  the  colony,  and  then  come  a  number  of  individuals  turned  into 
swimming-bells  which  drive  the  whole  colony  through  the  water.  Beneath 
these  locomotory  individuals  come  nutritive  individuals,  which  are  often 
little  more  than  stomach-tubes,  reproductive  individu- 
als, frequently  in  clusters,  and  protective  individuals, 
arranged  in  such  a  way  as  to  overlap  the  nutritive  and 
reproductive  members  of  the  colony.  There  are, 
further,  tentacular  individuals  which  are  usually  long 
filaments  (sometimes  called  fishing  lines).  These  are 
richly  provided  with  stinging  batteries,  their  function 
being  to  capture  food  for  the  colony  and  to  defend 
it  from,  its  enemies. 

In  the  simpler  forms  of  Siphonophora  the  stalk  is 
long,  and  the  members  of  the  colony  project  from  it 
at  intervals.  Sometimes  several  pairs  of  swimming 
bells  follow  each  other  for  a  short  way  down  the  stalk, 
in  other  cases  a  single  pair  heads  the  colony.  In 
other  forms  the  stalk  is  much  shortened,  and  a  central 
air-bladder  is  surrounded  by  medusa-like  swimming 
bells,  the  other  members  of  the  colony  being  crowded 
together  beneath  these.  One  of  the  best  -  known 
Siphonophora  is  the  Portuguese  Man-of-War,  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  8.  This  is  one  of  the  most  specialised 
forms.  The  large,  crested,  and  exquisitely  coloured  air  -  bladder  alone 
appears  above  the  waves.  This  air-bladder  secretes  its  own  gas,  and  has 


Fig.  8 — THE  PORTTTGUKSB 
MAN-OF-WAR  (Physalia). 


700  COELENTERATA-II.  CNIDARIA. 


an  aperture  through  which  some  of  its  contents  can  be  forced  out.  The  feed- 
ing, reproductive,  and  other  members  cluster  beneath  the  float,  and  several 
immensely  long  filaments,  supplied  with  multitudes  of  stinging  batteries, 
trail  down  into  the  water.  The  stinging  powers  of  this  Cnidarian  are  so 
great  that  adventurous  people  who  have  tried  to  capture  a  large  tpecimen 
have  narrowly  escaped  with  their  lives. 

Turning  now  to  the  second  great  division  of  the  Cnidaria,  the  Scyphozoa, 
we  find  that  an  important  change  has  taken  place  in  the  simple  sac  or  tube- 
like  body.      A  tube  has  grown  inward  from  the  mouth 
The  Scyphozoa.     into  the  body,  forming  a  passage  to  the  stomach  (a  simple 
kind    of    oesophagus) ;    this,    being    an    ingrowth    from 
outside,  is  always  lined  with  the  outer  layer  of  the  body  wall.      All  the 
Scyphozoa — i.e.,  the  Jelly-fish  proper,  the  Anemones,  and  the  Corals — are 
distinguished  by  the  presence  of  this  oesophagus  from  the  Hydrozoa  above 
described. 

In  the  Hydrozoa  we  had  single  stationary  polyps,   stationary  colonies, 
medusoid  individuals  which  have  broken  loose  from  stationary  colonies,  and 
medusse  which  no  longer  belong  to  any  stationary  form.     In  the  Scyphozoa, 
also,  we  have  single  stationary  polyps,  colonies  of  polyps,  and  free-swimming 
medusse.     Taking  the  last  of   these   forms,  the   Scypho- 
The  medusse,  first,  we  find  not  only  that  they  are  far  larger 

Scyphomedusae.  and  more  important  than  are  the  Hydromedusse,  but  that 
the  thickening  of  the  middle  gelatinous  layer  of  their  body 
is  even  greater  than  in  the  Hydromedusse.  The  gelatinous  tissue  is  a  mere 
network  of  connective  tissue,  the  interstices  of  which  are  filled  with  water, 
which  far  exceeds  in  volume  all  the  delicate  body  tissues  of  the  animal.  This 
is  well  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  a  Jelly-fish  weighing  34  Ibs.,  and  measur- 
ing 7  ft.  in  diameter  without  its  tentacles,  when  left  to  dry  in  the  sun,  in  a 
few  d*ys  lost  j9^  of  its  original  weight.  It  has  also  been  stated  that,  when 
a  large  Jelly-fish  is  placed  in  the  sun  on  blotting  paper,  nothing  but  the  out- 
line of  its  form  has  been  found  after  a  few  hours  have  passed. 

These  Scyphomedusse  differ  from    the    Hydromedusse  in   several   ways. 

The  margin  of  the  umbrella  is  generally  lobed,  and  there  is  no  true  velum  ; 

the  mouth  at  the  tip  of  the  manubrium  is  often  square. 

An  English  Jelly-     The  cavity  of  the  body  is  more  complicated  than  in  the 

Fish  (Aurelta        Hydromedusse,   being  divided    up  in  various  ways,  and 

aurita).  the   radial  canals   are   often   richly   branched.       To   the 

Scyphomedusse  belong,   not   only    many  lovely    tropical 

forms,    but   those   commonly  seen   floating    in   our   own   waters.       In   the 

commonest  of  these  last  (Aurelia  aurita)  the  margin  forms  eight  slightly 

marked  off  lobes  and  is  fringed  with  very  fine  tentacles.     The  square  mouth 

is  edged  with  four  long  arms,  which  hang  down  into  the  water  and  catch 

prey.     At  the  eight  notches  between  the  lobes   are  small  sensory  bodies 

which   are  protected    in   the   way   characteristic   of    the    "covered   eyed" 

Medusse  (as  the  Scyphozoa  were   formerly  called).      Four   large   coloured 

patches,    which  are  very   marked   on    the  upper  surface  of   the  umbrella, 

represent  the   reproductive   masses,   beneath   which   the  under  surface   of 

the   umbrella    is   hollowed    out   into     four  pits.      The   water   needed    for 

aerating  the  tissues  is  thus  brought  into  closer  proximity  to  the  reproductive 

elements. 

A  curious  modification  of  the  ordinary  form  is  found  in  the  Rhizostomse 
or  Root-footed  Jelly-fish.     The  corners  of  the  square  mouth  at  the  tip  of  the 


JELL  Y- FISH— SEA  -ANEMONES.  70 1 


manubrium  are  prolonged  into  long  oral  arms.  The  edges  of  each  of  these 
fold  together  so  as  to  form  tubes.  The  mouth  then  closes  and  suckers  are 
developed  along  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  tubes,  through  which  alone 
nourishment  reaches  the  stomach.  Very  large  prey,  such  as  fLh,  is  often 
captured  by  these  Jelly-fish,  and  held  fast  by  the  oral  arms  while  the 
nourishment  is  sucked  out  of  it. 

In  many  of  these  Jelly-fish,  reproduction  takes  place  by  means  of  eggs 
which  develop  in  the  reproductive  chambers.  These  eggs  usually  develop 
into  Medusae,  but,  in  the  large  family  of  the 
Discophorse,  to  which  our  own  Jelly-fish 
belong,  the  larva  which  results  from  the  egg 
is  a  small  spherical  body  covered  with  cilia, 
and  never  grows  into  a  Medusa  direct.  It 
attaches  itself  to  a  rock  or  sea-weed  (Fig.  9, 1), 
develops  tentacles,  and  lengthens  out.  Con- 
strictions then  begin  to  appear  round  its  body : 
the  first  just  below  the  tentacles,  and  others 
successively  further  down.  The  edges  formed 

by   the   constrictions   become   lobed,  and   the  i,  Larva.         S,  Strobila. 

little  creature,  usually  not  more  than  an  inch 

long,  soon  has  the  appearance  of  a  series  of  saucers  with  lobed  margins  piled 
one  upon  another,  but  increasing  in  size  upward  (Fig.  9,  S).  After  a  time 
the  whole  structure  breaks  up,  each  detached  disc  developing  later  into  a 
Medusa,  often  of  gigantic  size.  This  curious  process  of  a  sexual  multiplication 
is  known  as  strobilation,  each  series  of  developing  young  being  a  strobila, 
which  is  the  Greek  for  fir-cone. 

There  is  only  one  permanently  attached  form  among  these  Medusae.  This 
is  the  Lucernaria,  a  very  beautiful  flower-like  animal  often  found  adhering 
to  sea- weed. 

The  Anthozoa  or  flower-like  animals,  which  form  the  next  group  of  the 
Scyphozoa,  include  the  stationary  Sea-anemones  and  the  Corals,  the  living 
bodies  of  both  of  which  are  built  on  essentially  the  same 
plan.     The  body  of  the  Sea-anemone,  however,  always  re-        The  Anthozoa. 
mains  soft,  while  that  of  the  Coral  proper  develops  a  hard 
skeleton.     For  this  reason  the  Sea-anemones  have  been  called  the  Fleshy 
Corals,  while  one  large  division  of  the  Corals  is  cilled  the  Stony  Corals,  on 
account  of  their  stony  skeletons.     The  Sea-anemones  always  remain  single, 
while  the  Corals  comprise  both  single  and  colonial  forms. 

The  Sea-anemone  is  a  familiar  object  to  most  of  us,  as  it  is  very  plentiful 
on  our  rocky  shores.     Small,  coloured,  jelly-like  masses  are  often  to  be  seen 
adhering  to  the  rocks  at  low  tide,  which,  as  soon  as  they 
are  again  covered  by  water  on  the  return  of  the  tide,     The  Sea-anemones 
expand  in  beautiful  and  brilliantly-coloured   flower-like  (Actinia). 

animals.  Looking  down  upon  an  Anemone,  the  central 
mouth  can  generally  be  made  out  fringed  with  its  tentacles.  If  the  body 
were  cut  across  a  little  below  the  level  of  these,  we  should  find  that  it  con- 
sisted of  two  tubes,  one  within  the  other.  The  inner  tube  is  the  stomach 
tube  or  oesophagus,  lined  with  the  outer  skin,  which,  as  above  described, 
characterises  all  the  Scyphozoa.  It  is  united  to  the  wall  of  the  outer  tube, 
which  is  the  body  wall  of  the  Anemone,  by  a  number  of  fleshy  partitions, 
which,  running  right  through  the  length  of  the  body,  divide  it  up  into  many 
compartments.  The  uppermost  portion  of  each  of  these  compartments  runs 


702 


COELENTERATA-II.   CNIDARIA. 


up  into  a  tentacle.  These  fleshy  "septa"  are  infoldings  of  the  inner  layer 
of  the  wall  of  the  sac-like  body.  They  do  not  all  arise  at  the  same  time, 
nor  do  they  all  project  equally  far  into  the  body  cavity.  Only  some  of  them 
run  out  far  enough  to  connect  the  two  tubes  in  the  upper  part  of  the  body. 

This  dividing  up  of  the  body  into  compartments  is  one  of  the  chief  dis- 
tinctions between  the  Sea-anemone  polyp  and  the  Hydra  polyp.  In  many 
other  respects  the  Sea-anemone  closely  resembles  the  Hydra.  It  has  the 
same  power  of  retracting  its  tentacles  and  reducing  its  whole  body  to  a  bud- 
like  shape.  It  captures  food  with  its  tentacles,  and  digests  it  within  its 
body  cavity,  throwing  out  at  the  mouth  all  that  it  cannot  assimilate.  It  has 
also  a  limited  power  of  motion,  not,  however,  like  the  Hydra,  using  its 
tentacles  for  this  purpose,  but  gliding  along  on  its  base. 

The  Anemone  is  still  richer  than  the  Hydra  in  stinging  cells.  It  has  been 
calculated  that  some  Anemones  possess  as  many  as  43,000,000  of  stinging 
cells  in  one  tentacle,  and  in  the  whole  body  something  like  6,450,000,000. 
The  stinging  cells  in  Anemones  measure  from  3!^  to  ^oVo  °^  an  incn»  ^ne 
thread  being  often  twenty  times  as  long  as  the  cell,  and  more  richly  supplied 
with  barbs  than  are  those  of  the  Hydra.  These  cells,  too,  in  the  Anemone, 
are  not  merely  found  in  the  outer  skin,  but  form  in  great  quantities  in  the 
gastric  cavity. 

The  outer  skin  of  the  Anemone  is  not  always  smooth  and  jelly-like  ;  it  is 
often  covered  with  wart-like  protuberances,  which  sometimes  secrete  a  sticky 
fluid.  Some  Anemones  have,  further,  a  circle  of  "  eyes "  placed  like  a 
necklace  round  the  body.  Each  of  these  has  a  lens  and  simple  optic  nerve, 
but  the  latter  is  not  connected  with  any  other  nerves.  From  time  to  time, 
as  the  Anemone  grows,  it  is  able  to  cast  off  its  outer  skin,  after  having 
formed  a  new  one  beneath  it ;  the  old  skin  can  often  be  seen  in  a  wrinkled, 
dead-looking  condition  encircling  the  base  of  the  animal. 

Although  none  of  the  Sea-anemones  found  on  our  own  shores  attain  the 
size  of  some  of  the  tropical  specimens,  they  are  very  beautiful  and  well 
worthy  of  study.  A  few  only  can  here  be  briefly  described. 

The  Plumose  Anemone  (Fig.  10)  and  the  Daisy  Anemone  are  two  of  the 
English  varieties  of  the  Sagartiadse,  so-called  after  a  tribe  in  the  army  of 

Xerxes,  known  for  their  practice  of  en- 
tangling their  enemies  by  means  of  noosed 
ropes.  All  these  Anemones  possess,  attached 
to  the  septa  of  the  gastric  cavity,  tangled 
masses  of  stinging  threads  resembling 
tangles  of  white  cotton.  These  they  can  at 


Fig.  10.— THE  PLUMOSK  ANKMONB 
(Actinoloba  dianthus). 


Fig.  11. — EDWARDBIA. 


will  shoot  out  of  the  mouth,  and,  in  some  cases,  through  apertures  at  the 
sides  of  the  body,  for  the  purpose  of  paralysing  their  enemies.     In  large 


SEA-ANEMONES.  703 


specimens  these  "  acontia  "  may,  when  extended  straight  through  the  mouth, 
measure  as  much  as  six  inches. 

In  the  Plumose  Anemone,  which  is  flesh-coloured,  pale  orange,  or  clear 
white,  the  pillar-like  body  is  surmounted  by  a  widely-expanded,  frilled  disc 
edged  with  numberless  fringe-like  tentacles.  When  these  Anemones  move 
along  on  the  disc  small  pieces  are  sometimes  torn  off  and  left  behind.  These 
pieces  can  develop  into  young  Anemones ;  at  other  times  young  forms  bud 
out  from  the  parent. 

In  the  Daisy  Anemone  the  upper  part  of  the  body  wall  is  studded  with 
suckers,  to  which  fragments  of  shell  or  gravel  may  become  attached.     In 
colour  this  Anemone  varies  greatly,  almost  all   shades, 
from  a  delicate  flesh  colour  to  a  deep  chocolate  or  olive         The   Daisy 
green,    being   seen   in    various    specimens.      The    small  Anemone 

tentacles  are  arranged  in  many  rows,  and  may  amount  to       (Sagartiabellis). 
500.     The  Daisy  Anemone   is  exceedingly  prolific.     Its 
young,  which  arise  from  fertilised  eggs,  are  usually  matured  within  the  body 
cavity  and  thrown  out  at  the  mouth  as  minute  but  perfect  Anemones.    From 
160   to   300   of   such  young  are  said  to   have  been  produced  by  a  Daisy 
Anemone  in  a  single  day. 

The  Cloak  Anemone  is  noted  for  being  constantly  found  in  company  with 
the  Hermit  Crab,  on  the  lip  of  whose  borrowed  shell  it  attaches  itself.     Two 
wing-like  lobes  grow  out  from  the  base  of  the  Anemone, 
gradually  surround  the  lip  of  the  shell,  meeting  finally  on  The  Cloak 

the  other  side  and  forming  the  so-called  "cloak."     The  Anemone 

Anemone  no  doubt  profits  by  its  chosen  position,  as  it  can  (Adamsia  palhata). 
feed  on  particles  of  the  prey  caught  and  torn  up  by  the 
claws  of  the  crab,  and  is  borne  along  by  him  in  his  wanderings,  sometimes 
thus  travelling  a  mile  or  two  out  to  sea,  and  enjoying  constant  change  of 
water.  If  the  shell  chosen  by  this  strange  couple  is  too  small  for  the 
Anemone,  or  gets  broken,  it  can  fabricate  a  shelly  substance  which  makes 
good  all  defects. 

The  Opelet,  so  called  because  its  disc  is  habitually  expanded,  has  long, 
emerald-green  tentacles,  which  can  coil  round  its  prey. 
Large   sea  -  weeds  are  often   found   studded   with   these  The  Opelet 

beautiful   flower-like  creatures,  which,  in  some  parts  of      (Anthea  cercus). 
France,  are  appreciated  as  an  article  of  food. 

The  Beadlet  is  distinguished  by  brilliantly  coloured  beadlike  vesicles  set 
near  the  edge  of  the  disc.      These   may  be   stinging  batteries,   for   these 
Anemones  are   not   provided,  like  the  Sagartiadse,  with 
internal  stinging  threads.      The  Beadlet,   which  is  also          The  Beadlet 
called  the  Strawberry  Anemone,  is  the  commonest  of  the     {Actinia  inesembry- 
red  Anemones  found  on  English  rocks.     It  is  very  hardy,  anthemum). 

and  has  been  known  to  live  as  long  as  thirty  years  in 
captivity,   during  that  time  giving  rise  to  three  hundred  and  thirty-four 
young  Anemones. 

The   Dahlia   Wartlet   has   the   surface   of   its   body   covered   with   small 
grey  warts  to  which  fragments  of  stone  or  shell  adhere. 
This  Anemone  is  scarcely  less  abundant  on  our  shores  Wartlet  * 

than   the  Beadlet,   and   is   very   handsome,  one   variety  (Tealia 

having   white    tentacles,    vividly    contrasting    with    the          crassicornis\ 
crimson   disc.      It  is    particularly   voracious,   devouring 
shore  crabs,  limpets,  and  other  molluscs,  and  even  sea-urchins  and  fish. 


704  COELENTERATA—IL   CNIDARIA. 


The   Cave-dwelling  Anemone,    though   plentiful   on   our   coasts,   is  very 

difficult  to  find,  its  colouring  being  wonderfully  adapted 

The  Cave-dwelling     to  the  sand  or  mud  of  the  pools  it  inhabits.     The  black, 

Anemone  white,  and   grey   of    the   disc  are   arranged   in   delicate 

(SagarUa  patterns,  which  have  been  compared   with  those  on  the 

troglodytes}.          feathers   of   a   snipe.      The   purpose   of    concealment   is 

further  aided  by  fragments  of  shells,  etc.,  attached  to  the 

suckers  on  its  column. 

In  the  Edwardsias  (Fig.   11,  p.  702)  the  body  is   much  elongated,  and 

the  lower  part  is  usually  buried   in  the  sand  or  mud. 

The  Crimson         One  of  the  best-known  of  these  Anemones  is  the  Crim- 

Pufflet  son   Pufflet,    which   often   inhabits   the   old    burrows   of 

(Edwardsia  carnca).    Molluscs    in    limestone    rocks    on    the   coast   of    South 

Devon,  the  beautiful  crimson  tentacles  protruding  from 

the  mouth  of  the  burrow. 

On  tropical  shores  there  are  many  brilliantly  beautiful  varieties  of  Sea- 
anemones,  some  of  which  attain  a  very  large  size.      Actinia  paumotensis, 
found   on   the   islands   of   the   Paumotu   Archipelago,  is 
Tropical  described  by  Dana  as  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  all 

Anemones.  Anemones.      It    has   a   disc   often   14   in.    in  diameter, 

* '  densely  covered  with  large  tentacles  tipped  with  bright 
lake,  the  margin  undulating  so  as  to  form  numerous  lobes,  each  of  which 
has  the  appearance  of  being  a  separate  Actinian,  ard  the  whole  resembling 
a  beautiful  bouquet. "  Other  tropical  forms  have  been  said  to  resemble 
brilliantly-coloured  carpets  covering  the  rocks.  Some  of  these  large,  tropical 
Anemones  are  used  as  homes  by  ether  animals,  which  live  within  the  stomach 
cavity.  A  fish  some  3  in.  long  and  very  vividly  coloured  in  striking  con- 
trast to  its  host,  and  a  biightly-coloured  prawn  are  almost  always  found  thus 
associated  with  certain  large  Anemones  on  the  great  Barrier  Reef  of  Australia, 
as  recently  described  by  Mr.  Saville  Kent.  These  curious  lodgers  emerge 
from  their  refuge  from  time  to  time  to  swim  about  in  the  sea,  but  dart  back 
again  into  the  mouths  of  their  hosts  when  pursued  by  enemies.  It  has  been 
supposed  that  this  association  may  be  of  advantage  to  the  Anemone  as  well 
as  to  the  fish  and  the  prawn.  Animals  are  attracted  to  pursue  these  brilliant 
decoys  and  fall  victims  to  tie  voracious  Anemone,  while  the  fish  and  the 
prawn  live  on  the  crumbs  which  fall  from  the  feasts  of  their  magnificent 
friends  and  protectors. 

In  the  Corals  proper,  the  polyps  are  essentially  like  the  Sea-anemones,  but 
are  able  to  form  a  hard,  protective  framework  for  their  bodies. 

The  soft,  fleshy  body  first  gives  off  upon  the  rock  below 
The  Corals.  it  a  quantity  of  chalky  matter  from  its  base,  and  thus 
forms  a  kind  of  pedestal  for  itself,  which  is  called  the 
foot-plate.  From  this,  six  hard  ridges  rise  up  into  the  body,  given  off  by 
the  fleshy  parts  of  the  base  ;  six,  at  least,  is  the  number  first  produced, 
other  ridges  arising  later  in  the  intervals  between  these.  From  the  outer 
edges  of  these  plates,  phlanges  may  grow  out  till  they  meet  one  another, 
and  make  a  hard  ring  supporting  the  ridges.  Sometimes,  too,  a  hard 
column  arises  from  the  centre  of  the  foot-plate;  this  is  called  the  columella. 
All  over  these  hard  ridges,  rings,  and  columns,  the  basal  skin  of  the  soft 
body  of  the  animal  fits  closely.  This  arrangement  is  doubtless  pro- 
tective, for,  on  being  disturbed,  the  whole  animal,  which  was  perhaps  seen  a 
moment  before  as  a  beautiful  Anemone,  with  expanded  tentacles,  collapses 


CORALS. 


705 


12.— THE  OTTP  CORAL 
(  Caryopn  yllia). 


between  the  projections,  and  nothing  is  seen  over  them  but  a  thin  shiny 

skin. 

Fig.  12  shows  us  the  skeletons  of  two  solitary  corals  which  have 
thus  built  up  their  pedestals  to  a  considerable 
height.  The  greater  number  of  coral  polyps, 
however,  do  not  remain  solitary,  but  are 
continually  producing  daughter  polyps,  whole 
families  together  forming  great  colonies,  each 
member  of  which  as  it  grows  adds  its  own  pedes- 
tal to  the  mass.  All  the  stony  corals  seen  in 
our  museums  are  but  the  complicated  skeletons, 
i.e.,  the  combined  pedestals  of  polyps  whose  soft, 
jelly-like  bodies  have  perished.  In  the  living 
state  these  hard  masses  were  covered  by  the  flesh 
of  the  animal  colony,  as  a  thin  layer  of  slimy 
matter.  The  individual  Sea-anemone-like  animals 
lurked  in  the  cavities,  rising  and  expanding  their 

tentacles  when  in  search  of  food,  but  drawing  them  back   under  shelter 

whenever  threatened  or  disturbed. 

Corals  are  usually  grouped  according  to  the  number  of  divisions,  compart- 
ments, or  "rays'"  in  their  bodies,  each  compartment,  as  in  the  Anemone, 

running  up  into  the  hollow  axis  of  a  tentacle. 

Six-rayed  polyps  have  six  tentacles  or  (approximately)  some  multiple  of 

six,  eighteen,  twenty-four,  forty-eight,  and  even  more. 

Eight-rayed  polyps  have  eight  tentacles  or  some  multiple  of  eight. 
Most  of  the  six-rayed  polyps  live  in  great  colonies,  their  skeletons  produc- 
ing the  chalky  masses  with  which  we  are  much  more  familiar  than  we  are 

with  the  living  animals.     One   important  family  of  the 

six-rayed  polyps,  however,  the  Fungidse,  or  Mushroom 

corals,  consists  of  single  individuals.    The  median  slit  seen  Corals  (Hexaciinia). 

along  the  surface  of  the  Mushroom  coral  (Fig.  13)  indicates 

the  position   of    the    mouth, 

while  the  many  jagged  ridges 

that  radiate   out  from  it  and 

give  the  whole  the  appearance 

of  an  inverted  mushroom  are 

the    hard,  stony   ridges    and 

partitions  over  which  the  body 

of  the  polyp  fits.     When  the 

polyp   is   expanded,    all    this 

skeleton  is  hidden  from  view 


The  Six-rayed 


by   the    beautifully   coloured  Fiy>  18.—  A  MUSHROOM  CORAL  (Fungia). 

soft  body,  the  whole  surface 

being  one  mass  of  tentacles,  often  of  a  vivid  green,  tipped  with  white. 
With  these  tentacles,  each  richly  provided  with  stinging  cells,  the  huge 
polyp  paralyses  and  masters  its  prey,  using  them  also  as  weapons  of  defence 
against  enemies.  When  disturbed,  the  whole  animal  sinks  down  among  the 
toothed  ridges,  which  project  through  without  actually  piercing  the  thin 
skin,  and  may  well  defy  any  enemy  to  touch  him.  These  Mushroom  corals, 
when  young,  are  cup-like  or  cylindrical  like  other  corals,  and  provided  with 
a  stalk  ;  as  they  grow,  the  sides  of  the  cup  get  flatter  and  flatter  until  the 
whole  becomes  quite  flat,  or  the  bottom  of  the  original  cup  rises  even  higher 
46 


7o6 


COELENTERA  TA  —II.   CNIDARIA . 


than  the  rim.  The  young,  as  a  rule,  bud  from  the  under  surface  of  the 
parent,  then  drop  off,  and  lie  loosely  on  the  rock  or  sea-bottom.  A  branched 
form  is  known  in  which  young  Fungia  drop  from  the  tips  of  branches. 

This  branching  condition,  which  is  exceptional  in  the  Mushroom  corals, 
is  the  rule  in  nearly  all  other  corals.  By  division  or  budding  of  various 
kinds  an  endless  variety  of  colonies  are  produced.  Sometimes,  as  among 

the  Zoophytes,  the  polyps  build  up 
branched  frameworks,  from  which 
at  intervals  they  protrude,  like 
flowers  from  a  branched  stalk. 
The  form  of  such  colonies  depends 
upon  the  intervals  separating  the 
polyps,  and  the  angle  at  which 
they  branch  out  from  the  parent 
individuals.  In  Fig.  14,  in  the 
coral  on  the  left,  the  polyps  are  far 
apart,  in  that  on  the  right  the 
budding  is  frequent  and  the  polyps 
crowded.  In  this  latter  case  the 
skeleton  is  penetrated  in  all  direc- 
tions with  canals  which,  for  a  cer- 
tain distance  below  the  surface, 
carry  food  juice  from  polyp  to 
polyp.  The  Madrepores,  of  which 
the  coral  to  the  right  of  Fig.  14  is 
an  example,  are  amongst  the  most 
important  builders  of  coral  reefs 
and  islands.  Other  coral  colonies  form  waving  plates,  often  beautifully 
frilled  at  the  edges,  the  polyps  usually  projecting  from  the  upper  surface  of 
the  plate.  The  variety  in  form  and  structure  of  coral  colonies  is,  indeed, 
almost  endless. 

Entirely  different  coral  forms  are  produced  by  polyps  which,  instead  of 
budding,  simply  divide  into  two  or  more  new  individuals.  In  Fig.  15  we 

have  a  hemispherical  mass,  the  surface 
of  which  is  thickly  set  with  star-like 
polyps  ;  some  are  seen  expanded,  with 
the  slit-like  mouths  in  the  centre  of  the 
disc,  others  are  in  a  retracted  condition. 
The  star-like  shape  of  the  polyps  in 
this  kind  of  coral  has  obtained  for  it  the 
name  of  star-coral.  On  such  a  mass  a 
larger  polyp  is  often  found  which  has 
two  mouths  instead  of  one  ;  a  row  of 
tentacles  forms  between  the  two 
mouths,  this  row  then  breaks  up 
into  two,  and  two  polyps  are  seen  on 
the  surface  where  only  one  was  before. 
In  this  case  we  have  complete  division  of  the  individuals,  for,  while  these 
outer  changes  have  been  going  on,  corresponding  changes  have  been  taking 
place  below  the  surface,  resulting  in  a  more  or  less  complete  division 
of  the  original  animal  into  two.  In  these  colonies,  the  whole  hemispherical 
mass,  which  may  grow  to  an  enormous  size,  is  built  up  layer  after  layer,  the 


Fiff.  14.-CORAL  COLONS. 
Dendrosoma.  Madrepora. 


Fig.  15. — THE  STAR  CORAI/  (Astrcea). 


CORALS.  707 


living  flesh  of  the  colony  never  forming  more  than  a  thin  layer  over  the 
surface. 

The  skeleton  of  the  Brain  Coral  (Fig.  16),  -which  is  distinguished  by  the 
systems  of  ridges  and  furrows  winding  over  its  surface,  is  builfc  up  in 
successive  layers  like  that  of  the  Star  Coral, 
bub  the  polyps  multiply  in  a  different 
manner.  Each  long  furrow  denotes  the 
former  home  of  a  large  polyp,  which  formed 
a  whole  row  of  new  mouths  without  dividing 
up  into  new  individuals.  Here,  therefore, 
we  have  incomplete  division  of  the 
individuals.  This  furrow  was  fringed  by 
tentacles  which  rose  above  the  ridges.  After 
a  certain  stage  of  elongation  of  the  polyp  was  Fig,  16.— BRAIN  CORAL  (Maeandrina). 
reached,  the  body  completed  itself,  as  it 

were,  with  a  new  row  of  tentacles  between  two  of  the  mouths,  and  so  a  new 
individual  was  started. 

While   budding  and   division   play   such  a  large  part  in  increasing  the 
number  of  polyps   forming  a  colony,  each  new  colony  itself  is  started  by 
another  method  of  reproduction.     Eggs,  which  form  on 
the  internal  partitions  or  septa  of  the  polyp,  give  rise  to       Development  of 
minute  larvae  that  swim  about,  first  within  the  body  of  Corals, 

the  parent,  and  then  in  the  open  water,  sometimes  for  as 
long  as  two  months.  Then  they  attach  themselves  by  one  end  to  a  rock  or 
some  other  surface,  and  begin  to  assume  the  polyp  shape,  tentacles  and 
mouth  developing  at  the  free  end  of  the  body,  and  the  hard  parts  form  as  in 
the  parent  animal.  Such  polyps,  by  budding  and  division,  found  new 
colonies. 

All  the  skeletons  we  have  as  yet  mentioned  are  more  or  less  massive  or 
stony,  as  is  usually  the  case  with  the  skeletons  of  the  six-rayed  polyps  (hence 
the  name  stony  corals),  but  some  colonies  of  this  division 
secrete  horny  instead  of  chalky  skeletons.  The  skeletons  The  Black  Corals 
of  the  Black  Corals  or  Antipatharia  form  branching  tufts  (Antipatharia). 
or  trees  of  horny  substance.  The  surface  of  the  branches 
appears  smooth  and  polished,  and,  in  some  of  the  larger  species,  resembles 
ebony.  These  corals  grow  to  a  great  height  as  single  trunks,  or  as  tree- 
like growths  ;  sometimes  the  separate  branches  fuse  to  produce  networks. 
In  such  coral  skeletons  there  are  none  of  the  traces  of  the  former  presence 
of  polyps  such  as  we  see  on  the  surface  of  the  stony  corals,  because  the 
branched  stem  is  merely  the  central  axis  of  the  living  colony  that  produced 
it  and  once  covered  it  with  a  soft  crust.  Out  of  this  crust  the  individual 
polyps  protruded  at  intervals.  The  hard,  rod-like  skeletons  of  the  Black 
Corals  are  used  by  natives  in  various  parts  of  the  world  for  dagger  handles, 
necklaces,  or  mouthpieces  for  pipes,  on  account  of  their  toughness  and 
susceptibility  to  polish. 

The  eight-rayed  polyps  differ  in  several  ways,  too  technical  for  us  to  enter 
upon,   from  the  six-rayed  polyps.      The  eight  tentacles  of  the  individual 
polyps    are    toothed    or    feathered,   and    form   a    more 
imposing  crown  than  do  the  simple  cylindrical  tentacles      The  Eight-rayed 
of  the   six-rayed  order.      The  hard   parts  produced   by     Corals  (Octactinia}. 
them,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  take  the  form  of  a  central 
axis  like  that  found  in  the  Black  Corals,  but  here  of  chalk  or  horn,  or  of 


7o8 


COELENTERA  TA—IL   CNIDARIA. 


Fig.  17.— ORGAN-PIPE  COHAL 
(Tubipora  musica). 


chalk  and  horn  alternately.     The  fleshy  crust  which  covers  the  axis,  and  out 

of  which  the  individual  polyps  protrude,  is 

supported    by   chalky    spicules    or    plates 

scattered  through  its  substance  (see  Fig. 

18).     There   are,  however,   massive  forms 

produced  by  the  eight-rayed  polyps  which 

have  no  central  skeletal  axis,  such  as  the 

Blue  Coral  (Heliopora)  and  the  Organ  Pipe 

Coral  (Fig.  17).     In  the  latter,  the  polyps 

grow  up   side   by   side   in   separate   tubes 

which  result  from  the  fusion  of  coloured 

chalky  spicules.     Those  tubes,  from  which 

the   coral   takes   its   name,   are,  at   regular   intervals,   joined    together  by 

platforms.      It  is  from  these  platforms,   where  the  interval  between  two 

tubes  is  considerable,  that  new  buds  arise  to  grow  up  alongside  of  the  older 

polyps.     Both  the  skeleton  and  the  soft  parts  of  this  colony  are  of  a  deep 

crimson,  the  tentacles  of  the  polyps  being  of  an  emerald  green. 

The  coral  we  probably  know  best  in  its  skeletal  condition,  the  Red  Coral 
of  commerce,  is  also  the  product  of  one  of  the  eight-rayed  corals.  Some 

idea  of  the  structure  of  this  coral  in  its  living 
condition  may  be  gained  from  the  diagram- 
atic  section  of  it  given  in  Fig.  18.  The 
central  hard  (chalky)  axis  answers  to  the 
smooth  red  branch  with  which  we  are 
familiar.  This  is  covered  by  a  layer  of  soft 
tubes,  some  of  which,  in  the  illustration,  are 
thrown  back  in  order  to  reveal  the  hard  axis, 
the  grooved  markings  on  which  show  where 
the  canals  ran.  These  tubes  convey  the 
nourishing  fluid  through  the  whole  colony, 
receiving  it  from  the  polyps  and  giving  it  off 
through  branches  connecting  them  with  the 
soft  crust  that  lies  over  them.  Throughout 
this  crust  star  or  plate-like  spicules  are 
scattered,  which  give  it .  some  degree  of 
firmness.  Three  polyps  are  seen  in  the 
illustration :  the  one  to  the  right  has  its 
fringed  tentacles  extended  in  search  of  prey, 
the  middle  one  is  in  a  retracted  condition,  and  that  to  the  left  is  cut  across 
to  show  the  partitions  in  the  body.  The  soft  bodies  of  these  polyps  are  pure 
white,  and  the  effect  of  their  feathered  tentacles,  projecting  here  and  there 
from  the  bright  red  crust,  is  very  beautiful. 

These  corals  form  tree-like  growths  often  several  feet  high,  and  are  very 
plentiful  in  the  Mediterranean.  Coral  fisheries  on  an  extensive  scale  are 
carried  on,  chiefly  by  Italians,  off  the  coasts  of  Italy,  Algiers,  and  Spain,  the 
corals  being  dredged  for  with  nets.  The  soft  living  crust  is  easily  removed, 
and  the  axis,  which  takes  a  high  polish,  is  used  for  ornamental  purposes. 

Though  the  two  corals  last  described,  the  Organ  Pipe  Coral  and  the  Red 
Coral  of  commerce,  as  well  as  a  few  other  of  the  Octactinia,  are  rigid 
growths,  in  the  majority  of  the  eight-rayed  corals,  which  have  horny  axial 
skeletons,  the  branches  are  not  hard  and  stiff  like  those  of  the  stony  corals, 
but  can  wave  about  with  the  motion  of  the  water,  the  brightly-coloured 


Fig.  18. — THE  RED  CORAL  OF  COM- 
MBRCB  (Corattum  rubrum). 


CORALS— CORAL  REEFS. 


709 


Fig.  19.—  SKA-PBN 
(Pennatula). 


living  jelly  that  covers  them  often  glistening  with  metallic  lustre.  Some- 
times the  delicate  branches  unite  to  "form  networks,  as  in  the  Sea-fans 
(Gorgonia).  In  other  cases  fine  branches  stand  out  from  a  central  shaft,  and 
the  whole  colony  resembles  a  feather  with  its  barbs. 
Fig.  19  represents  one  of  the  Sea-pens  belonging  to 
this  group.  The  lower  end  of  the  colony  does  not 
carry  any  polyps,  but  is  buried  in  sand  or  mud.  This 
is  a  peculiarly  beautiful  object  when  alive,  especially 
in  the  dark,  as  waves  of  phosphorescent  light  sweep 
over  the  surface  of  the  colony  and  make  it  glow  with 
indescribable  beauty.  It  is  these  graceful  and  vividly- 
coloured  corals  which  form  the  chief  adornments  of 
the  coral  reefs,  the  solid  rocks  of  which  are  derived 
from  the  harder  and  more  massive  skeletons  produced 
by  the  six-rayed  corals. 

The  marvellous  beauty  of  the  banks  covered  with 
living  corals  in  the  Red  Sea  and  elsewhere,  where 
shallow  water  enables  the  traveller  to  feast  his  eyes 
on  these  exquisite  growths,  has  often  roused  the 
enthusiasm  of  naturalists.  They  have  been  compared 
with  fields  or  gardens  of  the  choicest  and  most 
brilliantly-coloured  flowers  growing  in  the  richest 
profusion,  all  the  intervals  between  the  larger  growths 
being  filled  up  with  bright  moss,  which  is  itself  com- 
posed of  minute  corals.  Among  the  elegant  flowering 
shrubs  and  bushes  of  this  garden  brilliantly-coloured  fishes,  glittering  with 
metallic  lustre,  dart  to  and  fro  ;  Star-fishes,  Sea-urchins,  and  Snails  climb 
about  among  the  branches,  while  transparent  Crustaceans  and  Jelly-fish 
swarm  in  the  crystal  water  around. 

Before  quitting  the  Corals  we  must  briefly  recall  the  important  part  they 
have  played  in  Nature  in  helping  to  build  up  the  continents  which  we  now 
inhabit,  a  process  which  can  still  be  seen  going  on  in  the 
great  coral  reefs  and  islands  of  tropical  seas.     With  the     Coral    Reefs    and 
exception  of  a  few  unimportant  forms,  Corals  are  now  Islands, 

restricted  to  regions  within  30°  on  either  side  of  the 
equator,  the  more  important  reef-building  forms  being  able  to  carry  on  their 
life  activities  only  in  water  above  a  certain  temperature.  Even  within  these 
latitudes  corals  are  not  found  everywhere.  They  flourish  best  in  the  Indian 
Ocean,  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  the  Carribean  Sea,  where  the  reef-builders  are 
at  work  over  thousands  of  square  miles. 

A  coral  reef  is  a  bank  of  coral  rock  built  upon  the  shallow  sea-bottom 
immediately  surrounding  the  shores  of  tropical  lands.     Where  the  land  is 
edged  by  a  reef,  as  in  the  island  of  Mauritius,  the  ordinary 
beach  passes  into  a  flat  irregular  bank  terminating  at  a         The  Fringing 
varying  distance  from  land,   in   a  ridge  over  which  the  Reef, 

sea  continually  breaks.  This  bank,  which  is  called  a 
"  fringing  reef,"  is  almost  entirely  made  up  of  the  skeletons  of  colonies  of 
corals,  with  which,  however,  are  mixed  the  calcareous  remains  of  myriads  of 
molluscs,  sea-urchins  and  crabs,  and  the  tubes  of  the  tube-dwelling  worms 
which  haunt  every  cranny  and  crevice  of  coral  growths.  At  low  tide  broad 
expanses  of  the  coral  rock  are  to  be  seen  just  above  water  level,  strongly 
contrasting  with  the  usually  steep  shore  of  the  land  to  which  the  reef  forms 


;io  COELENTERATA—IL   CNIDARIA. 


a  margin.  At  high  tide,  except  when  a  retreating  wave  reveals  a  small 
portion  of  rock,  the  only  sign  of  the  presence  of  the  reef  is  the  line  of 
breakers  along  its  outer  edge,  where  the  shallow  water  suddenly  passes  into 
deep  water,  the  outer  side  of  the  reef  sloping  steeply  down  to  a  great  depth. 
Between  this  outer  edge  and  the  land  a  shallow  basin  or  channel  arises,  and 
here  the  water  is  usually  very  clear,  and  brilliantly-coloured  corals  are  seen 
covering  the  rocky  bottom. 

From  such  a  "  fringing  reef  "  there  arises,  in  process  of  time,  a  "  barrier 
reef."  The  channel  between  the  edge  of  the  reef  and  the  shore  tends  to 
widen,  the  corals  along  its  bottom  not  flourishing  so  well 
The  Barrier  Eeef.  as  those  along  the  outer  edge.  The  water,  too,  in  which 
they  are  condemned  to  live  receives  its  chief  additions  from 
rivers  or  streams  of  fresh  water  washing  down  mud  and  Band  from  the  land. 
The  corals  here,  indeed,  cannot  grow  fast  enough  to  repair  the  continual 
disintegration  which  is  going  on.  The  coral  colonies  at  the  edge  of  the  reef, 
on  the  contrary,  grow  luxuriantly,  continually  raising  the  level  of  the  reef 
and  carrying  it  out  to  sea.  It  seems  at  first  sight  strange  that  corals  exposed 
to  the  full  fury  of  the  breakers  should  thus  flourish  ;  this  is  no  doubt  due  to 
the  constant  supply  of  food  in  the  shape  of  minute  organisms  which  swarm 
in  the  open  sea.  Even  the  storms  which  often  break  up  the  coral  colonies 
into  fragments  help  on  the  work  they  are  doing,  as  the  broken  pieces  are 
thrown  up  on  the  reef  and  fill  up  all  interstices  left  in  it,  rendering  it  thus 
only  the  more  solid  and  complete.  Even  the  fragments  broken  off  can  give 
rise  to  new  colonies  if  only  the  living  polyps  retracted  within  their  stony 
cells  have  escaped  undamaged,  and  provided  also  that  their  new  position  is 
favourable  in  the  matter  of  food. 

Barrier  reefs  are  found  rising  up  like  ramparts  against  the  waves  even  as 
much  as  one  hundred  miles  from  the  shores  where  they  must  have  originated. 
They  thus  cover  vast  areas  of  the  sea-bottom.  The  Great  Barrier  Reef  off 
the  N.E.  coast  of  Australia  is  1100  miles  long,  the  distance  from  land  of  its 
outer  edge  being  usually  from  20  to  30  miles,  and  in  places  over  100  miles. 
Saville  Kent  computes  the  total  area  of  this  reef,  built  up  by  coral  polyps,  as 
at  least  80,000  square  geographical  miles  !  Over  the  whole  of  this  enormous 
area  of  coral  rock,  the  water  remains  comparatively  shallow,  while  the  outer 
edge  dips  down  almost  suddenly  into  as  much  as  1000  fathoms.  The  whole 
surface  of  such  a  reef  is  covered,  wherever  the  circumstances  are  favourable, 
with  living  masses  of  coral,  while,  in  the  large  areas  where  the  corals  cannot 
flourish,  the  reef  is  a  vast  conglomerate,  the  sand  and  fine  mud,  swept  about 
by  the  tides,  filling  up  the  interstices  between  the  skeletons  of  original  coral 
colonies. 

When  reefs  form  round  small  islands,  the  edge  of  the  reef  rising  a  little 

above  the  water,  a  coral  island  is  produced,  enclosing  a  lake  or  lagoon  out  of 

which  rises  the  original  island.     Such  circular  reefs  are 

Coral  Islands  and     also  found  surrounding  a  clear  lake  of  still  water  without 

Atolls.  any   island   in   the   middle  ;    these   latter   are  known  as 

*' atolls."     These  wonderful  products  of  the  coral  polyps 

are   a   very  marked   feature   of  tropical   seas,  to   the   beauty  of  which  they 

greatly  add.     The  reef  encircling  an  island  or  smooth  lagoon  becomes  raised 

above  the  level  of  the  surrounding  sea  by  the  debris  washed  up  upon  it ;   as 

a  rule,  however,  it  does  not  rise  more  than  a  few  feet  above  the  surface,  the 

sea  often  dashing,  at  the  narrower  parts,  over  into  the  enclosed  lagoon.     In 

other  cases,  it  may  rise  10  or  12  ft.  above  high  tide  and  may  be  covered 


CORAL  REEFS— SEA  GOOSEBERRY. 


711 


with  the  rich  verdure  of  the  tropics,  the  wind  and  birds  having  supplied  it 
with  seeds  as  soon  as  it  rose  above  the  waves.  The  enclosed  lake  is  often 
fringed  with  graceful  palms,  and  the  whole  island,  the  product  of  minute 
coral  polyps,  becomes  a  fruitful  habitation  for  man. 

These  different  kinds  of  reef  formations  were  all  traced  back  by  Darwin 
to  fringing  reefs,  and  accounted  for  by  the  subsidence  of  the  land  round 
which  these  reefs  originally  formed.  A  fringing  reef  would  gradually  become 
a  barrier  reef  as  the  land  on  which  it  stood  sank,  and  in  the  same  way,  a  reef 
surrounding  an  island  would  be  transformed,  after  subsidence  of  the  island, 
into  a  circle  of  coral  rock  enclosing  a  lake.  As  long  as  the  highest  points  of 
the  land  remained  above  water,  the  lagoon  would  contain  islands,  but,  when 
the  original  land  had  entirely  sunk  beneath  the  waves,  an  atoll  would  result. 
In  the  case  of  a  very  large  island,  surrounded,  as  New  Caledonia  now  is,  by 
a  barrier  reef,  the  gradual  sinking  of  the  land  would  lead  to  the  formation  of 
a  complicated  archipelago  of  islands,  like  that  of  the  Maladives  to  the  west 
of  Ceylon,  where  12,000  small  islands  appear  to  represent  a  huge  reef  which 
must  once  have  surrounded  a  vast  island  long  since  sunk  beneath  the  waves. 
Darwin's  theory  of  subsidence  has,  however,  recently  been  disputed,  and 
cannot  be  considered  as  fully  established. 

The  Ctenophora,  which  constitute  the  last  division  of  the  Cnidaria,  are 
beautiful,  almost  transparent,  marine  creatures,  either  more  or  less  round  in 
form,    or   else   flattened   out   in   the   shape    of    ribbons. 
Their  relationship  to  the  other  groups  is  still  a  matter  of      The  Ctenophora, 
uncertainty;   they  are  often  placed  near  the  Hydrozoa. 
The   animals   belonging    to   this   group    move   through   the   water,    mouth 
downward,  by  means  of  swimming  plates  or  "combs,"  from  which  they  take 
the   name    of  Ctenophora  or   Comb-bearers.      Eight 
rows  of  these  swimming  plates  run  from  pole  to  pole 
of  the  body,  each  plate  consisting  of  a  row  of  fine 
hairs  or  cilia   connected  at  their  bases,  but  capable 
of  independent  movement.     The  animal  can,  at  will, 
move  the  plates  either  separately  or  collectively,  and 
thus   bring   about  slow   locomotion   in   the   direction 
opposite  to  the  mouth,  and,  by  the  help  of  tentacles 
and   other  appendages,   twisting  and  swaying   move- 
ments can  also  take  place.     In  the  ribbon-like  forms 
muscular  contractions  bring  about  serpentine  move- 
ments. 

The  mouth  leads  into  a  stomach,  which,  again, 
opens  into  a  funnel  that  sends  off  eight  vessels,  which 
run,  in  meridians,  down  the  sides  of  the  body,  just 
below  the  eight  rows  of  swimming  plates.  The  animal 
is  usually  provided  with  tentacles  and  with  long 
"capturing  filaments"  (Fig.  20).  These  are  not 
armed,  like  the  tentacles  of  other  Cnidaria,  with 
stinging  cells,  but  with  small  knobs  on  coiled  stalks, 
which  are  called  ** adhesive"  cells.  These  are  not 
poisonous,  but  simply  sticky,  and  when  shot  out  at 
prey  entangle  it  and  prevent  its  escape.  They  differ  from  stinging  cells  also 
in  the  fact  that  they  are  not  finally  discharged  from  the  body,  but,  when 
the  prey  is  mastered,  can  be  drawn  in  again,  and  are  capable  of  functioning 
any  number  of  times. 


Fig.  20.— THH  SKA  Gooac- 
BKRRY  (Cydippe). 


712  COELENTERATA—IL   CNIDARIA. 


Another  peculiarity  of  the  Ctenophora  is  a  sensory  organ  always  found  at 
the  end  of  the  body  opposite  to  the  mouth.  This  somewhat  resembles  a 
small  weight  borne  on  springs,  and,  as  it  i3  sensitive  to  the  slightest  oscilla- 
tions of  the  body,  seems  to  enable  the  animal  to  regulate  its  position  in  the 
water. 

The  Sea  Gooseberry,  depicted  in  Fig.  20,  is  a  good  example  of  a  round 
Ctenophoran,  the  swimming  plates  and  long  capturing  filaments  being  well 
developed.  The  best  known  of  the  ribbon-like  forms  is  Venus's  Girdle 
(Cestus  veneris).  The  mouth  lies  at  the  centre  of  the  long,  transparent 
ribbon,  which  has  no  swimming  plates,  but  is  fringed  with  cilia.  When 
alarmed,  this  Ctenophoran  can  roll  up  either  or  both  ends  of  its  body 
spirally,  but,  when  undisturbed,  passes  through  the  water  with  a  graceful, 
undulating  motion.  Its  iridescent  colouring  makes  it  a  peculiarly  lovely 
object.  Other  Ctenophorans  are  barrel-shaped,  or  resemble  Phrygian  caps, 
and  many  are  beautifully  phosphorescent  at  night. 

Most  of  the  Ctenophora  feed  on  small  Crustaceans.  Some,  e.g.,  the 
Beroidse,  are  very  voracious,  devouring  creatures  of  their  own  kind,  and  often 
larger  than  themselves,  as  the  mouth  is  very  wide,  and  the  body  distensible. 
They  have  even  been  known  to  swallow  and  digest  fish. 

All  the  Ctenophora  multiply  by  means  of  fertilised  eggs  and  ciliated  larvae, 
which  only  very  gradually  attain  the  adult  form. 


SUB-KINGDOM  IX.— THE  PROTOZOA. 

ANIMALCULE. 
BY  HENRY  M.   BERNARD,  M.A.,  F.L.S.,  ETC.,  AND   MATILDA   BERNARD. 

THE  Protozoa,  or  first  animals,  are  distinguished  from  all  others  by  the  fact 
that  they  are  unicellular  organisms,  i.e.,  the  body  of  a  Protozoan  consists  of 
a  single  cell,  whereas  the  bodies  of  all  other  animals,  or  Metazoa,  are  built  up 
of  many  cells.  The  one-celled  Protozoan  is  capable  of  all  the  vital  functions 
of  feeding,  moving,  breathing,  and  reproducing  itself.  In  the  Metazoa,  the 
greater  number  of  the  living  cells  of  which  the  body  is  composed  are 
stationary  in  relation  to  one  another,  and  the  vital  activities  of  the  whole 
have  to  be  considered  apart  from  the  lives  of  the  individual  cells  building  it 
up.  We  accordingly  find  these  cells  arranged  into  organs  and  tissues,  each 
specialised  for  some  function  necessary  to  the  life  of  the  whole. 

The  Protozoan,  then,  is  a  free-living  cell  essentially  like  the  cells  which, 
organised  into  great  masses,  build  up  the  bodies  of  all  other  animals. 

All  the  Protozoa  are  of  microscopic  size,  and  are  therefore  removed  from 
ordinary  observation.  This  is  the  more  to  be  regretted  since  they  compare 
favourably  with  other  classes  of  animals  in  variety  and  beauty  of  form,  and 
probably  surpass  all  others  in  actual  number  of  existing  individuals.  At 
least  five  thousand  species  of  these  minute  creatures  are  known,  swarming, 
at  the  present  day,  in  salt  and  fresh  water  or  in  other  animal  organisms. 
There  are,  in  addition,  several  thousand  fossil  forms,  the  latter  representing, 
of  course,  only  those  Protozoa  of  past  ages  which  were  provided  with  a  shell 
or  skeleton  capable  of  preservation.  Countless  millions  of  such  shells  form 
the  chief  constituent  of  vast  areas  of  limestone  rocks  all  over  the  world's 
surface,  and,  in  some  more  or  less  transformed  condition,  enter  into  the  com- 
position of  a  large  part  of  the  earth's  crust.  Vast  numbers,  again,  are  daily 
being  deposited  on  the  sea-bottom  to  form  the  rocks  of  future  ages.  Nine- 
tenths  of  the  ooze  over  the  greater  part  of  the  North  Atlantic  consists  of 
the  shells  of  Protozoans,  and  one  ounce  of  sand  from  the  Naples  shore  yields 
no  fewer  than  one  and  a  half  million  of  their  shells  or  parts  of  such  shells. 

The  very  lowest  of  the  Protozoa,  that  is,  the  very  simplest  of  all  animals, 

called  the  Monera,  are  mere  microscopic  particles  of  living  jelly  or  protoplasm, 

in  which,  so  far,  no  definite  structure  has  been  discovered. 

The  Monera.  In  all  other  Protozoa,  however,  some  differentiation  of 
the  protoplasmic  body  has  been  found.  Among  many 
minute  granular  particles  scattered  about  in  the  jelly,  there  is  always  one 
body  (sometimes  more  than  one)  somewhat  larger  than  the  granules,  and 
different  in  character  from  the  rest.  This  usually  rounded  body  is  known  as 
the  nucleus. 

713 


714 


PROTOZOA. 


The  lowest  of  the  nucleated  Protozoa  are  the  Rhizopoda  or  root-footed 

animals,  a  name   given  to  them  on  account  of  their  manner  of  moving  by 

means   of   root-like    prolongations    of    the   body.      The 

The  Rhizopoda.        simplest  of  these  Rhizopoda  is  the  Amoeba,  which  has 

been  called  the  Proteus  animalcule  because  of  its  constant 

changes  of  shape.     These  animalcules  are  to  be  found  in  most  rain-water 

puddles  and  in  ponds,  and  when  seen  under  the  microscope  might  escape 

observation  as  mere  specks  of  clear  jelly-like  matter,  yet  the  careful  observer 

will  find  that  each  such  speck  is  capable  of  moving  about  and  feeding,  and, 

indeed,  can  be  proved  to  be  living,  carrying  on  all  those  functions  which, 

taken  together,  we  designate  as  life. 

If  a  Proteus  animalcule  is  magnified  about  three  or  four  hundred  times  the 
following  important  points  can  be  noted  :— (1)  It  is  naked,  i.e.,  it  has  no 
cuticle  or  shell.      (2)  The  surface  layer  of  protoplasm, 
The  Amoeba.          though  not  forming  a  skin,  is  clear  and  glassy,  and  com- 
pletely envelops  the  more  fluid  and  granular  inner  portion 
of   the  Amoeba.       (3)  Among  these  granules  can   be  seen  the  nucleus  and 
foreign  particles,   taken   in   as   food,   the   remains   of   such   particles,    and 

other  bodies  not  understood.  (4)  Lastly,  if  the 
Amoeba  is  carefully  watched,  a  round  space,  like 
a  bubble,  appears,  increases  in  size,  and  then 
instantaneously  disappears,  forming  again  at 
another  spot.  This  is  the  contractile  vesicle 
which  is  thought  to  collect  the  waste  products 
of  the  body  and  to  eject  them  when  it  con- 
tracts. 

The  Amoeba  is  seen  to  change  its  shape 
slowly  by  protruding  at  certain  points  finger- 
like  or  knob-like  processes  which  are  called 
pseudopodia  or  make-believe  feet.  Its  exceed- 
ingly slow  movements  over  the  surface  of  plants 
or  other  submerged  objects,  or  through  the 
water,  are  all  made  by  the  extension  of  pseudo- 
podia  in  one  direction  and  corresponding  with- 
drawal on  another  side,  the  whole  body  seeming 
to  flow  on  along  its  pseudopodia.  If,  in  its  course, 
it  meets  with  minute  plant  cells  suitable  for 
food,  it  admits  them  into  its  body  at  any  point,  retains  them  within  it  for  a 
time,  while  it  evidently  assimilates  some  nourishment  from  them,  and  then 
flows  on,  the  indigestible  remains  of  its  meal  being  left  behind.  The 
manner  in  which  the  Amoeba  breathes  cannot  be  seen,  but  the  fact  that  it 
breathes  is  indisputable,  for  if  the  water  in  which  Amoebae  are  kept  is 
deprived  of  its  free  oxygen,  the  assimilation  of  which  is  what  is  meant  by 
breathing,  the  animals  become  rigid  and  lifeless. 

When,  in  consequence  of  the  nourishment  derived  from  the  assimilated 
particles,  an  Amoeba  has  grown  to  a  certain  limit,  its  shape  becomes  that  of 
a  dumb-bell  (Fig.  1,  B),  the  nucleus  divides  into  two,  each  end  of  the  dumb- 
bell containing  one  of  the  new  nuclei,  the  connecting  part  narrows  more  and 
more,  and  finally  the  two  ends  separate  completely  (Fig.  1,  C),  and  each 
half  (or  '*  daughter  ")  repeats  the  simple  life  activities  of  the  original  whole 
(or  "mother* ").  These  terms  mother  and  daughter  at  first  sight  appear 
hardly  justifiable,  yet  we  now  know  that  all  reproductive  processes,  even  in 


Fig.  1.— A,  B,  C. 

A  PROTEUS  ANIMALCULB  (Amoeba} 

in  three  stages. 


ANIMALCULES. 


715 


the  highest  animals,  are  but  specialisations  of  this  simple  dividing  up  of 
living  cells. 

The  Amoeba  has  been  described  somewhat  fully,  as  a  simple  type  of  the 
Root-footed  animals.  Many  different  kinds  of  Amcebse  have  been  distin- 
guished, varying  in  the  characters  of  the  pseudopodia  and  in  other  respects, 
but  they  all  agree  in  being  single  cells  of  granulated  protojlasm,  containing 
a  nucleus,  and  moving  and  feeding  by  means  of  pseudopodia. 

In  the  group  next  above  the  Amoebae,  the  Foraminifera,  the  protoplasm 
of  the  central  body  is  no  longer  naked.      The  animal  assimilates  from  the 
water    in    which    it   lives    the    necessary    material    for 
surrounding  itself  with  a  chitinous  or  shelly  covering,  or     The  Foraminifera. 
perhaps  it  utilises  its  own  waste  products  for  this  purpose. 
This  shell,  in  some   of  the  Foraminifera,  is  merely  a  delicate  case  within 
which  the  soft  body  lives.     In  others,  grains  of  sand,  or  sponge  spicules  are 
obtained  from  without  and  embodied  in  the  shell. 

For  the  purposes  of  movement,  the  animal  sends  out  pseudopodia  into  the 
surrounding  water  through  the  openings  in  its  shell.  The  Foraminifera  have 
been  divided  into  the  Perforate  and  the 
Imperforate,  according  as  the  pseudopodia 
protrude  through  small  openings  scattered 
all  over  the  surface  of  the  shell,  or  through 
only  one  or  two  large  openings.  The  shells 
depicted  in  Fig.  3  are  those  of  Perforate 
Foraminifera,  while  in  Fig.  2  we  have  an 
Imperforate  form,  the  egg-shaped  Gromia. 
In  this  latter,  the  protoplasm  streams  out 
at  one  aperture,  breaks  up  into  numberless 
fine  threads  which,  here  and  there,  run 
together,  forming  thicker  patches.  The 
whole  surface  of  the  simple  shell  has  also 
become  covered  with  a  thin  layer  of 
protoplasm.  If  any  small  plant  cell  or 
other  particle  suitable  for  food  touches  one 
of  the  pseudopodia,  other  threads  flow 
together  round  it,  and  it  is  slowly  drawn  in 
towards  the  aperture  and  passed  into  the 
body.  Such  particles  of  food  can  often  be 
seen,  as  in  the  illustration,  within  the  body 
of  a  Gromia. 

The  shells  of  the  Perforate  Foraminifera 
are  very  varied  in  form.  Sometimes  they 
consist  of  many  chambers,  for  the  proto- 
plasm, as  it  grows,  has  not  room  in  the 
one  little  chamber  with  which  it  at  first  surrounds  itself,  and  adds  another 
from  time  to  time,  each  chamber,  however,  remaining  in  communication  with 
the  last  by  means  of  one  or  more  minute  apertures  through  which  a  thread 
or  threads  of  protoplasm  pass.  The  inner  protoplasm  can  also  stream  out 
in  all  directions  through  the  perforations  in  the  sides  of  the  shell. 

A  few  of  the  many  forms  assumed  by  the  shells  of  such  Foraminifera 
are  given  in  Fig.  3.  Some  are  more  or  less  flattened,  like  coins,  and  have 
therefore  been  called  Nummilites(Fig.3,  A) ;  others  are  flask-shaped  (C);  others 
again  closely  resemble  the  shells  of  the  Ammonite  or  the  Nautilus  (B) ;  in  fact, 


•Fig.  2. -GROMIA  OVIFORMIS. 


7i6 


PROTOZOA. 


Fig.  3.—  SIIBLLS  OF  FORAMINIFERA. 

A,  Nummulites. 

B,  Nonionina. 

C,  Lagena. 

D,  Globigerina. 

E,  Milliola. 


such  forms  were  long  considered  to  be  minute  Molluscs.     The  shells  of  the 

Globigerina,  or  globe- bearers (D),  help  largely  to  build  up  Chalk.   They  are  said 

to  constitute  almost  one-third  of  the  ooze 
covering  vast  areas  of  the  sea-bottom  in 
the  North  Atlantic.  Milliolite  shells  (E) 
are  the  chief  constituent  of  the  stone  of 
which  the  houses  of  Paris  are  built. 
Nummilitic  limestones  cover  an  enormous 
area  of  Central  and  Southern  Europe, 
North  Africa,  West  Asia,  and  India.  All 
limestones  indeed  abound  in  the  shells  of 
Foraminifera,  some  species  being  found 
in  the  Coal  formations  also. 

The  Foraminifera  nearly  all  live  in  the 
sea,  creeping  along  its  bottom  ;  but  some 
float  about.  Young  ones  are  produced  by 
the  breaking  up  of  the  protoplasm  into 
small  portions,  which  secrete  their  charac- 
teristic shelly  covering  before  leaving  the 
body  of  the  parent.  Some  young  Fora- 
minifera have  very  simple  single^  shells,  but  others  are  provided  from  the  first 

with  a  three-chambered  shell. 

Passing  from  those   Protozoa   whose   protoplasmic    processes  are  mere 

protrusions   of   the   soft  body  showing   no  definite   shape,  but   constantly 

varying,    we   come   to   others   in   which   these   body   processes  are   highly 

specialised,  and  here  again  we  have  naked  and  shelled  forms. 

The    Heliozoa,    or   Sun    animalcules    (Fig.     4),    have    straight,    ray-like 

pseudopodia,  which,  however,  are  not  rigid,  but  when  brought  in  contact 

with    particles    of    food, 
The  Heliozoa,        can  contract  or  bend  so  ..      , 

as   to  draw  them  in  to-  \  \     :  ,  / .  /    / 

wards    the    body.       Sometimes    a    minute 

animalcule,  touching  one  of  the  rays,  appears 

to  become  paralysed  and  to  glide  down  the 

pseudopodium  to  its  root,  where  a  protruding 

part  of  the  protoplasm  can  draw  in  it.     In 

most  of  the  Heliozoa  the  body  is  naked,  and 

the  contractile  vesicle  is  very  conspicuous, 

often   growing  to  a  very  large  size  at  the 

edge  of  the  body,  and  bursting  with  such 

violence    as   to  shake    the    whole    animal. 

Some  idea  of  the  size  of  these  animalcules 

Can  be  gained  from  the  fact  that  four  hundred 

of    them    set    closely  side  .by   side  would 

measure   an   inch.      In   spite   of   the  formidable   rays  by  which  the   Sun 

animalcule  is  surrounded,  it  often  falls  a  prey  to  a  simple  Amoeba,  which 

either  envelops  the  whole  animalcule  or  tears  out  portions  of  its  soft  body. 

Next  in  order  above  the  Sun  animalcules,  and  far  more  complicated  in 

appearance  on  account  of  their  elaborate  skeletons,  are 

The  Kadiolaria.      the  Ray  animalcules   or  Radiolaria.      In  these  the  soft 

body  is  not,  as  in  the  Foraminifera,  enclosed  in  an  almost 

continuous  outer  shell,  but  the   hard  matter,  usually  of  a  flinty  nature, 


-'  /'/i.V'rv 


Fig.  4. — THE  SUN  ANIMALCULE 
(Actinophrys  sol). 


ANIMALCULES.  717 


derived  from  the  surrounding  water,  takes  the  form  of  rods  or  spikes  which 
pierce  the  soft  body,  and  also  often  form  some  kind  of  protective  framework 
around  it.  Another  peculiarity  of  the  Radiolaria  is  that  the  soft  body  is 
divided  into  an  inner  portion,  containing  the  nucleus  and  enclosed  in  a 
gelatinous  membrane  called  a  capsule,  and  ari  outer  portion  which  surrounds 
the  other  and  is  itself  enclosed  in  a  gelatinous  envelope.  The  inner  capsule 
is  perforated  so  that  the  inner  protoplasm  can  pass  outward,  while  the  outer 
protoplasm  sends  out  radiating  threads  in  all  directions  through  the  number- 
less fine  perforations  of  its  envelope. 

A  vast  number  of  exquisite  forms  assumed  by  the  skeletons  of  the  Radio- 
laria were  found  in  the  dredgings  made  by  the  Challenger  expedition.  Some 
of  these  skeletons  consist  only  of  spines  radiating  from  the  centre  which, 
however,  are  often  beautifully  sculptured  or  branched  ;  in  one  form  the 
number  of  the  spines  is  always  twenty,  and  these  are  arranged  with  absolute 
regularity  at  definite  angles  to  each  other.  The  whole  animal  often  has  the 
appearance  of  a  spiny  ball  (Fig.  5,  A).  In  other  cases  the  hard  rods,  which 


Fig.  5.— SKELETONS  OF  RADIOLARIA. 
C,  Actinomma.  B,  Lithomelissa.  A,  Acanthometra. 

form  the  constituent  elements  of  all  these  skeletons,  may  be  arranged  so  as 
to  form  a  framework  or  network  outside  the  protoplasm  with  hexagonal 
apertures.  Such  a  framework  may  be  more  or  less  round  for  a  time,  and 
then  a  second  framework  may  be  added  below  the  first  with  a  wide  opening 
at  its  base — the  whole  having  the  appearance  of  a  helmet  ornamented  at 
definite  points  with  a  few  of  the  characteristic  spines  that  pierce  the  inner 
protoplasm  (B).  Sometimes  a  whole  series  of  fenestrated  balls  is  produced, 
one  outside  the  other  (C),  recalling  the  elaborate  carved  ivory  spheres  of  the 
Chinese.  In  the  illustration,  some  of  the  outer  spheres  have  been  broken 
through  to  show  the  inner  structure.  Such  successive  spheres  are  firmly 
united  together  by  means  of  cross  rods  or  of  the  characteristic  spines. 

The  Radiolaria  are  all  found  in  salt  water,  but,  unlike  the  Foraminifera, 
float  near  the  surface.  Their  skeletons  form  an  important  element  in  the 
rocks  of  Sicily  and  Greece;  and  the  "Barbadoes  earth,"  which  is  used  for 
polishing,  is  mainly  composed  of  the  flinty  skeletons  of  Radiolarians.  Although 


7i8 


PROTOZOA. 


there  is  little  doubt  that  Radiolaria  abounded  in  the  seas  where  the  great 
Chalk  beds  were  deposited,  they  are  not  found  in  chalk;  their  siliceous 
skeletons  probably  having  been  dissolved  and  re-deposited  as  flint. 

In  the  next  division  of  the  Protozoa,  we  find  animals  in  which  the  proto- 
plasmic processes  of  the  body  are  still  further  specialised.     They  no  longer 
send  out  indefinite  pseudopodia  for  creeping  slowly  along 
The  Flagellata.       on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  nor  do  they  float  free  in  the 
water,  the  protoplasm  streaming  out  on  all  sides  in  fine 
rays.   We  now  have  only  one  or  two  processes  adapted  for  locomotion  through 
the  water,  and  these  are  long  and  whip-like.     These  whips  or  "flagella,'1  at 
the  anterior  end  of  the  body,  by  their  constant  movement,  drag  it  along 
rapidly  through  the  water. 

Some  of  the  simplest  of  these  Flagellata  are  so  very  like  vegetable  cells, 
that  they  were  long  excluded  from  the  animal  kingdom.  It  is,  indeed, 
impossible  to  draw  any  very  hard  and  fast  line  between  the  lowest  plant  and 
animal  cells,  and,  as  authorities  are  still  more  or  less  divided  in  opinion, 
such  simple  Flagellates  may  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  a  border  land. 
One  point  in  which  many  of  the  Flagellata  resemble  vegetable  cells 
is  colour.  The  Protozoa  of  other  divisions  are  usually  colourless  and 
transparent,  whereas  many  Flagellates  are  of  a  bright  red,  yellow,  brown, 
or  green.  Some  of  the  simplest  of  these  animalcules  (Fig.  6,  A)  as  they 
dart  across  the  microscopic  field  by  the  help  of  their  whips,  which,  on 
account  of  the  rapidity  of  their  movements  are  for  the  time  invisible, 

sparkle  like  minute  emeralds.  Some  of 
the  red  Flagellata,  when  swarming  in 
great  numbers,  produce  large  red 
patches  on  the  sea.  Other  forms  shine 
with  phosphorescent  light,  and  cause 
the  beautiful  glow  often  seen  among  the 
breakers  on  a  shore  at  night.  Thirty 
thousand  animalcules  are  said  to  be 
contained  in  one  cubic  inch  of  such 
phosphorescent  water. 

Some  of  theFlagellata  are  distinguished 
by  a  collar-shaped  projection  round  the 
depression  from  which  the  whip-like 
appendage  rises  (Fig.  6,  D),  others  by 
taking  in  food  at  one  spot  only  of  the 
body,  i.e.,  at  the  base  of  the  chief  whip 
(C).  A  shelly  covering  is  present  in 

some  forms,  in  which  it  may  resemble  a  cuirass  or  may  be  prolonged  into 
several  sharp,  horn-like  processes  (E).  These  horny  cases  are  often  found  in 
Chalk  rocks. 

The  Flagellata  do  not  always,  like  the  creatures  -we  have  hitherto  described, 

lead  independent  lives,  each  individual  feeding,  moving,  etc.,  on  its  own 

account.      They  are   often   found    grouped    together   in 

Flagellate  colonies,   the  various  individuals   composing  the  colony 

Colonies.  being  united  by  a  common  mass  of  protoplasm.      The 

manner  in  which  such  colonies  arise  is  interesting  and 

important,  inasmuch  as,  from  this  primitive  grouping  of  single  cells  to  form 

simple  colonies,  complex  and  highly  organised  colonies  arose,  culminating  in 

the  bodies  of  the  higher  animals,  which  are  in  reality  gigantic  colonies  of 


Fig.  6. — FLAGELLATA. 
A ,  Euglena. 
J5,  Chilomonas. 

C,  Noctiluca. 

D,  Monosig'a. 

E,  Ceratium. 


COLONIES  OF  ANIMALCULES. 


719 


countless  living  cells  arranged  into  organs,  each  with  its  own  special  function 
to  perform  for  the  life  of  the  whole.  Single  cells  multiply  in  several  ways, 
the  simplest  being  that  of  the  Amoeba,  which,  creeping  along  the  ground, 
parts  into  two  daughter  Amcebre ,  each  of  which  creeps  on  its  separate  way. 
In  the  case  of  free- swimming  cells,  like  the  Flagellata,  separation  into  two 
might  not  be  so  easy,  especially  if  the  mechanism  of  locomotion  is  not  very 
powerful  as  compared  with  the  size  of  the  body.  In  such  creatures  the  cells, 
though  actually  dividing,  need  not  finally  separate,  but  may  swim  about  in 
contact  with  one  another  j  and,  if  successive  generations  of  cells  thus  remain 
together,  simple  colonies  arise.  Several  balls  made  up  of  flagellate  cells 
are  known,  in  which  all  the  whips  of  the  component  cells  are  turned 
outward,  and,  by  their  movement,  send  the  whole  colony  rolling  along 
through  the  water.  The  best  known  of  these  is  Volvox  globator,  which,  on 
account  of  the  bright  green  colour  in  its  cells,  is  often  claimed  as  a  plant/ 

It  is  clear  again  that  colonies  may  also  arise  by  the  dividing  up  of  cells 
which  are  stationary.  The  daughter  cells  in  this  case  may  either  grow  up 
simply  alongside  of  the  parent,  or  may 
branch  out  from  it.  We  are,  however, 
fairly  safe  in  assuming  that  all  the  higher 
animals  arose  from  free-swimming,  and 
not  from  stationary  colonies,  a  stationary 
manner  of  life  being  but  little  conducive 
to  progress.  In  Fig.  7,  A,  we  see 
stationary  colonies  of  Flagellata  which, 
but  for  the  stalk  of  attachment,  some- 
what resemble  Volvox  above  mentioned. 
Another  stationary  colony  is  seen  in  the 
same  figure  (B),  and  is  formed  by  the 
contiguous  tubular  sheaths  of  a  number 
of  flagellate  cells,  each  provided  with 
two  whips.  This  colony  forms  folded, 
fan-like  growths,  the  height  of  the 
whole  structure  being  often  not  more 
than  T\  of  an  inch.  Collared  Flagel- 
lates also  form  colonies,  sometimes 
being  grouped  together  in  flower-like 
bunches  on  stalks,  as  in  Fig.  7,  C,  or 
floating  about  freely  with  the  collars  and  whips  projecting  from  a  mass  of 
common  protoplasm.  A  colony  of  this  latter  sort  has  been  named  Protos- 
pongia,  as  it  seems  to  foreshadow  the  arrangement  of  somewhat  similar 
collared  cells  found  in  the  Sponges. 

Returning,  however,  to  the  Flagellata  which  remain  single,  i.e.,  do  not 
form  colonies,  reproduction  takes  place  among  them  in  several  different 
ways.  Some  Flagellata  simply  break  up  into  parts,  like  the  Amoeba,  others 
detach  only  small  pieces  of  their  bodies,  each  piece  developing  into  a  new 
animal,  a  process  which  is  called  budding  or  gemmation  ;  others,  again, 
reproduce  themselves  by  a  kind  of  internal  budding  called  spore-formation. 
The  whole  inside  of  the  animal  divides  into  a  great  number  of  minute 
"spores,"  each  of  which,  after  resting  a  while,  grows  into  an  animal  like 
the  parent.  The  Noctiluca  (Fig.  6,  C),  for  instance,  which  causes  the 
marine  phosphorescence  already  alluded  to,  may  pass  through  a  resting  stage 
when  it  loses  its  whip  and  looks  like  a  mere  gelatinous  ball  (it  is  then  said 


Fig,  7.— FLAGELLATE  COLONIES. 

A,  Anthro^hysa. 

B,  Rhipidodendron. 

C,  Codosig*. 


720  PROTOZOA. 


to  be  encysted).  The  protoplasm  seems  to  collect  in  one  part  of  the  cyst 
and  to  break  up  into  minute  nodules.  These  nodules,  which  are  called 
spores,  raise  up  the  outer  surface  into  prominences,  and  finally,  when 
mature,  pass  through  the  wall  of  the  cyst,  develop  whips  of  their  own,  and 
swim  about  freely  as  young  individuals  known  as  **  swarm  spores." 

Leaving  now  for  a  moment  those  Protozoa,  which  are  rising  higher  and 
higher  in  the  scale  of  organic  life,  we  must  notice  a  group  which  shows 
curious  degeneration,  the  Gregarinse.  These  creatures 
The  Gregarinae.  possess  neither  pseudopodia  nor  flagella  :  they  can  only 
move  very  slowly  by  a  kind  of  contraction  of  the  proto- 
plasm just  below  the  outer  surface,  which,  being  somewhat  different  from 
the  rest  of  the  body,  we  may  call  the  "skin."  These  animalcules  are  all 
parasites,  hence  their  degradation.  They  have  managed  to  get  into  the 
bodies  of  animals  higher  than  themselves,  and  are  able  to  draw  in  as 
food,  through  the  whole  surface  of  the  body,  the  juices  of  their  "host" 
without  any  exertion  on  their  own  part,  They  are  very  common  in  the 
bodies  of  all  classes  of  animals  from  the  worms  upward,  each  kind  of 
Gregarina  having  its  own  special  feeding  ground  in  some  part  of  a 
higher  animal.  One  species,  for  instance,  is  only  found  in  the  gills 
of  a  small  Crustacean,  another  in  the  liver  of  the  Rabbit,  and  so  on. 
The  only  kind  of  outward  appendages  ever  found  in  these  creatures 
are  hooks  which  enable  them  the  better  to  attach  themselves  to  their 
victims.  The  chief  life  activity  in  these,  as  in  most  other  parasites, 
is  reproduction,  which  takes  place  by  spore-formation.  Two  or  more  of 
the  worm-shaped  Gregarinse  fuse  together,  become  encysted,  and,  after  a 
time,  produce  spores,  which  are  released  by  the  bursting  of  the  cyst.  Each 
spindle-shaped  spore  develops  into  an  independent  individual,  being  sup- 
plied by  its  immediate  surroundings  with  appropriate  nourishment. 

We  pass  on  from  these  degenerate  creatures  to  the  highest  of  the  Pro- 
tozoa, the  Infusoria,  so-called  on  account  of  being  found  in  infusions — i.e., 
in  water  in  which  decaying  animal  or  vegetable  matter 
The  Infusoria.  has  been  soaked,  and  in  which  it  was  at  one  time  thought 
that  they  bred  spontaneously. 

In  the  Infusorians  the  protoplasm  of  the  body  shows  more  variety  than 
in  any  other  Protozoans.  Not  only  is  the  outer  surface  of  the  body  dis- 
tinctly unlike  the  inner  protoplasm,  but  it  is  more  or  less  covered  with  very 
fine  hairs  or  cilia  (literally  eyelashes),  which  promote  its  motion.  It  is 
sometimes  provided  with  hooks  or  bristles  as  well,  by  means  of  which  it  can 
creep  or  hang  on  to  other  objects.  At  one  definite  spot  there  is  a  simple 
mouth,  from  which  a  depression  often  leads  into  the  interior  of  the  body. 
The  mouth  is  usually  encircled  by  cilia,  which,  by  their  rapid  vibrations, 
keep  up  a  kind  of  whirlpool,  and  bring  particles  of  food  within  reach.  As 
the  food,  which  passes  on  into  the  body  along  the  tube,  is  absorbed,  definite 
streamings  in  certain  directions  can  be  made  out  in  the  granulated  proto- 
plasm. The  indigestible  portions  of  the  food  are,  in  some  forms,  ejected  at 
a  definite  part  of  the  body.  The  nucleus  is  not  always  round — it  may  be 
horse-shoe-shaped,  or  ribbon-like,  or  it  may  even  resemble  a  string  of  beads. 
There  are  often  several  contractile  vesicles. 

The  Infusoria  are  very  plentiful  in  fresh  water  :  they  prey  upon  each 
other,  and  sometimes  upon  higher  animals,  such  as  Rotifers.  Some  are 
parasites. 

There  are  Ciliated  Infusorians  and  Tentacled  Infusorians. 


ANIMALCULES. 


721 


The  Ciliated  Infusorians  are  classed  according  to  the  arrangement  of  their 
cilia.      These  sometimes  cover  the  whole   surface  of  the  body,  as  in  the 

Slipper  animalcule  (Fig.  8,  A), 
which  is  very  common  in  pond 
water  or  in  infusions  of  hay,  and 
measures  from 
inch  in  length, 
the  distinction 


A  3 

Fig.  8.— CILIATED  INFUSORIA. 
A,  Paramoecium. 
JS,  Stentor. 


g  to  ih  of  an 
In  this  Protozoan, 
between  the  outer 
part  of  the  body  and  the  inner 
granulated  part  is  very  clear,  and 
the  mouth  and  tube  leading  from  it 
are  very  evident.  In  the  outer 
"skin"  a  number  of  small  oval 
bodies  can  be  seen  pointing  out- 
wards. These,  which  are  known  as 
trichocysts,  are  minute  bags  contain- 
ing threads  which  can  be  shot  out 
of  them  and  are  probably  used  as  a 
defence  against  enemies.  These 
structures  recall  the  stinging  threads 
of  the  Coelenterates,  but  are  still 
more  wonderful  as  the  products  of  a 
single  cell. 

In  the  next  division  of  the 
Ciliated  Infusorians,  very  fine  cilia 
cover  the  surface  of  the  body,  while 
longer  ones  encircle  the  mouth.  The  Trumpet  animalcules  (Fig.  8,  B), 
usually  about  •£$  of  an  inch  in  length,  are  found  moving  about  freely  in 
the  water  or  attached,  either  singly  or  in  groups,  to  some  submerged 
object  by  the  narrowed  end  of  the  body.  The 
lower  part  of  the  body  is  sometimes  protected 
by  a  kind  of  sheath  or  case.  The  wide  opening 
at  the  free  end  which  surrounds  the  mouth  is 
fringed  with  long  and  strong  cilia.  In  order  to 
multiply,  these  Trumpet  animalcules  divide  into 
two,  a  new  mouth  and  oral  fringe  forming  on  the 
parent  animal  before  division. 

The  Infusorians  of  the  next  division  have  smooth 
bodies,  the  cilia  being  usually  confined  to  the 
region  round  the  mouth  ;  in  some  cases,  how- 
ever, a  second  band  of  cilia  surrounds  some  other 
part  of  the  body.  Some  of  the  attached  Infusorians 
of  this  kind  surround  themselves  with  a  slipper- 
shaped  case  of  protoplasm,  which  helps  to  protect 
the  soft  part  of  the  body,  and  can,  when  necessary,  almost  entirely  cover  it. 
As  a  rule,  however,  the  mouth  end,  with  its  circle  of  cilia,  protrudes  from 
the  aperture  of  the  case  in  search  of  food.  Other  forms  attach  themselves 
by  stalks  which  are  contractile,  and  can,  by  coiling  up  spirally,  quickly  with- 
draw the  animal  from  any  threatening  danger. 

The  Bell  animalcules,  when  watched  under  the  microscope,  afford  a  very 
interesting  example  of  the  complexity  of  life  and  movement  which  may  be 
attained  by  the  single  cell.     When  the  water  in  which  they  are  is.  for  any 
47 


Fiff,9.— GROUP  OP  BFMJ 
ANIMALCULES  (V  orticellidae). 


722 


PROTOZOA. 


reason,  in  a  state  of  disturbance,  the  minute  gelatinous  balls  lie  hidden  close 
to  the  surface  of  some  water  weed  at  the  ends  of  their  tightly  coiled  stalks, 
and  thus  easily  elude  observation.  But  if  the  water  is  at  rest,  the  observer, 
through  the  microscope,  will  see  them  gradually  emerge  from  their  place  of 
refuge,  one  individual  after  another  rising  into  view  on  its  slowly  uncoiling 
stalk,  the  ball  lengthening  and  assuming  the  shape  of  a  bell  about  ^\^  of  an 
inch  in  length.  Long  cilia,  fringing  a  spiral  membrane  which  can  be  pro- 
truded beyond  the  aperture  of  the  bell,  wave  about  in  the  water,  and  bring 
within  reach  particles  of  food  that  are  swept  down  a  groove  leading  to  the 
inner  protoplasm.  As  such  a  group  of  Bell  animalcules  is  watched,  one 
individual  or  another  suddenly  vanishes,  being  drawn  down  instantaneous^ 
by  the  contraction  of  its  stalk,  while  others  more  gradually  come  into  sight. 
These  animalcules  multiply  by  dividing  lengthwise  ;  the  young  form,  when 
provided  with  its  circle  of  cilia,  breaks  loose  from  the  parent  and  swims 
about  freely  for  a  time  before  attaching  itself  by  a  stalk.  Young  are  some- 
times also  produced  within  the  parent  as  spores. 

These  beautiful  creatures  are  often  found  in  colonies  of  various  shapes, 
some  of  the  most  delicate  (Fig.  10,  A)  resembling  the  frond  of  a  maidenhair 

fern.  The  stem  is,  in  such  cases,  formed 
of  protoplasm,  produced  by  the  various 
individuals  of  the  colony,  which  are  not 
always  all  alike.  In  the  form  illustrated 
spherical  individuals  without  stalks  are  to 
be  seen  attached  at  the  bases  of  the 
branchlets  which  carry  the  other  in- 
dividuals. 

In  the  fourth  division  of  the  Ciliated 
Infusorians  the  cilia  are  confined  to  the 
lower  surface  of  the  body,  and  are  some- 
times changed  into  bristles  or  hooks ;  these 
forms  are  much  less  attractive  in  appear- 
ance than  those  we  have  just  described. 

We  come,  in  the  last  place,  to  the 
Tentacled  Infusorians  which  are  often  to 
be  found  attached  to  pond  weeds  by  long, 
straight  stalks.  The  soft  body  is  usually 
contained  in  a  cup-like  sheath,  sometimes 
triangular  in  form,  and  terminates  at  the 
free  end  in  one  or  more  projecting  knobs, 
ornamented  with  groups  of  stiff,  hollow 
tentacles.  The  animal  has  no  mouth,  but 
feeds  by  means  of  these  tentacles,  the  minute  discs  in  which  they  end 
arresting  and  piercing  the  bodies  of  any  small  animalcules  that  come 
within  reach.  The  soft  parts  of  the  victim  are  sucked  up  through  the 
hollow  tentacles  and  drawn  into  the  body  within  the.  sheath.  These 
stationary  bodies  give  rise,  by  means  of  budding,  to  free  young  forms  with 
cilia  which  swim  about  for  a  time,  then  attach  themselves,  lose  their  cilia, 
and  develop  tentacles  like  those  of  the  parent  form. 

These  Tentacled  Infusorians  sometimes  form  very  complicated  colonies 
consisting  of  creeping  roots,  from  which  rise  trunks  and  branches  (Fig.  10,  B). 
Each  branch  and  branchlet  terminates  in  an  individual  with  its  radiating 
tentacles,  bub  besides  these  tentacled  members  of  the  colony  there  are  other 


Fig.  10  — TNFUSORIAV  COLONIES. 

A,  Zoothamnium. 

B,  Dendrosoma. 


ANIMALCULES.    .  723 


spherical  members,  sometimes  clustered  together  like  bunches  of  berries, 
and  within  the  protoplasm  of  the  trunks  there  are  capsules  in  which  the 
young  are  produced  and  matured.  So  complicated  are  these  beautiful 
colonies,  in  which  a  distinct  division  of  labour  takes  place,  that  it  is  difficult 
to  realise  that  they  are  nothing  more  than  communities  of  Protozoans. 


INDEX 


A, 

AARD-VARKS,  188 
Aard-wolf,  62 

Abbreviates,  Tachytriorchis,3l2 
Abderites,  204 
Abramis,  499 

Abraxas  grossulariata,  592 
Abu-maskup,  282 
Acadica,  Nyctala,  324 
Acalypterae,  Muscidae,  607 
Acanthias,  519 
Acanthidositta,  375 
Acanthocephali,  681 
Acanthoehitidie,  616 
Acanthocinus  sedilis,  561 
Acanthoclinidae,  478 
Acanthometra,  717 
Acanthopterygiij  463 
Acanthosoma  gnseum,  595 
Acanthuridae,  470 
Acarina,  545 
Accipiter,  311 
Accipitres,  304 
Accipitriformes,  304 
Accipitrinae,  307 
Accipitrinus,  Asio,  324 
Acephala,  618 
Acerina.  464 
Aceti,  Anguillula,  679 
Aohatinellidae,  642 
Achatina,  642 
Achatinidae,  642 
Acheta  campestris,  567 
Acipenser,  511 
Acipenser  huso,  511 
Acipenser  ruthvenus,  512 
Acipenser  sturio,  512 
Acipenseridae,  511 
Acmaeidae,  631 
Acodon,  101 
Accela,  685 
Acoelomata,  690 
Acomus,  236 
Acomys,  106 
Aconaemys,  111 
Acorn,  Barnacle,  533 
AcrseinaB,  584 
Acris  gryllus,  443 
Acrobates,  203 

Acrocephalus  phragmitis,  370 
Acrocephalus  streperus,  370 
Acromyodae,  373 
Acromyodi,  357 
Acronuridae,  470 
Acronurus,  470 
Acryllium  vulturinum,  240 
Actaeon,  639 
Actteonid*,  640 
Actinia,  701 

Actinia  mesembry  antheinunu, 
703 


Actinia  paumotensis,  704 
Actinoloba  dianthus,  702 
Actinomma,  717 
Actinophrys  sol,  716 
Actinopterygii,  463 
Aculeata,  574-578 
Aculeata,  Aphrodite,  673 
Aculeata,  Echidna,  217 
Aculeata,  Ophiopholis,  657 
Adamsi,  Colymbus,  254 
Adamsia  palliata,  703 
Adansoni,  Excalfactoria,  235 
Adansoniana,    Pleurotomaria, 

632 

Adapis,  32 
Addax,  154 

Addax  nasomaculatus,  154 
Adders,  The,  424 
Adder,  Banded,  424 
Adder,  Death,  425 
Adder,  Puff,  427 
Adder,  Resplendent,  424 
Adela,  593 
Adeorbidse,  637 
Adjutants,  278 

Adscendens,  Clitambonites,  651 
Adustus,  Canis,  66 
yEdilis,  Acanthocinus,  561 
^Egagrus,  Capra,  159 
^Egialitis,  270 
./Egithalus,  368 
^Egithalus  vagans,  368 
^Eglefinus,  Gadus,  491 
^Egotheles,  334 
^gothelinse,  333 
^Egyprymnus  rufescens,  197 
-iEluropus  melanoleucus,  75 
^Elurus  fulgens,  75-76 
^Enea,  Carpophaga,  243 
^olidioidea,  641 
^Epyceros,  152 
^Epyornis,  220 
JSpyornithiformes,  221 
/Epypodius,  227 
^Eronautes  melanoleucus,  346 
^Eruginosus,  Circus,  309 
^Esalon,  Falco,  320 
JEschnidae,  570 
^Etheospondyli,  463,  509 
^theria,  623 
^theriidae,  623 
vEthiopica,  Ibis.  288 
Aethiopicus,  PhiacochaBrus,  134 
/Etobatis,  522 
JEx.  galericulata,  294 
MX.  sponsa,  294 
Affinis,  Cervus,  143 
African  darter,  301 
African  elephant,  123 
African  flying  squirrel,  89 
African  giraffe,  147 
African  lung-fish,  460 

725 


African  swallow-tailed  kite,  316 

African  wild  ass,  129 

Africana,  Verreauxia,  354 

Africanus,  Elephas,  123 

Africanus,  Sus,  134 

Agami  heron,  283 

Agamia  agami,  283 

Agamidae,  398 

Agampdon,  408 

Agapornis,  329 

Agedastes,  239 

Agelaeus  phcenicens,  361 

Agelas  noli  tangere,  693 

Agelenidae,  544 

Agile  frog,  436 

Agile  wallaby,  194 

Agilis,  Lacerta,  409 

Agilis,  Ma<;ropus,  194 

Agilis,  Rana,  436 

Aglseactis,  348 

Aglossa,  444 

Aglypha,  422 

Agonus,  476 

Agrestis,  Microtus,  103 

Agricola,  103 

Agricola,  Tetrastemma,  684 

Agrion,  570 

Agrionidaa,  570 

Agromyzinae,  608 

Agrotis  exclamationis,  591 

Agutis.  8 

Agutis  family,  The,  115 

Ajaja,  286 

Ajaja,  Ajaja,  286 

Alactaga,  110 

Alactaga  decumana,  110 

Alauda  arvensis,  364 

Alaudidae,  364 

Alba,  Chionis,  265 

Alba,  Gygis,  26Q 

Albatros,  The,  257 

Albatros,  Cautious,  259 

Albatros,  Culminated,  258 

Albatros,  True,  258 

Albatros,  Wandering,  258 

Albellus,  Mergus,  297 

Albertia,  683 

Albertisi,  Gymnophaps,  244 

Albicaudatus,  Tachytriorchis, 

312 

Albicilla,  Haliaetus,  315 
Albicollis,  Rhynchops,  262 
Albicore,  473 
Albida,  Chamostra,  628 
Albifrons,  Anser,  295 
Albifrons,  Bubalis,  150 
Albinucha,  Pcecilogale,  81 
Albipennis,  Tachybaptes,  253 
Albofuscus,  Nycticejus,  38 
Alburnus,  499 
Alca  torda,  260 
Alcedininse,  336 


726 


INDEX. 


Alcedo,  336 

American  boat-bill,  283 

Anatifera,  Lepas,  533 

Alcedo  ispida,  337 

American  cedar-bird,  369 

Anatina,  Lingula,  650 

Alces  machlis,  145 

American  chatterers,  374 

Anatinacea,  623-627 

Alchata,  Pteroclesrus,  241 

American  creepers,  The,  362 

Anatinidse,  628 

Aloinus,  Maehcerhamphus,  317 

American  cuckoo,  350 

Anatinus,  Ornithorhynchus,  215 

Alcoe,  259 

American  deer,  146 

Ancestor  of  Brachiopoda,  651 

Alcyon,  Ceryle,  336 

American  golden  plover,  270 

Ancistrodon,  429 

Alcyone,  336 

American  racoons,  75 

Ancistrodon  contortrix,  429 

Alcyonella  fungosa,  669 

American  swallow-tailed  kite, 

Ancylochilus,  269 

Alcyonidium,  668 

316 

Ancylus,  642 

Alector,  Crox,  229 

American  trogons,  349 

Andersoni,  Tylotriton,  448 

Alectoropodes,  226 

American  warblers,  The,  365 

Anderssoni,  Maehcerhamphus, 

Alectranas,  243 

American  wood-snakes,  422 

317 

Alectraenas  nitidissima,  243 

American  wood-stork,  281 

Andigena,  352 

Alepocepbalidae,  507 

Americana,  Antilocapra,  149 

Andina,  Recurvi  rostra,  270 

Alexanor,  Eques,  587 

Americana,  Mustela,  80 

Andinus,  Phaenicoparrus,  290 

Aleyrodes  proletella,  602 

Americana,  Periplaneta,  564 

Andrena,  580 

Aleyrodidse,  602 

Americana,  Pipa,  444 

Anelytropidae,  411 

Alfred!,  Cervus,  143 

Americana,  Rhea,  221 

Anemones,  700 

Alfurus,  Babirusa,  134 
Algiroides,  409 

Americanus,  Bos,  163 
Americanus,  Coccyzus,  351 

Anemone,  Cave-dwelling,  704 
Anemone,  Cloak,  703 

Alle,  Mergulus,  260 

Americanus,  Crocodilus,  381 

Anemone,  Daisy,  702 

Alleni,  Neotoma,  102 

Americanus,  Ursus,  75 

Anemone,  Plumose,  702 

Alliceshad,  The,  507 

Amethystinum,  Stilbum,  578 

Anemone,  Strawberry,  703 

Alligators,  380 

Amherstiae,  Chrysolophus,  238 

Anemones,  Sea,  701 

Alligator,  Chinese,  380 

Amia-calva,  510 

Anemones,  Tropical,  704 

Alligator  mississippiensis,  380 

Amicta  nyctiornis,  341 

Angasi,  Tragelaphus,  156 

Alligator,      North     American, 

Amiidse,  510 

Angel  fish,  519 

380 

Ammocaetes,  524 

Angler  fish,  474 

Alligator  sinensis,  380 

Ammodorcas  clarkei,  153 

Angolensis,  Pitta,  375 

Alligator-terrapins,  390 

Ammodronus,  364 

Anguid*,  404 

Allopsidae,  647 

Ammodytes,  491 

Anguilla,  494 

Alni,  Aphrophora,  600 

Ammodytes,  Vipera,  427 

Anguillula  aceti,  679 

Alopecias  vulpes,  517 

Ammon,  Ovis,  160 

Anguineus,  Proteus,  452 

Alosa,  Clupea,  507 

Ammonea,  646 

Anguis,  405 

Alouatta,  23 

Ammoperdix,  233 

Anguis  fragilis,  404 

Alouatta  nigra,  24 

Ammoperdix  bonhami,  233 

Angustatus,   Echinorhynchus, 

Alouatta  seniculus,  23 

Ammoperdix  heyi,  233 

682 

Alpestris,  Canthocamptus,  532 

Amoeba,  691,  714 

Anhinga,  Plotus,  301 

Alpestris,  Otocorvs,  304 

Ampelidse,  369 

Animal  plants,  697 

Alpine  chough,  358 

Ampelis  cedrorum,  369 

Animalculse,  713 

Alpine  marmot,  93 
Alpinus,  Canis,  68 

Ampelis  garrulus,  369 
Ampelis  japonicus,  369 

Animalcule,  Bell,  722 
Animalcule,  Slipper,  721 

Alternate,  Rafinesquina  649 

Amphibia,  431 

Animalcule,  Trumpet,  721 

Alucita  hexadactyla,  594 
Alucitidaj,  594 

Amphibius,  Hippopotamus,  131 
Amphibius,  Microtus,  103 

Animalcules,  Sun,  716 
Anisolabis  maritima.  563 

Aluco,  Syrnium,  321 

Amphibola,  641 

Anisonyx,  91 

Alueco,  Syrnium,  324 
Alytes,  443 

Amphibolidae,  641 
Amphignathodontidse,  444 

Annelid,  Tube-making,  672 
Annelida,  531,  671 

Amathia  lendigera,  668 

Amphineura,  615 

Annelidicola,  Cyclatella,  688 

Amazonian  dolphin,  178 

Amphioxus,  526 

Anniellidae,  405 

Amazonian  fresh-water  tortoise, 

Amphioxus  lanceolatus,  526 

Annulatus,  Linguaelapsus,  449 

393 

Amphipnous,  495 

Annulosa,  529,  548 

Amazons,  329 

Amphipoda,  534 

Anoa,  162 

Amber-snails,  642 

Amphisbaenidae,  408 

Anolis,  401 

Amblycephalidse,  426 
Amblycephalus,  426 

Amphisile,  482 
Amphitretidse,  647 

Anomalochilus,  421 
Anomaluridae,  89 

Amblyopsidae,  502 
Amblyopsis,  502 

Amphiuma,  451 
Amphiumidae,  450 

Anomalurus,  89 
Anomalurus  peli,  90 

Amblyornis  inorna'a,  359 

Ampullariidaj,  635 

Anomalurus  pusillus,  90 

Amblyrhynchus  cristatus,  402 
Amblystoma,  446 
Amblystoma  tigrinum,  449 
Amblystomatinse,  449 

Anabantidae,  483 
Anabas  scan  dens,  483 
Anableps,  501 
Anacanthini,  490 

Anomia,  621 
Anomia  ephippium,  621 
Anomiacese,  621 
Anomura,  537 

Amboynensis,  Lophurus,  400 

Anaconda,  420 

Anoplodium,  685 

Amelias,  Macronyx,  305 

Anaides,  450 

Anoplogaster,  468 

American  badgers,  79 

Anaphe,  607 

Anoplura,  602 

American  barn  swallow,  373 

Anarhynchus.  270 

Anops  kingi,  408 

American  beaver,  98 

Anarrhichas,  478 

Anorthura  troglodytes,  371 

American  bison,  163 

Anas,  296 

Anser  albifrons,  295 

American  black  bear,  75 

Anastomus,  280 

Anser  anser,  295 

American  bluejays,  358 

Anatidse,  292 

Anser  brachyrhynchus,  295 

INDEX. 


727 


Anser  fabalis,  295 

Aphodius,  557 

Arcticus,  Colymbus,  254 

Anseranas  seinipalmata,  293 

Aphrodite  aculeata,  673 

Arctiidse,  588 

Anseranatinse,  293 

Aphrophora  alni,  600 

Arctogale,  59 

Anseres,  292 

A  piaster,  Merops,  341 

Arctomys,  92 

Anserinse,  295 

Apis  mellifica,  581 

Arctomys  aureus,  93 

Ants,  578 

Apivorus,  Pernis,  317 

Arctomys  bobac,  93 

Ant,  Australian,  579 

Aplacophora,  615-610 

Arctomys  caudatus,  94 

Ant,  House,  579 

Aplustridse,  640 

Arctomys  dichrous,  94 

Ant,  Red,  579 

Aplysiidae,  640 

Arctomys  himalayanus,  93 

Ant,  Wood,  579 

Aplysioidea,  640 

Arctomys  marmotta,  92 

Ant-bears,  189 

Apoda,  453 

Arctonyx,  79 

Ant-birds,  The,  375 

Apodes,  493 

Arctus,  Ursus,  75 

Ant-eaters,  181 

Apodidse,  532 

Ardea  cinerea,  282 

Ant-eater,  Great,  184 

Apollo,  Parnassius,  587 

Ardeiformes,  278 

Ant-eater,  Lesser,  184 

Aporrhaidae,  636 

Ardeirallus,  284 

Ant-eater,  Two-clawed,  184 

Aporrhais,  636 

Ardetta,  284 

Ant-eaters,  True,  183 

Appendicularians,  5?7 

Ardetta  involucris,  284 

Ant-lions,  570 

Apples  of  Sodom,  576 

Ardetta  minuta,  284 

Ant-thrushes,  375 

Aptenodytes  longirostris,  255 

Arenaria,  271 

Antarctic  white  seal,  86 

Aptendytes  patachonica,  255 

Arenaria  interpres,  272 

Antarctic  wolf,  64 

Apteryges,  221 

Arenaria  melanocephala,  272 

Antarctica,  Megalestris,  263 

Apterygiiformes,  221 

Arenariinae,  272 

Antarcticus,  Canis,  64 

Apteryx,  The,  224 

Arenicola,  Lycosa,  543 

Antechinomys  laniger,  209 

Apteryx  australis,  224 

Arenicola  marina,  672 

Antedon  rosacea,  663 

Aptornis,  252 

Areolatus,  Homopus,  387 

Antelopes,  The,  149 

Apus  cancriformis,  531 

Argali,  True,  160 

Antelope,  Bubaline,  150 

Apus,  Micropus,  346 

Argas  persicus,  546 

Antelope,  Equine,  153 

Apus,  Ophisaurus,  405 

Argentatus,  Canis,  71 

Antelope,  Four-horned,  151 

Aquarum-dulcium,   Tetrastem- 

Argentatus,  Larus,  263 

Antelopes,  Harnessed,  156 

ma,  684 

Argentine  cow-bird,  361 

Antelope,  Prong-horned,  149 

Aquatic  carpincho,  116 

Argentine  peludo,  186 

Antelope,  Royal,  151 

Aquatica,  Argyroneta,  544 

Argiope  riparia,  544 

Antelope,  Sable,  153 

Aquaticus,  Cinclus,  371 

Argonaut,  647 

Antelope,  Salts',  151 

Aquaticus  Rallus,  249 

Argonautidae,  647 

Antennarias,  475 

Aquila  chrysaetus,  314 

Argulidfe,  532 

Anthea  cereus,  703 

Aquila,  Fregata,  303 

Argus,  Argusianus,  239 

Anthocincla,  375 

Aquila  heliaca,  314 

Argus,  Common,  239 

Anthomyinae,  608 

Aquila  maculata,  314 

Argus,  Crested,  239 

Anthophila,  580 

Aquila  rapax,  314 

Argus,  Gray's,  239 

Anthops  ornatus,  36 

Aquilinse,  307,  313 

Argus  pheasant,  235-239 

Anthozoa,  701 

Ara,  329 

Argusianus  argus,  239 

Anthracocerus,  339 

Arabian  camel,  136 

Argusianus  bipunctatus,  239 

Anthracocerus  coronatus,  339 

Arabs,  Galeodes,  540 

Argusianus  grayi,  239 

Anthrenus,  556 

Arachnida,  539 

Argyroneta  aquatica,  544 

Anthrophysa,  719 

Arachnoides,  Brachyteles,  25 

Ariculidae,  634 

Anthropoidea,  11 

Arachnoides,  Pyxis,  387 

Arietans,  Bitis,  427 

Anthropopithecus,  14 

Arami,  275 

Arion  ater,  643 

Anthropopithecus  calvus,  15 

Aramides,  249 

Arionidae,  643 

Anthropopithecus  troglodytes, 

Aramides  ypecaha,  250 

Armadillos,  181,  185 

15 

Aramus  pictus,  275 

Armadillo,  Broad,  186 

Anthus,  365 

Aramus  scolopaceus,  275 

Armadillo,  Fairy  pink,  188 

Anthus  pratensis,  365 

Araneida,  542 

Armadillo,  Giant,  187 

Anthus  trivialis,  365 

Araneoides,  Galeodes,  541 

Armadillo,  Hairy,  186 

Antigone,  274 

Araneoides,  Scutigera,  548 

Armadillo,  Six-banded,  186 

Antigone  australasiana,  274 

Araneus,  Sorex,  46 

Armadillos,  Three-banded,  187 

Antilocapra,  10 

Arapaima,  504 

Armenian  sheep,  160 

Antilocapra  americana,  149 

Arapaima  gigas,  504 

Arnuxi,  Berardius,  177 

Antilocapridae,  149 

Arborea,  Hyla,  442 

Arnux's  whale,  177 

Antilope  cervicapra,  152 

Arboricola,  234 

Aromia  moschata,  561 

Antilopine,  152 

Area  Nose,  621 

Arquatela,  269 

Antipatharia,  707 

Area  Zebra,  621 

Arrow  worm,  682 

Antisiensis,  Cervus,  146 

Arcacea,  621 

Artamidse,  369 

Anurosorex,  46 

Aichaeopteryx,  220 

Artamus,  369 

Apatura,  581 

Archiannelida,  675 

Artamus  sorditus,  369 

Ape,  Barbary,  22 

Archibuteo,  315 

Artemia  salina,  531 

Ape,  Black,  22 

Arcifera,  440 

Arthropoda,  529 

Apes,  Man-like,  11 

Arctic  fox,  73 

Arthropoda,  Edible,  530 

Aphanapteryx,  251 

Arctic  tern,  261 

Arthrostraca,  534 

Aphaniptera,  603 

Arctica,  Fratercula,  260 

Artibeus,  41 

Aphaniptera,  Diptera,  609 

Arctica  Islandica,  624 

Artibeus  perspicillatus,  41 

Aphanolimnas  monasa,  251 
Aphididse,  601 

Arcticidse,  624 
Arctictis  binturong,  59 

Articulata,  529,  651 
Am  Island  wallaby,  194 

728 


INDEX. 


Arui,  160 

Atricapilla,  Sylvia,  370 

Aye-aye,  The,  31 

Arundineum,  Cobus,  152 

Atrichia  clamosa,  370 

Azara,  Canis,  89 

Arvensis,  Alunda,  364 

Atrichiidae,  376 

Azara's  dog,  6'J 

Arvicanthis,  105 

Atrochous,  673 

Azorensis,  Kegulus,  369 

Ascalaphidae,  571 
Ascalaphus,  571 

Atropos  pulsatoria,  572 
Atrypa,  651 

B. 

Ascalaphus  kolyvanensis,  570 

Attagides,  266 

Ascaris  lumbricoides,  679 

Attagis,  266 

Babblers,  The,  372 

Ascetta,  691 

Atthis,  348 

Babirusa,  134 

Ascidians,  532 

Atypus,  542 

Babirusa  alfurus,  134 

Ascidiella  aspersa,  528 

Atypus  sulzeri,  543 

Babiun,  Papio,  23 

Asellus  aquaticus,  682 

Aucklandica,  Gallinago,  268 

Baboon,  Dog-faced,  22 

Asiatic  bittern,  284 

Audax,  Urosetus,  314 

Baboon,  Gelada,  22 

Asiatic  wild  ass,  129 

Auks,  The,  259 

Baboon,  Yellow,  23 

Asiatica,  Cinnyris,  366 

Auk,  Great,  260 

Bacon  beetle,  556 

Asilidae,  605 

Auk,  Little,  260 

Bactrian  camel,  136 

Asilus  crabroniformis,  605 

Aulacodus,  112 

Bactrianus,  Camelus,  136 

A  sinus,  Equus,  129 

Aulacorhamphus,  352 

Badgers,  79 

Asio,  324 

Auliscops,  481 

Badgers,  American,  79 

Asio  accipitrinus,  324 

Aulostoma,  481 

Badger,  Common,  79 

Asio  otus,  324 

Aulostomatidae,  481 

Badgers,  Ferret-,  80 

Asp,  Egyptian,  424 

Aulostomum  gulo,  676 

Badgers,  Malayan,  79 

Aspatha,  341 

Aura,  Cathartes,  304 

Badgers,  Sand-,  79 

Aspergillum,  628 

Aurantiaca.Zaitha,  597 

Badia,  Felis,  55 

Aspersa,  Ascidiella,  528 

Aurata,  Cetonia,  558 

Badius,  Astur,  311 

Aspidites,  419 

Auratus,  Carabus,  555 

Badius,  Rhizomys,  107 

Aspidobranchiate,  614 
Aspidogaster  conchicola,  688 

Aurea,  Jacamerops,  355 
Aurelia  aurita,  700 

Basticus,  Lampides,  586 
Bagad,  497 

Aspro,  464 

Aureus,  Arctomys,  93 

Bagarius  yarelli,  496 

Ass,  African  wild,  129 

Aureus,  Canis,  66 

Baillon's  crake,  251 

Ass,  Asiatic  wild,  129 

Aureus,  Xanthomelus,  359 

Bahena  australis,  172 

Assiminidae,  635 

Auriculidae,  641 

Balaena  mysticetus,  172 

Assogue,  81 

Aurita,  Aurelia,  700 

Balaeniceps,  282 

Astacidae,  536 

Auritum,  Crossoptilum,  236 

Balaeniceps  rex,  282 

Astartidae,  624 

Auritus,  Plecotus,  39 

Bahenicipitides,  282 

Asterias  rubens,  653,  656 

Auritus,  Podiceps,  253 

Balamicipitidce,  278 

Asteroidea,  656 

Australasiana,  Antigone,  274 

Balaenidse,  171 

Asterospondyli,  515 

Australian  ant,  579 

Balaenoptera,  173 

Asthenosoma  urens,  660 

Australian  brush-turkey,  227 

Balaenoptera  musculus,  174 

Astrsea,  706 

Australian  lady-bird,  602 

Balamoptera  rostrata,  174 

Astrape,  521 

Australian  lung-fish,  460 

Balsenoptera  sibbaldi,  173 

Astronesthes,  505 
Astur,  310 

Australian  megapode,  228 
Australiensis,  Geonemertes,  684 

Balanidae,  533 
Balaninus  nucum,  560 

Astur  baduis,  311 

Australis,  Apteryx,  224 

Balano,  528 

Astur  novte  hollandine,  311 

Australis,  Balaena,  172 

Balanoglossus,  528 

Astur  leucosomus,  311 

Australis,  Eupodotis.  275 

Balanoglossus  sarniensis,  528 

Astur  palumbarius,  310 

Australis,  Gallinago,  268 

Balanoides,  Balanus,  533 

Astur  torquatus,  311 

Australis,  Geoplana,  686 

Balanus  balanoides,  533 

Asturina,  313 

Australis,  Merganser,  297 

Bald  chimpanzee,  15 

Astutus,  Bassariscus,  76 

Australis,  Mycteria,  280 

Bald  eagle,  315 

Asymmetron  lucayanum,  527 

Australis,  Peltohyas,  270 

Bald  uakari,  27 

Atalapha,  37 

Australis,  Rostratula,  267 

Balistes,  489 

Atalapha  cinerea,  37 

Australis,  Struthio,  223 

Balistidse,  489 

A  teles,  25 

Autodax,  450 

Ballan,  4b6 

Ateles  variegatus,  25 

Autolytas,  673 

Balti,  The,  487 

Atelornis  pittoides,  335 

Autumnalis,  Tetranychus,  547 

Bamboo-rats,  106 

Ater,  Arion,  643 

Avahi,  Woolly,  29 

Band-fishes,  477 

Aterrimus,  Microglossus,  328 

Avahis,  29 

Banded  adder,  425 

Atherina,  479 
Atherinidae,  479 

Avahis  lanigera,  29 
Avellanarius,  Muscardinus,  99 

Banded  ant-eater,  209 
Banded  lemming,  103 

Athertoni,  Nyctiornis,  341 

Aves,  218 

Banded  mungoose,  61 

Atherura,  113 

Avicula,  622 

Banded  sea-snake,  425 

Athoracophoridae,  642 

Avicula  hirundo,  622 

Banded  wallaby,  196 

Athoracophorus,  642 

Aviculacia,  622 

Banded  water-snails,  635 

Atlanta,  637 

Avicularia,  Ornithormyia,  608 

Bandicoot  tribe,  205 

Atlantidse,  637 

Avocet,  Chestnut-breasted,  270 

Bandicoot,  Gunn's,  206 

Atolls,  710 

Avocets,  270 

Bandicoot,  Pig-footed,  206 

Atra,  Salamandra,  447 

Awantibo,  31 

Bandicoot-rats,  105 

Atrae,  Buchanga,  361 

Axis,  Cervus,  143 

Bank  martin,  373 

Atrata,  Chenopis,  293 
Atremata,  651 

Axis,  or  spotted  deer,  143 
Axolotl,  446 

Bank-vole,  103 
Bank's  ribband-fish,  485 

Atricapilla,  Ficedula,  372 

Axolotl,  Adult,  449 

Banksi,  Regalecus,  485 

INDEX. 


729 


Banteng,  165 
Banting,  Bos,  165 

Batagurs,  389 
Bateleur  Eagle,  315 

Beetles,  Dung,  557 
Beetle,  Egyptian  sacred,  557 

Barbarus,  Mus,  105 

Bath  sponge,  693 

Beetle,  Fiddler,  555 

Barbary  ape,  22 

Bathyergus  maritimus,  107 

Beetle,  Golden-green,  555 

Barbary  mouse,  105 

Bathythrissa  dorsalis,  506 

Beetles,  Ground,  555 

Barbary  red-legged  partridge, 

Bathythrissidae,  506 

Beetle,  Hercules,  558 

232 

Batomys,  104 

Beetles,  Long-horned,  560 

Barbastelle,  37 

Batrachidse,  474 

Beetle,  Musk,  561 

Barbata,  Phoca,  85 

Batrachophrynus,  441 

Beetles,  Oil,  560 

Barbatulus,  Nemachilus,  f.OO 

Batrachoseps,  450 

Beetles,  Plant-feeding,  561 

Barbatus,  Gypautus,  313 

Batrachostomus,  334 

Beetle,  Rove,  556 

Barbatus,  Mullus,  4U5 

Batrachus,  474 

Beetles,  Stag,  558 

Barbel,  498 

Batrachyperus,  450 

Beetles,  Tiger,  554 

Barbets,  The,  352 

Baya,  Ploceus,  362 

Beetles,  -Turnip,  561 

Barbus,  498 

Baya  weaver,  362 

Beetles  (water),  Carnivorous,  555 

Barbus  tor,  498 

Baza,  317 

Beetle  (water),  Great,  557 

Bare-throated  francolins,  The, 

Bdellidse,  545 

Beetles,  Whirligig,  556 

233 

Bdellostoma,  525 

Bell  animalcule,  721 

Barn  owl.  321,  325 

Bdellura,  685 

Bell-birds,  374 

Birnacle,  Acorn,  533 

Bdeogale,  60 

Bell-moths,  593 

Barnacle,  Goose,  533 

Beadlet,  The,  703 

Bellia,  3S8 

Barracuda-pikes,  478 

Beaked  gurnard,  476 

Bellis  sagartia,  703 

Barracudas,  478 

Beaked  salmon,  605 

Bellows-fish,  482 

Barracudas,  The,  470 

Beaked  whales,  177 

Belone,  479 

Barred-back  pheasants,  238 

Bean  goose,  295 

Belostomatidae,  597 

Barred  rail,  249 

Bear  Tribe,  The,  74 

Belted  kingfisher,  336 

Barrier  reef,  The,  710 

Bear,  American  black,  75 

Beluga,  179 

Baryphthengus,  341 

Bear,  Brown,  75 

Bembidium,  555 

Basileuteruss  365 

Bear,  Cat,  75 

Bengal  fox,  73 

Basilisks,  401 

Bear,  Grizzly,  75 

Bengal  monkey,  22 

Basiliscus,  401 

Bear,  Himalayan  black,  75 

Bengalensis,  Canis,  73 

Basking  shark,  517 

Bear,  Indian  sloth,  75 

Bengalensis,  Felis,  55 

Basommatophora,  641 

Bear,  Isabelline,  75 

Bennetti,  Cynogale,  60 

Bass,  464 

Bear,  Malayan,  75 

Bennettianus,  Dendrolagus,  195 

Bassanus,  Dysporus,  299 

Bear,  Parti-coloured,  75 

Bennett's  civet,  60 

Bassaricyon,  76 

Bear,  Polar,  75 

Bennett's  wallaby,  194 

Bassariscus,  76 

Bear,  Sea,  82 

Berardius  arnuxi,  177 

Bassariscus  astutus,  76 

Bear,  Spectacled,  75 

Berdmorei,  Hapalomy's,  104 

Bats,  The,  33 

Bear,  Syrian,  75 

Berdmore's  rat,  104 

Bat,  Bechstein's,  38 

Bearded  bee-eater,  143 

Bernhardus  sipuiiculus,  678 

Bat,  Chin-leaf,  41 

Bearded  eagle,  313 

Beroidae,  712 

Bat,  Common,  37 
Bat,  Cusp-toothed  fruit-,  35 

Bearded  partridge,  234 
Bearded  reedling,  368 

Berus,  Vipera,  427 
Berychidi-e,  467 

Bat,  Daubenton's,  37 

Bearded  seal,  85 

Berychiformes,  467 

Bat,  Epauletted  fruit-,  35 

Bearded  tit,  368 

Beryx,  468 

Bat,  False  vampire,  36 

Bearded  vulture,  313 

Betta,  483 

Bat,  Flower-nosed,  36 

Bear's  paw,  626 

Betta  pugnax,  483 

Bat,  Fox,  35 

Beavers,  The,  96 

Bettongia,  197 

Bat,  Free-tailed,  38 

Beaver,  American,  98 

Bewicki,  Cygnus,  292 

Bat,  Fruit,  34 

Bechsteini,  Vespertilio,  38 

Bewick's  swan,  292 

Bat,  Golden,  38 

Bechstein's  bat,  38 

Bharal,  160 

Bat,  Greater  horse-shoe,  36 

Bed  bug,  596 

Bhringa,  361 

Bat,  Hare-lipped,  39 

Beech-marten,  80 

Bichir,  512 

Bat,  Hoary,  37 
Bat,  Horse-shoe,  36 

Bee-eaters,  340 
Bee-eater.  Bearded.  341 

Bichir  polypterus,  512 
Bicornis,  Dichocerus,  339 

Bat,  Javelin,  41 

Bee-eater,  Common,  341 

Bicornis,  Rhinoceros,  126 

Bat,  Leaf-nosed,  36 

Bee-eater,  Square-tailed,  340 

Binturong,  59 

Bat,  Long-eared,  36 

Bee-eater,  Swallow-tailed,  340 

Binturong,  Arctictis,  59 

Bat,  Long-tailed,  39 

Bee,  Hive,  581 

Bipalium  kewense,  684 

Bat,  Mastiff,  39 

Bees,  553,  573,  580 

Bipunctata,  Coccinella,  562 

Bat,  Naked,  40 

Bees,  Carpenter,  581 

Bipunctata,  Sagitta,  681 

Bat,  Pouch-winged,  39 

Bees,  Humble,  581 

Bipunctatus,  Argusianus,  239 

Bat,  Schreiber's,  38 

Bees,  Leaf  -cutter,  581 

Birds,  218 

Bat,  Sheath-tailed,  39 

Beetles,  553 

Bird-catching  spiders,  542 

Bat,  Short-nosed  fruit-,  357 

Beetle,  Bacon,  556 

Bird  lice,  573 

Bat,  Tailed  fruit-,  35 

Beetle,  Blister,  560 

Bird's  head  coralline,  667 

Bat,  Tomb,  39 

Beetle,  Bombardier,  555 

Bird's  nest  sponge,  693 

Bat,  Tricolor,  38 

Beetle,  Burying,  557 

Birds'-nesting  eagle,  315 

Bat,  Tube-nosed,  37 

Beetles,  Cellar,  559 

Birds  of  Prey,  The,  304 

Bat,  Typical,  36 

Beetles,  Click,  559 

Birds  of  Paradise,  358 

Bat,  Vampire,  40 

Beetle,  Colorado,  561 

Birgidse,  537 

Bat,  White,  39 

Beetles,  Diamond,  560 

Birgus  latro,  537 

730 


INDEX. 


Bison,  American,  163 

Blight,  601 

Botryllus,  528 

Bison,  Bos,  162 

Blind-mouse,  106 

Bottle-nosed  chimaera,  462 

Bison,  European,  162 

Blind-snakes,  417 

Bottle  tit.  368 

Bitis,  427 

Blind-  worm,  404 

Botys  uricata,  532 

Bitorquatus,  Rhinoptilus,  273 

Blister-beetle,  560 

Botys  verticalis,  592 

Bitterlings,  499 

Blood-pheasants,  235 

Bougainvillea  rarnosa,  696 

Bitterns,  The,  276 

Blue-bottle  flies,  608 

Bovidae,  149 

Bittern,  Asiatic,  284 

Blue  coral,  708 

Bovinus,  Tobanus,  605 

Bittern,  Dwarf  tiger,  284 

Blue  creeper,  362 

Bovis,  Hypoderma,  606 

Bittern,  Little,  284 

Blue  jays  of  America,  358 

Bow-fin,  510 

Bittern,  Sun,  The,  276 

Blue  rorquals,  173                          |  Bower-birds,  The,  359 

Bittern,  True,  284 

Blue  shark,  516 

Bower-bird,  Satin,  359 

Bivalve  shell,  Topography  of, 

Blue-throats,  370 

Box-tortoises,  388 

617 

Blue  tit,  367 

Bovciana,  Ciconia,  279 

Bizarre  sea-horses,  487 

Blue  water-hen,  248 

Brachelytra,  556 

Biziura,  297 

Blue-winged  geese,  295 

Brachinus,  555 

Blaberus,  564 

Blue-winged  grasshopper,  £68 

Brachiopod  internal  organs,  650 

Blaberus  giganteus,  564 

Blues,  The,  586 

Brachiopod,  Hinged,  649 

Black  ape,  22 

Blunt-heads,  426 

Brachiopod,  Non-hinged,  650 

Black-backed  jackal,  66 

Boa-constrictors,  418 

Brachiopod,  Pedunculate,  648 

Black  beetle,  564 

Boa  constrictor,  Common,  420 

Brachiopod,  Sessile,  648 

Black-billed  cuckoo,  351 

Boa  tribe,  The,  418 

Brachiopoda,  648 

Black-billed  white  stork,  279 

Boar,  Wild,  133 

Brachiopoda,  Ancestor  of,  651 

Black  corals,  707 

Boat-billed  heron,  284 

Brachypteraciinre,  335 

Black  cuscus,  200 

Bobac,  93 

Brachyrhynchus,  Anser,  295 

Black  drongo,  The,  361 
Black  eagle,  315 

Bobac,  Arctomys,  93 
Bobolink,  361 

Brachytarsomys,  102 
Brachyteles  arachnoides,  25 

Black-faced  uacaria,  27 

Bocydium,  601 

Brachyura,  537 

Black  fox,  71 

Boidje,  418 

Braconidae,  577 

Black  grouse,  230 

Boiei,  Ceratophrys,  441 

Bradypodidae,  182 

Black  guillemot,  260 

Boinae,  418 

Bradypus,  182 

Black-headed  gull,  262 
Black-headed,  red-legged  part- 

Bombardier beetles,  555 
Bombinator  igneus,  444 

Bradypus  tridactylus,  183 
Brahminy  kites,  316 

ridge,  232 

Bombus,  581 

Brain  Coral,  707 

Black-headed  hangnest,  362 

Bombus,  Chsetocercas,  347 

Branched  Syllis,  673 

Black-headed  weaver  bird,  362 
Black  howler,  24 

Bombyces,  688 
Bombyliidse,  606 

Branchipodidae,  532 
Branick's  paca,  115 

Black  perns,  317 

Bombyx  mori,  590 

Branta,  295 

Black  rat,  105 

Bonariensis,  Molothrus,  361 

Branta  ruficollis,  295 

Black  rhinoceros,  126 

Bonasa,  231 

Brasilianus,  Merganser,  297 

Black  saki,  27 

Bonellia,  678 

Brassolinw,  584 

Black  salamander,  447 

Bonellia  veridis,  678 

Brazilian  caracara,  307 

Black  sea-bream,  466 

Bonelli's  eagle,  315 

Breams,  499 

Black-shouldered  kites,  316 

Bonhami,  Ammoperdix,  233 

Brechites,  628 

Black  slug,  643 

Bonito,  473 

Brent  geese,  295 

Black  stork,  279 

Bontebok,  150 

Brevicaudata.  Indris,  29 

Black  swan,  292 

Bony  fishes,  462 

Breviceps,  439 

Black  tern,  261 
Black-throated  diver,  254 

Bony  pike,  509 
Book  scorpions,  541 

Breviceps,  Cogia,  176 
Breviceps,  Petaurus,  202 

Black  turn-stone,  272 

Boops,  Megaptera,  173 

Breviceps,  Rana,  437 

Black  vultures,  306 

Booted  eagle,  315 

Brevipes,  CKstrelata,  257 

Black  water-hen.  252 

Bopyridie,  534 

Bridges'  wood-hewer,  3/5 

Black  wood-partridge,  234 

Boring  hymenoptera,  574 

Bridges!,  Drymornis,  375 

Black  wood-rail,  249 

Bornean  Bay  cat,  55 

Brill,  492 

Blackbirds,  370 

Bos,  161 

Brine  shrimp,  531 

Blackbird,  Common,  371 

Bos  americanus,  163 

Bristle-footed  worms,  671 

Blackcap,  370 

Bos  banting,  165 

British  capercailzie,  230 

Bladder  seal,  87 

Bos  bison,  162 

British  ringed-snake,  421 

Bladder  worm,  687 

Bos  bubalis,  162 

British  turtle-dove,  244 

Blainvillei,  Mormops,  41 

Bos  caffer,  162 

British  viper,  427 

Blainvillei,  Steuodelphis,  178 

Bos  depressicornis,  162 

Brittle-star,  657 

Blaps  559 

Bos  frontalis,  164 

Broad  armadillo,  186 

Blarina,  46 

Bos  gaurus,  164 

Broadbills,  356 

Blastoidea,  655 

Bos  grunniens,  164 

Broadbill,  Horsefield's,  356 

Blatta  orientalis,  564 

Bos  indicus,  165 

Broad-leaved  hornwrack,  665 

B  attidae,  563 

Bos  mindorensis,  162 

Brocket,  Red,  146 

Bleak,  499 

Bos  pumilus,  162 

Brodiei,  Glaucidium,  324 

Blennies,  The,  478 

Bos  taurus,  165 

Brookesia,  412 

Blenniidse,  478 

Boselaphus  tragocamelus,  154 

Brotula,  491 

Blenniiformes,  477 

Bot  flies,  606 

Brown  bear,  75 

Blennius,  478 

Botaurus  stellaris,  284 

Brown  fish-owl,  321 

Blesbok,  150 

Bothriocephalus  latus,  687 

Brown  hawk-owls,  323 

INDEX. 


73i 


Brown  hyaena,  62                          |  Burmanica,  Pelargopsis,  336 
Brown-tailed  mungoose,  61          j  Burmeisteri,  Chunga,  277 

Caffra,  Felis,  55 
Caia,  Hypercompa,  588 

Browni,  Macropus,  194 

Burmeisteria,  188 

Caimans,  380 

Bruijni,  Proechidna.  217 

Burineister's  seriama,  277 

Cairina,  293 

Bruijn's  echidna,  217 

Buriiets,  588 

Cairina  moschata,  293 

Brunii  macropus,  194 

Burnett  salmon,  460 

Calabarensis,  Pottos,  31 

Brunnea,  Hyaena,  62 

Burnished  brass  moth,  591 

Calabaria,  419 

Brush-tailed  porcupines,  113 
Brush-turkeys,  226,  227 

Burrowing  owls,  The,  323 
Bursarius,  Geomys,  109 

Calabaricus,  Calamoichthys,  512 
Calaenadinae,  244 

Bryozoa,  665 

Burying  beetles,  557 

Calaenas,  245 

Bubaline  antelope,  150 

Bush  cuckoos,  351 

Calamita,  Bufo,  442 

Bubalis,  150 
Bubalis  albifrons,  150 

Bush-dog,  74 
Bush-pig,  134 

Calamoichthys  calabaricus  512 
Calamophilus  biarmicus,  368 

Bubalis,  Bos,  162 

Bushmaster,  429 

Calandra  larks,  364 

Bubalis  pygargus,  150 

Bustards,  The,  264,  273 

Calandrella,  364 

Bubo,  322 

Bustard,  Crested,  273 

Calcareous  sponges,  692 

Bubo  bubo,  322 

Bustard,  Great,  273 

Calcarius,  lapponicus,  364 

Bubo  virgin  ianus  322 

Bustard,  Kori,  273 

Calcitrans,  Cnemiornis,  295 

Bubonidae,  321 

Bustard,  Lesser,  273 

Calcitrans,  Stomoxys,  607 

Buboninas,  321 

Bustard-quail,  241 

Calendula,  Regulus,  369 

Buccinida3,  637 

Butastur,  315 

Calidris,  269 

Bucco,  355 

Butcher-birds,  3C9 

Californian  quail,  240 

Buccones,  355 

Buteo  312 

Californian  toad,  403 

Bucephala,  Drilophaga,  683 

Buteo  buteo,  312 

Californiana,  Lophortyx,  240 

Bucerotes,  339 

Buteogallus,  312 

Caligatus,  Trogon,  349 

Bucerus  rhinoceros,  339 

Buteoninse,  307,  311 

Caligo  teucer,  584 

Buchanga  atrae,  361 

Butterflies,  553,  581 

Callagur,  389 

Bucholzi,  Pantodon,  505 

Butterfly,  Dead  leaf,  585 

Callichthys,  497 

Buck,  Indian  black,  452 

Butterfly,  Swallow-tail,  587 

Callidea  perplexa,  595 

Buck,  Prong-,  149 

Buzzards,  The,  307,  312 

Callidina  parasitica,  683 

Bucorax,  339 

Buzzard,  Common.  312 

Callimome,  576 

Budorcas  taxicolor,  157 

Buzzard,  Honey,  317 

Callithrix,  26 

Buffalo,  Cape,  162 

Buzzard-eagles,  315 

Callithrix  torquata,  26 

Buffalo,  Indian,  162 

Buzzard-hawk,  Rufous,  312 

Callophasis,  238 

Buffon's  skua,  263 

Bythinia,  635 

Callophasis  ellioti,  238 

Bufo,  441 

Callophasis  humiae,  238 

Bufo  calamita,  442 

Callophis,  424 

Bufo  viridis,  442 

C. 

Callophrys  rubi,  586 

Bufo  vulgaris,  442 

Callorhynchus,  462 

Bufonidae,  441 

Caballus,  Equus,  128 

Calluella,  439 

Bugs,  553,  594 

Cabalus,  249 

Calomys,  101 

Bug,  Bed,  596 

Cabalus  dieffenbachii,  249 

Calonyx,  Eurystomus,  335 

Bug,  Masked,  596 

Cabalus  modestus,  249 

Caloperdix,  234 

Bug,  Plant,  596 

Cabalus  sylvestris,  249 

Caloprymnus  campestris,  197 

Bug,  Shield,  595 

Cabul,  Marmot,  94 

Calornis,  360 

Bug,  Water,  597 

Cacatuidce,  328 

Calotes,  399 

Bug,  Wheel,  596 

Caccabis  chukar,  232 

Calva,  Uacaria,  27 

Bugula  turbinata,  667 

Caccabis  magna,  232 

Calvus,  Anthropopithecus,  15 

Bulbuls,  The,  372 

Caccabis  inelanocephala  232 

Calypte  helenae,  347 

Bulimulidae,  643 

Caccabis  petrosa,  232 

Calypterse,  Muscidae,  607 

Bulimus,  643 

Caccabis  rufa,  232 

Calyptomena,  356 

Bull  frog,  437 

Caccabis  saxatilis,  232 

Calyptomena  hosii,  356 

Bull-heads,  475      . 

Cachuga,  389 

Calyptomena  viridis,  356 

Bullfinches,  303 

Cacomistle,  76 

Calyptomena  whiteheadi,  356 

Bullidaa,  640 

Cacopus,  438 

Cama,  Canis,  73 

Bullinella,  640 

Cacopus  systema,  438 

Camarhynchus,  363 

Bulloidea,  639 

Caddis  flies,  572 

Camel  Tribe,  The,  135 

Bulweri,  Lobiophasis.238 

Caddis  worms,  573 

Camel,  Arabian,  1-37 

Bungarus  caeruleus.  424 

Caeca,  Talpa,  48 

Camel,  Bactrian,  137 

Bungarus  fasciatus,  424 

Csecidae,  635 

Camelidae,  135 

Bungarus,  Naia,  424 

Caecilians,  453 

Camelopardilis,  Giraffe,  147 

Buntings,  363 
Bunting,  Cirl,  364 

Caecilian  brooding  its  eggs,  454 
Caeciliidae,  454 

Camelus,  136 
Camelus  bactrianus,  136 

Bunting,  Corn,  364 

Caecum,  635 

Camelus  dromedarius,  136 

Bunting,  Lapland,  364 
Bunting,  Snow,  363-364 

Caenagrioninae,  570 
Caenolestes,  204 

Camelus,  Struthio,  223 
Campanularians,  697 

Buprestid:e,  558 

Caesar,  Lucilia,  608 

Campestris  acheta,  567 

Burbot,  The,  491 

Caesareus,  Staphylinus,  556 

Campestris,  Caloprymnus,  197 

Burchelli,  Equus,  128 

Cwsia,  Sitta,  368 

Campestris,  Cervus,  146 

Burchell's  rhinoceros,  126 
Burchell's  zebra,  128 
Burhinus  grallarius,  273 

Caffer,  Bos,  162 
Caffer  cat,  55 
Caffer,  Pedetes,  110 

Campestris,  Cicindela,  554 
Campestris,  Motacilla,  365 
Campestris  raphiceros,  151 

732 


INDEX. 


Campophagidae,  372 

Canthocamptus  alpestris,  532 

Carettochelyida;,  394 

Canadensis,  Castor,  98 

Cantiaca,  Sterna,  261 

Cariacus,  146 

Canadensis,  Cervus,  143 

Cantoria,  423 

Cariama  cristata,  277 

Canadensis,  Felis,  56 

Canus,  Larus,  262 

Carinaria,  636 

Canadensii     ">vis,  160 

Cap-of-liberty  shells,  634 

Carinata,  Cyclura,  403 

Canadian  lynx,  56 

Cape  buffalo,  162 

Carinat*,  225 

Canadian  porcupine,  113 

Cape  coly,  The,  348 

Carinate  avis,  225 

Canarian  fork-tailed  petrel,  257 

Cape  golden  mole,  50 

Carinate  birds,  225 

Canaries,  363 

Cape  hunting-dog,  74 

Carine,  323 

Cancellaria,  638 

Cape  jumping-hare,  110 

Carnea,  Edwardsia,  704 

Cancellariidae,  638 

Cape  moles,  50 

Carnivora,  50 

Cancer  pagurus,  538 

Cape  polecat.  80 

Carnivorous  water-beetles,  555 

Canchroma,  283 

Cape  quail,  234 

Carolinensis,  Galeoscoptes,  372 

Canchroma  cochlearia,  284 

Caped  pheasants,  The,  238 

Carp,  Common,  498 

Canchroma  zeledoni,  284 

Capensis,  Coturnix,  234 

Carp,  Crucian,  498 

Cancriformis,  Apus,  531 
Cancrivorus,  Canis,  69 

Capensis,  Orycteropus,  189 
Capensis,  Rostratula,  267 

Carp  lice,  532 
Carpenter  bees,  581 

Candelarius,  Hotinus,  599 

Capensis,  Strix,  3-25 

Carpet-snake,  419 

Candicans,  Hierofalco,  319 

Capensis,  Tachybaptes,  2f)3 

Carpincho,  89 

Candida,  Coscoroba,  293 

Capercailzies,  The,  230 

Carpincho,  Aquatic,  116 

Candida,  Pholadoiuya,  628 

Capercailzie,  British,  230 

Carpio,  Cyprinus,  498 

Candida,  Strix,  325 

Capercailzie,  Dusky,  231 

Carpocapsa.  593 

Candle  fly,  599 

Capitis,  Pediculus,  602 

Carpocapsa  pomonella,  593 

Cane-rat,  112 

Capito,  353 

Carpococeyx,  351 

Caniceps,  Lepidolemur,  30 

Capitones,  352 

Carpococeyx  radiatus,  351 

Canidae,  63 

Capivara,  116 

Carpodacus,  363 

Canis,  63 

Capivara,  Hydrochcerus,  89 

Carpomys,  104 

Canis  adustus,  66 

Capra,  158 

Carponycteris,  35 

Canis  alpinus,  68 

Capra  segagrus,  159 

Carpophaga  zenea  243 

Canis  antarcticus,  64 

Capra,  Cervus,  146 

Carpophaginae,  242 

Canis  argentatus,  71 

Capra  cylindricornis,  158 

Carrion  crow,  358 

Canis  aureus,  66 

Capra  falconeri,  159 

Carterodon,  113 

Canis  azarae,  69 

Capra  hispanica,  158 

Carunculata,  Sarcidiornis,  293 

Canis  bengalensis,  73 

Capra  ibex,  158 

Carychium  minimum,  641 

Canis  cama,  73 

Capra  pyrenaica,  158 

Caryophyllacea,    Rhodonessa, 

Oanis  cancrivorus,  69 

Capra  sibirica,  159 

294 

Canis  corsac,  73 

Capreola,  Pelea,  151 

Gary  ophy  ilia,  705 

Canis  deccanensis,  68 

Capreolus,  146 

Casarca,  296 

Canis  dingo,  66 

Caprimulgi,  342 

Casei,  Piophila,  608 

Canis  dukhunensis,  68 

Caprimulgus  europaeus;  342 

Cashmirianus,  Cervus,  143 

Canis  famelicus,  73 
Canis  ferrilatus,  73 

Captine,  158 
Capromys,  112 

Caspia,  Hydroprogue,  261 
Caspian  seal,  85 

Canis  flavescens,  71 

Capuchins,  24 

Caspian  tern,  261 

Canisjulvus,  71 

Capuchin,  White-throated,  24 

Caspica,  Phoca,  85 

Canis,  Galeus,  516 

Capulidae,  634 

Cassididfe,  636 

Canis  japonicus.  73 

Capulus,  634 

Cassidix,  362 

Canis  jubatus,  69 

Carabidae,  554 

Cassidix  oryzivorus.  362 

Canis  lagopus,  73 

Carabus,  555 

Cassidix  persicus,  362 

Canis  laniger,  65 

Carabus  auratus,  555 

Cassis  rufa,  636 

Canis  latrans,  66 

Caracal,  55 

Cassowaries,  The,  ?24 

Canis  leucopus,  73 

Caracal,  Felis,  55 

Castanotis,  Chceropus,  206 

Canis  lupus,  64 

Caracaras,  307 

Castnia  syphax,  590 

Canis  macrotis,  73 

Caracara,  Brazilian,  307 

Castniidae,  590 

Tan  is  rnesomelas,  66 

Carancho,  307 

Castor,  96 

Canis  montanus,  71 

Carangidae,  471 

Castor  canadensis,  98 

Canis  niger,  65 

Caranx,  471 

Castor  fiber,  96 

Canis  niloticus,  71 

Carassius,  498 

Castoridw,  96 

Canis  pallipes,  64 

Carbo,  Phalacrocorax,  299 

Casuarii,  223 

Canis  pennsylvanicus,  71 

Carchariidae,  516     . 

Casuariiformes,  221,  223 

Canis  primsevus,  68 

Carcharodon  rondeletii,  517 

Cat-bear,  75 

Canis  procyonides,  69 

Carcineutes,  337 

Cat-bird,  372 

Canis  pulex  (dog  flea),  609 

Carcinophaga,  Lobodon,  86 

Cat-fishes,  496 

Canis  rutilans,  68 

Cardamines,  Euchioe,  586 

Cat-snake,  423 

Canis  velox,  72 

Cardiacea,  623-625 

Cats,  The,  52 

Canis  Virginian  us,  72 

Cardiidae,  626 

Cat,  Bornean  Bay,  55 

Canis  vulpes,  71 

Cardiliidse,  625 

Cat,  Gaffer,  55 

Canis  zerda,  73 

Cardinal  grosbeaks,  363 

Cat,  Domestic,  55 

Cannabateomys,  112 

Cardinalis,  363 

Cat,  Jungle,  55 

Canorus,  Cuculus,  350 

Cardinalis,  Novius,  602 

Cat,  Leopard  Oriental,  55 

Cantharinae,  466 

Cardita  concamerata,  623 

Cat,  Marbled,  55 

Cantharis  vesicatoria,  560 

Carditidae,  623 

Cat,  Tiger,  55 

Cautharus,  466                              | 

Caretta,  Thalassochelys,  391 

Cat  tribe,  52 

INDEX. 


733 


Cat,  Wild,  55                                 j 

Ceratobrachidae,  439 

Ceryle  torquata,  336 

Cataphractus,  Crocodilus,  381 

Ceratobrachus  guentheri,  439 

Ceryle  varia,  336 

Catarrhactes,  Megalestris,  263 

Ceratodus,  460 

Cestoda,  686 

Catesbyana,  Ran  a,  437 

2eratophora,  399 

Cestoni,  Nyctinomus,  40 

(  athartes  aura,  304 

^eratophrys,  441 

Cestraciidae,  518 

Cathartidiformes,  304 

ZJeratophrys  boiei,  441 

Cestracion,  518 

Catheturus,  227 

Ceratophrys  ornata,  441 

Cestraciontidae,  518 

Catheturus  lathami,  227 

Cercariae,  (i89 

Itestracium,  518 

Catreus  wallichii,  237 

Cerchneis,  320 

Destus  veneris,  712 

CatU,  Lemur,  29 

^ercocebus,  21 

^etacea,  169 

Cattle,  Indian  humped,  165 

Cercoleptes  caudivolvulus,  76 

Cetonia  aurata,  558 

Catus,  Felis,  55 

Jercomys,  113 

Cetoniidse,  558 

Caucasica,  Salamandra,  447 

Cercopithecidae,  19 

^etorhinus  maximus,  517 

Caudacuta,  Chaetura,  34G 

Cercopithecus,  21 

Ceycopsis,  337 

Caudata,  445 

Cercopithecus  callitrichus,  21 

Ceylonens'is,  Ketupa,  321 

Caudatus,  Arctomys,  94 

Cercopithecus  diana,  21 

Ceyx,  337 

Caudatus,  Priapulus,  678 

Cercopithecus  mona,  21 

Chacma,  23 

Caudivolvulus,  Cercoleptes,  76 

Cercopsinae,  294 

Chaeronycteris,  41 

Cautious  albatros,  259 

Cerealium,  Thrips,  572 

Chaeropsis,  13  L 

Cautus,  Thalassogeron,  259 

Cereopsis  geese,  The,  294 

Chaeropus  castanotis,  206 

Cavatus,  Hyptiotes,  544 

Cereus,  Anthea,  703 

Chaetoceraus,  348 

Cave-dwelling  anemone,  704 

Cerithiidse,  636 

Chaetocercus  bombus,  347 

Cave-fish,  491 

Cerivoula,  38 

Chretoderma,  616 

Cavia,  115 

Certhia  familiaris,  365 

Chsetodermatina,  316 

Cavies  family,  The,  115 

Certhiidaj,  362 

Chaetodon,  465 

Caviidse,  115 

Certhilauda,  364 

Chaetodontidse,  465 

Cavolinidae,  640 

Certhiola,  362 

Chaetognatha,  682 

Cebidae,  23 

Cervicapra,  152 

Chaetomys,  113 

Cebus,  24 

Cervicapra  antilope,  152 

Chaetopoda,  671 

Cebus  hypoleucus,  24 

Cervicaprinae,  151 

Chaetura,  345 

Cecidomyia  destructor,  603 

Cervidae,  140 

Chaetura  caudacuta,  346 

Cecidomyiidse,  603 

Cervulus,  141 

Chaeturinse,  346 

Cedar-bird,  American,  369 

Cervulus  muntjac,  142 

Chafers,  557 

Cedrorum,  Ampelis,  369 

Cervus,  142 

Chaffinch,  Common,  363 

Celebensis,  Pernis,  317 

Cervus  affinis,  143 

Chajd,  291 

Cellar-beetles,  559 

Cervus  alfredi,  143 

Chalcididae,  576 

Cellar-  snail,  644 

Cervus  antisiensis,  146 

Chalcopsittacus,  328 

Cellaria,  Vitrea,  644 

Cervus  axis,  143 

Chalia  furva,  589 

Celtis,  Libythsa,  586 

Cervus  campestris,  146 

Chalinolobus,  37 

Cemas,  157 

Cervus  canadensis,  143 

Chalinolobus  tuberculatus,  40 

Centetes  ecaudatus,  49 

Cervus  caprea,  146 

Chamaeleons,  411 

Centetidae,  49 

Cervus  cashmirianus,  143 

Chamaeleon  vulgaris,  412 

Centipedes,  548 

Cervus  chilensis,  146 

Chamaeleontidae,  412 

Centipede,  Electric,  549 

Cervus  clavatus,  146 

Chamaesaura,  404 

Centrarchidae,  463 

Cervus  dama,  144 

Chamidas,  626 

Centrachus,  463 

Cervus  davidianus,  143 

Chamois,  156 

Centriscidse,  482 

Cervus  duvauceli,  143 

Chamostrea  albida,  628 

Centrisciformes,  482 

Cervus  elaphus,  143 

Chamostreidae,  627 

Centriscus,  482 

Cervus  eldi,  143 

Changu,  65 

Centrogenys,  464 

Cervus  eustephanus,  143 

Channa,  482 

Centrolophus,  472 

Cervus  giganteus,  144 

Channel-bills,  35<X 

Centropelma,  253 

Cervus,  Lucanus,  558 

Channiformes,  482 

Centropodinse,  351 

Cervus  macrotis,  146 

Chanting  gos-hawks,  310 

Centropominae,  464 

Cervus  maral,  143 

Charadrii,  266 

Centropristes,  464 

Cervus  mesopotamicus,  144 

Charadriidae,  266 

Centropus,  351 
Centropus  sinensis,  351 

Cervus  philippinus,  1  43 
Cervus  porcinus,  143 

Charadriiformes,  260 
Charadriinse,  270 

Centrotus,  601 

Cervus  pygargus,  146 

Charadrius  dominicus,  270 

Centrotus  cornutus,  601 

Cervus  ruffi,  144 

Charadrius  pluvialis,  271 

Cepedianus,  Laphotes,  484 

Cervus  rufus,  146 

Charcharias  glaucus,  516 

Cephalochorda,  526 

Cervus  schomburgki,  143 

Chasmorhynchus,  374 

Cephalodiscus,  649 

Cervus  sica,  143 

Chat-thrushes,  370 

Cephalophus,  151 

Cervus  swinhoei,  143 

Chats,  370 

Cephalopoda,  644 

Cervus  thoroldi,  143 

Chatterers,  The,  369 

Cephaloptera,  52'2 

Cervus  unicolor,  143 

Chatterer,  American,  374 

Cephalorhynchus,  179 

Cervus  virginianus,  146 

Chatterer,  Crested,  369 

Cephalorhynchus  heavisidei,  179 

Cervus  xanthopygus,  143 

Chauliodus,  505 

Cephalus,  Harpyio,  37 

Ceryle,  336 

Chauna,  290 

Cepolidse,  477 

Ceryle  ale  von,  336 

Chauna  chavaria,  290 

Cerambycidae,  561 

Ceryle  lugubris,  336 

Chauna  cristata,  290 

Cerastes,  427 

Ceryle  rudis,  336 

Chaus,  Felis,  55 

Ceratium,  718 

Ceryle  superciliosa,  336 

Chavaria,  Chauna,  290 

734 


INDEX. 


Cheer  pheasant,  237 

Chironomidae,  604 

Cinerea,  Atalapha,  37 

Cheese-mites,  547 

Chiropodomys,  104 

Cinerea,  Nepa,  597 

Chelidon,  373 

Chiroptera,  33 

Cinereus,  Phascolarctus,  199 

Chelidon  urbica,  373 

Chirotes,  408 

Cinixys,  387 

Chelidoptera,  356 

Chiroteuthidae,  646 

Cinnabar  moth,  588 

Chelifer,  541 

Chiroxiphia  linearis,  374 

Cinnyris  asiatica,  366 

Chelmon,  465 

Chiru,  Tibetan,  152 

Cinosternidaj,  389 

Chelodina,  393 

Chiruromys,  106 

Circaetus,  315 

Chelone  imbricata,  391 

Chiton,  615 

Circaetus  gallicus,  315 

Chelone  mydas,  391 

Chitonidae,  616 

Circulate,  Flata,  600 

Chelonia,  383 

Chitra,  395 

Circus  aeruginosus,  309 

Chelonidse,  390 

Chlamydophorus  retusa,  188 

Circus  hudsonius,  309 

Chelydridae,  390 

Chlamydophorus  truncatus,  188 

Circus  pvgargus,  309 

Chelyidae,  392 

Chlamydosaurus  kingi,  399 

Cirl-bunting,  364 

Chelys  fimbriata,  392 

Chloris,  Ligurinus,  363 

Cirlus,  Emberiza,  364 

Chen,  295 
Chenomorphae,  288 

Chlorocercus,  Lorius,  328 
Chloron,  580 

Cirrhites,  467 
Cirrhitichthys,  467 

Chenonetta,  295 

Chloropus,  Gallinula,  252 

Cirrhitida>,  466 

Chenonettinse,  295 

Cholaepus,  182 

Cirripedia,  533 

Chenopis,  292 

Chologaster,  502 

Cirroteuthidai,  647 

Chenopis  atrata,  293 

Chondrostei,  510 

Cirroteuthis,  647 

Cheriway,  Polyborus,  307 

Chondrostoma,  499 

Cisticola  Prinia,  370 

Chestnut-breasted  avocet,  270 

Choneziphius  cuvieri,  177 

Cistudo,  388 

Chevrotain  family,  The,  1£9 

Chordeiles,  342 

Citrinella,  Emberiza,  364 

Chevrotains,  Oriental,  139 

Choridactylus,  467 

Cittocincla,  370 

Chevrotain,  West  African,  139 

Chorinemus,  467 

Civet  tribe,  56 

Cheyletus,  547 

Choristida;,  637 

Civet,  Bennett's,  60 

Chibia,  361 

Chough,  358 

Civet,  Daubenton's,  57 

Chiffchaff,  370 

Chough,  Alpine,  358 

Civet,  Palm-,  Small-toothed, 

Child's  head  urchin,  660 

Chough,  Desert,  358 

59 

Chilensis,  Cervus,  146 

Chough,  Red-billed,  358 

Civet,  Palm-,  True,  59 

Chilensis,  Megalestris,  263 

Chough,  White-winged,  358 

Civet,  True,  57 

Chilian  swan,  292 

Chromatophores,  645 

Civetta,  Viverra,  57 

Chilinia,  642 

Chromididae,  486 

Cladorhynchus   leucocephalus, 

Chilinidse,  641 

Chromids,  486 

270 

Chilobranchus,  495 

Chromis,  487 

Clamosa,  Atrichia,  376 

Chilodactylus,  467 
Chilognatha,  549 

Chrondropython,  419 
Chrotomys,  100 

Clamvdoconcha,  624 
Clangula,  297 

Chilomonas,  718 

Chrysaenas  victor,  243 

Clarias,  497 

Chilonycteris,  41 

Chrysaetus,  Aquila,  314 

Clarkei,  Ammordorcas,  153 

Chilopoda,  548 

Chrysalis-shells,  643 

Clarke's  gazelle,  153 

Chilostomata,  666 

Chrysididae,  578 

Claudia,  346 

Chimaera,  Bottle-noserl,  462 

Chrysippus,  Limnas,  583 

Claudius,  389 

Chimaera,  Common,  461 
Chimaeroids,  461 

Chrysitis,  Plusia,  591 
Chrysochloridse,  50 

Clausilia,  643 
Clavatus,  Cervus,  146 

Chimpanzees,  14 

Chrysochloris,  50 

Clavicornia,  556 

Chimpanzee,  Bald,  15 
Chimpanzee,  Common,  15 

Chrysceoccyx,  350 
Chrysolophus,  238 

Clavigella,  628 
Clavigellidaa,  627 

Chimarrogale,  47 

Chrysolophus  amherstiae,  238 

Claviglis,  99 

Chin-leaf  bats,  41 

Chrysolophus  pictus,  238 

Clepsine,  677 

Chinchilla  tribe,  The,  113 

Chrysophrys,  466 

Click  beetles,  559 

Chinchilla,  Cuvier's,  114 

Chrysopid*,  571 

Cliff-swallow,  373 

Chinensis  neurobasis,  570 

Chrysops,  605 

Climbing  birds,  The,  352 

Chinese  alligator,  380 

Chrysothrix,  26 

Climbing-perch,  483 

Chinese  water-deer,  146 

Chrysotis,  329 

Clionidae,  640 

Chinquis,  Polypectrum,  238 
Chioglossa  lusitanica,  447 

Chthonerpetum,  455 
Chukar,  Caccabis,  232 

Clionopsidae,  640 
Clisiocampa  neustria,  590 

Chionarchus  minor,  265 

Chukar  partridge,  232 

Clistenterata,  650 

Chionarchus  crozettensis,  265 
Chionides,  265 

Chunga  burmeisteri,  277 
Cicadidae,  598 

Clitambonites,  651 
Clitambonites  adscendens,  651 

Chionis  alba,  265 

Cicindela  campestris,  554 

Cloak  anemone,  703 

Chipmunks,  91 

Cicindelidas,  554 

Cloephaga,  295 

Chiridaj,  478 

Ciconia  boyciana,  279 

Clcephaga  inornata,  296 

Chiridium  musaeorum,  541 

Ciconia,  Ciconia,  278 

Clothes  moths,  593 

Chiridota,  661 

Ciconia  nigra,  279 

Clouded  leopard,  55 

Chirocentridae,  506 
Chirocentrus  dorab,  506 

Ciconiidse,  278 
Cidaris  papillata,  6f9 

Clupea  alosa,  507 
Clupea  finta,  5(  7 

Chirogale,  30 

Ciliated  Infusorians,  720 

Clupea  harengus,  507 

Chiromeles  torquata,  40 
Chiromyidae,  31 

Cimbicinae,  574 
Cimicidae,  596 

Clupea  menhaden,  507 
Clupea  pilchardus,  507 

Chiromys  madagascariensis,  31 
Chironectes  minimus,  214 

Cinclus  aquaticus,  371 
Cinerea,  Ardea,  282 

Clupea  sprattus,  507 
Clupeida;,  506 

INDEX. 


735 


Clupeoides,  Coregonus,  509 

Columba  livia,  244 

Common  pike,  502 

Clytoceyx,  337 

Columb83,  242 

Common  porpoise,  179 

Cnemiornis  calcitrans,  295 

Columbia  transmontana,  509 

Common  pratincole,  272  , 

Cnidaria,  694 

Columbidae,  244 

Common  quail,  234 

Coal-fish,  491 

Columbiformes,  242 

Common  rat,  105 

Coati,  77 

Columbillidse,  637 

Common  rhea,  221 

Coatis,  76 

Coly,  Cape,  348 

Common  roe,  146 

Cobitinse,  500 

Dolymbiformes,  254 

Common  roller,  335 

Cobitis  trenia,  500 

Colymbus  adamsi,  ^54 

Common  rorqual,  174 

Cobras,  The,  424 

Colymbus  arcticus,  254 

Common  salamander,  446 

Cobra,  Giant,  424 

Colymbus  glacialis,  254 

Dommon  sargus,  466 

Cobra,  Indian,  424 
Cobus,  152 

Colymbus  septentrionalis,  254 
Comadre'ja,  212 

Common  sea-squirt,  528 
Common  seal,  b5 

Cobus  arundineum,  152 

Comadreja-colorada,  213 

Common  seriama,  277 

Coccidae,  602 

Comb-bearers,  711 

Common  sheld-duck,  296 

Coccinella  bipunctata,  562 

Comb-duck,  293 

Common  shrew,  46 

Coccinellida?,  562 

Comephorus,  478 

Common  skink,  410 

Coccothraustes  coccothraustes, 

Comeri,  Porphyriornis,  252 

Common  skunk,  78 

363 

Common  argus,  239 

Common  snipe,  268 

Coccothraustinae,  363 

Common  badger,  79 

Common  spoon-bill,  286 

Coccyges,  349 

Common  bat,  37 

Common  squirrel,  91 

Coccystes,  350 

Common  bee-eater,  The,  341 

Common  starling,  360 

Coccystes  glandarius,  350 

Common  blackbird,  371 

Common  sturgeon,  511 

Coccyzus,  350 

Common  boa-constrictor,  420 

Common  swallow,  The,  373 

Coccyzus  americanus,  351 

Common  buzzard,  312 

Common  swift,  346 

Coccyzus  erythrophthalmus,  351 

Common  carp,  498 

Common  sword-fish,  469 

Cochlearia,  Canchroma,  284 

Common  chaffinch,  363 

Common  tern,  261 

Cochlicella,  643 

Common  chimsera,  461 

Common  toad,  442 

Cock-chafers,  558 

Common  chimpanzee,  15 

Common  trumpeter,  277 

Cockatoos,  The,  328 

Common  cockroach,  564 

Common  turn-  stone,  272 

Cockatoo,  Great  black,  328 

Common  cormorant,  299 

Common  vampire,  42 

Cockles,  The,  626 

Common  crane,  275 

Common  weasel,  The,  80 

Cockroaches,  564 

Common  cuckoo,  350 

Common  wolf,  64 

Cockroach,  Common,  564 

Common  dipper,  371 

Common  wren,  371 

Cockroach,  Drummer,  564 

Common  emu,  223 

Common  wryneck,  354 

Cocks-of-the-rock,  374 

Common  flycatcher,  372 

Communis,  Phocoena,  179 

Cocophagez,  Lopaphus,  566 

Common  francolin,  2b3 

Concamerata,  Cardita,  623 

Cocorax,  358 

Common  frog,  436 

Conchicola,  Aspidogaster,  688 

Cocorax  melanorhamphus,  358 

Common  fulmar  petrel,  258 

Concolor,  Felis,  53 

Cod,  The,  491 

Common  gannet,  299 

Condor,  The,  304 

Codling  moth,  593 

Common  gold-crest,  368 

Condylura  cristata,  48 

Codosiga,  719 

Common  gos-hawk,  310 

Conepatus  mapurito,  78 

Coecillianella,  643 

Common  greenfinch,  363 

Conger,  494 

Coelebs,  Fringilla,  363 

Common  grey  seals,  85 

Conger  vulgaris,  494 

Ccelenterata,  690 

Common  gull,  262 

Conidse,  638 

Ccelogenys,  9,  115 

Common  gurnard,  475 

Conies,  124 

Coelomata,  690 

Common  hare,  118 

Conilurus,  106 

Coenagrion  puella,  570 
Ccereba,  362 

Common  hawfinch,  363 
Common  heron,  282 

Connochretes,  150 
Conolophus  subcristatus,  402 

Coereba  cyanea,  362 

Common  herring,  507 

Conopophagid*,  375 

Coerebidae,  362 

Common  hippopotamus,  131 

Constrictor,  Boa,  420 

Coerulea,  Crossopus,  46 
Ccerulescens,  (Edipoda,  568 
Cceruleus,  Bungarus,  424 

Common  hoopoe,  340 
Common  horse,  128 
Common  jackal,  66 

Contortrix,  Ancistrodon,  429 
Contortuplicata,  serpula,  672 
Conurus,  329 

Coffer-  fishes,  489 

Common  kingfisher,  337 

Convoluta  schultzii,  C86 

Cogia  breviceps,  176 

Common  kite,  316 

Coots,  252 

Colaptes,  354 

Common  lapwing,  271 

Copepoda,  533 

Colchicus,  Phasianus,  237 

Common  lemming,  103 

Copper-head,  429 

Coleoptera,  553 

Common  loach,  500 

Copper  pheasant,  238 

Colies,  The,  348 

Common  lynx,  56 

Coppers,  The,  586 

Colii,  348 

Common  mackerel,  473 

Coppersmith,  353 

Colius,  348 

Common  marmot,  92 

Copsychus,  370 

Colius  colius,  348 

Common  mole,  48 

Coraciae,  335 

Collembola,  573 

Common  newt,  448 

Coracias,  335 

Collocalia,  346 

Common  nut  hatch,  368 

Coracias  garrulus,  335 

Collyrio,  Lanius,  369 

Common  opossum,  211 

Coracias  temmincki,  335 

Colobus,  21 

Common  ox,  165 

Coraciinse,  335 

Colorado  beetle,  561 

Common  partridge,  233 

Coraciiformes,  332 

Colubridse,  421 

Common  perch,  464 

Coralline,  Bird's  head,  667 

Colubrine  tribe,  The,  421 

Common  pewit,  271 

Coralline,  Creeping,  667 

Columba,  244 

Common  phalanger,  200 

Coralline,  Nit,  668 

Columba  aenas,  244 

Common  pheasant,  The,  237 

Coralline,  Oaten-straw,  697 

736 


INDEX. 


Corallinus,  Elaps,  423 

Cottidae,  475 

Crested  curassow,  229 

Coralliophaga.  624 

Cotto-scombriformes,  470 

Crested  eagles,  315 

Coralliophilidae,  637 

Cotton-teal,  294 

Crested  guinea  fowls,  240 

Corallum  rubrum,  708 

Cottus,  475 

Crested  kingfisher,  337 

Corallus,  420 

Coturnix,  234 

Crested  larks,  364 

Corals,  The,  690,  704 

Coturnix  capensis,  234 

Crested  newt,  447 

Coral,  Black,  707 

Coturnix  coturnix,  234 

Crested-rat,  102 

Coral,  Blue,  708 

Coturnix  japonica,  235 

Crested  screamer,  290 

Coral,  Brain,  707 

Coturnix  novae  zealandiae,  235 

Crested  swift,  346 

Coral  colonies,  706 

Coursers,  The,  273 

Crested  tit,  368 

Coral,  Cup,  705 

Courser,  Coromandel,  273 

Crested  wood-partridges,  234 

Coral,  Development  of,  707 

Courser,  Cream-coloured,  273 

Crex  crex,  248 

Coral,  Eight-rayed,  70? 

Courser,  True,  272 

Cricetinae,  101 

Coral,  Fleshy.  701 
Coral  Islands,  709 
Coral,  Mushroom,  705 

Cow-bird,  Argentine,  361 
Cowries,  636 
Coyote,  North  American,  66 

Cricetine  Group,  The,  101 
Cricetomys,  106 
Cricetus  frumentarius,  101 

Coral,  Organ-Pipe,  70S 

Coypu,  8,  111 

Cricetus,  101 

Coral,  Red,  708 

Coypu  myopotamus,  112 

Crickets,  The,  566 

Coral  reefs,  709 

Crabs,  The,  537 

Cricket,  Field,  567 

Coral,  Six-rayed,  705 

Crab,  Edible,  538 

Cricket,  House,  567 

Coral,  Star,  706 

Crab,  Great  Japanese,  538 

Cricket,  Mole,  567 

Coral,  Stony,  701 
Coral  cylinder-snake,  421 
Coral-fishes,  485 

Crab,  Hermit,  537 
Crabs,  King,  538 
Crab,  Porcelain,  537 

Crimson  pufflet,  704 
Crimson-winged  creeper,  366 
Crinia,  441 

Coral  snake,  423 

Crab,  Robber,  537 

Crinoidea,  662 

Corbicula,  623 

Crab,  Spider,  537 

Cristata,  Cariama,  277 

Cordatum,  Echinocardium,  659 

Crab-eating  dog,  69 

Cristata,  Chauna,  290 

Coregonus,  508 

Crab-eating  macaque,  22 

Cristata,  Condylura,  48 

Coregonus  clupeoides,  509 
Coregonus  pollan,  509 

Crab  plovers,  The,  264 
Crabro,  Vespa,  580 

Cristata,  Cystophora,  87 
Cristata,  Guttera,  240 

Coregonus  vandesius,  509 

Crabroniformis,  Asilus,  605 

Cristata,  Molge,  447 

Coriacea,  Dermochelys,  391 

Graces,  226 

Cristatella  mucedo,  668 

Coriarius,  Prionus,  561 

Crait,  424 

Cristatus,  Amblyrhynchus,  402 

Corixidae,  597 

Crakes,  The,  251 

Cristatus,  Lophophanes,  368 

Cormorants,  The,  299 

Crake,  Baillon's,  251 

Cristatus,  Opisthocomus,  247 

Cormorant,  Common,  299 

Crake,  Corn,  251 

Cristatus  paro,  239 

Corn-bunting,  364 

Crake,  Little,  251 

Cristatus,  Podicipes,  253 

CoVn-crake,  251 

Crake,  Spotted,  251 

Cristatus,  Proteles,  62 

Corn  moth,  593 

Crake,  White-winged,  251 

Cristatus,  Sus,  134 

Cornifer,  436 

Crambi,  592 

Crocata,  Pachyrhina,  604 

Cornubica,  Lamna,  517 

Crambus  ericellus,  593 

Crocidura,  46 

Cornuta,  Palamedea,  290 

Cranchiadse,  646 

Crocodiles,  The,  378 

Cornutus,  Centrotus,  601 

Cranes,  The,  274 

Crocodile,  Egyptian,  381 

Coromandel  courser,  273 

Crane,  Common,  275 

Crocodile,  Long-nosed,  381 

Coromandelianus,    Nettopus, 

Crane  flies,  604 

Crocodile,  Stumpy,  382 

294 

Crane,  Sarus,  274 

Crocodilia,  378 

Coromandelicus,  Cursorius,  273 

Crangonidati,  536 

Crocodilidre,  380 

Coronata,  Goura,  245 

Crania,  648 

Crocodilus,  381 

Coronatus,  Anthracoeerus,  339 

Crassatellidse,  624 

Crocodilus  americanus,  381 

Coronatus,  Harpyhaliaetus,  313 

Crassicaudata,  Didelphys,  213 

Crocodilus  cataphractus,  381 

Corone  corone,  358 

Crassicornis,  Tealia,  703 

Crocodilus  niloticus,  381 

Coronella  laevis,  422 

Crassidens,  Pseudorca,  180 

Crocodilus  palustris,  381 

Coronetta,  Floscularia,  682 

Crassipes,  Linotaenia,  549 

Crocodilus  porosus,  381 

Corsac,  Can  is,  73 

Crateromys,  101 

Crocuta,  Hyaena,  63 

Corsac  fox,  73 

Crateropus,  372 

Cross-fox,  71 

Corvidae,  338 

Cratogeomys,  109 

Crossarchus,  61 

Corvinse,  358 

Crax  alector,  229 

Crossarchus  fasciatus,  61 

Corydon,  356     . 

Cray-fish,  536 

Crossbills,  363 

Coryphaena,  472 

Cream-coloured  courser,  272 

Crossopterygii,  512 

Coryphsenas,  244 

Cream-coloured  turtle-dove,  245 

Crossoptilum  auritum,  236 

Coryphasnidae,  472 

Crecinas,  248 

Crossopus,  46 

Corythornis,  336 

Creepers,  The,  365 

Crossopus  coerulea,  46 

Coscoroba,  292 

Creeper,  Crimson-winged,  366 

Crossopus  fodiens,  46 

Coscoroba  Candida,  293 

Creeper,  Tree,  365 

Crossorhinus,  518 

Coscoroba  swan,  293 
Cosmetornis,  343 

Creeping  coralline,  667 
Crenidens,  466 

Crotalinae,  428 
Croton  bug,  564 

Cosmonetta,  297 

Crenilabrus,  486 

Crotophaga,  351 

Cossus,  Trypanns,  590 
Cossypha,  370 

Crepidatus,  Stercorarius,  264 
Crepitans,  Psophia,  277 

Crotophaginae,  351 
Crows,  The,  358 

Costa  Kica  deer,  146 

Crested  argus,  239 

Crow,  Carrion,  358 

Cotile,  373 
Cotingidse,  373 

Crested  chatterer,  369 
Crested  cuckoo,  350 

Crowned  pigeon,  245 
Crowther,  Ursus,  75 

INDEX. 


737 


Crozettensis,  Chionarchus,  265 

Cuscus,  Spotted,  200 

Cysticercus,  687 

Crucian  carp,  498 

Cusimanses,  61 

Cystidea,  655 

Crucibulum,  634 

Cusp-toothed  fruit-bat,  35 

Cystignathidae,  440 

Crustacea,  530 
Crustacea,   Larval  forms  of, 

Cuspidariidae,  628 
Cuttle-fish,  646 

Cystophora  cristata,  87 
Cytherea  dione,  625 

530 

Cut-water,  262 

Cyttidge,  471 

Crymophilus,  266 

Cut  worms,  591 

Cyttus,  471 

Crymophilus  fulicarius.  266 

Cuvieri,  Choneziphitis,  177 

Cryptobranchus  lateralis,  451 

Cuvier's  chinchilla,  114 

Cryptodira,  385 

Cuvier's  whale,  177 

D. 

Cryptoplacidae,  616 

Cyamus  ovalis,  535 

Cryptoprocta  ferox,  56 

Cyanea,  Caereba,  362 

Dabchick,  253 

Cryptops  hortensis,  549 

Cyanecula,  370 

Dace,  499 

Crystallinus,  Laphopus,  668 

Cyanochen,  295 

Dacelo  gigas,  337 

Ctenodactylus,  111 

Cyanocorax,  358 

Daceloninse,  336 

Ctenomys,  111 

Cyclanorbis,  395 

Dactylomys,  112 

Ctenophora,  694,  711 

Cyclas,  623 

Dactylopsila,  201 

Ctenostomata,  668 

Cyclatella  annelidicola,  688 

Dactylopteridae,  476 

Cuckoos,  The,  350 

Cyclemys,  387 

Dactylopterus,  476 

Cuckoo,  American,  350 

Cycloderma,  395 

Dahlia  wartlet,  The,  703 

Cuckoo,  Black-billed,  351 

Cyclophoridae,  634 

Daisy  anemone,  702 

Cuckoo,  Bush,  351 

Cyclops,  532 

Dalhousiae,  Psarisomus,  356 

Cuckoo,  Common,  350 

Cyclops  quadricornis,  532 

Dama,  Cervus,  144 

Cuckoo,  Crested,  350 

Cyclopsitta  lunulata,  328 

Darnaliscus,  150 

Cuckoo,  Golden,  350 

Cyclopsittacidae,  328 

Damascena,  Perdix,  234 

Cuckoo,  Great-spotted,  350 

Cyclopsittacus,  328 

Damon  ia  hamiltoni,  388 

Cuckoo,  Hawk,  350 

Cyclopteridae,  476 

Danainae,  583 

Cuckoo,  Indian  crested,  350 

Cyclopterus,  476 

Daphnia  pulex,  531 

Cuckoo,  Lark-heeled,  351 

Cyclostoma,  634 

Dark  green  snake,  422 

Cuckoo-like  birds,  The,  349 

Cyclostomata,  523,  669 

Darters,  The,  298,  301 

Cuckoo,  Pheasant,  351 

Cyclostomatidse,  634 

Darter,  African,  301 

Cuckoo,  Eain,  351  -. 

Cyclostrematidse,  632 

Darwini,  Rhea,  222 

Cuckoo,  Spotted,  350 
Cuckoo,  Sarana,  351 

Cycloturus  didactylus,  184 
Cyclura  carinata,  403 

Darwini,  Ehinoderma,  439 
Darwin's  frog,  439 

Cuckoo,  Steel-blue,  351 

Cydippe,  711 

Darwin's  rhea,  222 

Cuckoo,  True,  350 

Cygminae,  292 

Daryprocta,  8 

Cuckoo,  Typical,  350 

Cygnus,  292 

Dascyllus,  485 

Cuckoo,  Yellow-billed,  351 

Cygnus  bewicki,  292 

Dasypus,  186 

Cuckoo-doves,  244 

Cygnus  immutabilis,  292 

Dasypus  minutua,  186 

Cuckoo-falcon,  317 

Cygnus  musicus,  292 

Dasypus  sexcinctus,  186 

Cuckoo  shrikes,  The,  372 

Cygnus  olor,  292 

Dasypus  villosus,  186 

Cuculi,  349 

Cylichna,  640 

Dasymys,  101 

Cuculidse,  350 

Cylinder  snakes,  421 

Dasypeltis  scabra,  422 

Cuculinse,  350 

Cylindrellidje,  643 

Dasypodidae,  185 

Cuculus,  350 
Cuculus  canorus,  350 

Cylindricornis,  Capra,  158 
Cylindrophis,  421 

Dasyprocta,  115 
Dasyproctidae,  115 

Cuculus  jacobinus,  350 

Cyllopodidse,  589 

Dasyure,  Spotted,  208 

Cucumaria  planci,  660 

Cymborhynchus,  356 

Dasyure,  Spotted-tailed,  203 

Culicidse,  604 

Cymbulidse,  640 

Dasyure  tribe,  206 

Culminated  albatros,  258 

Cymothoidse,  534 

Dasyuridse,  206 

Cumacea,  535 

Dynaelurus  jubatua,  56 

Dasyurus,  208 

Cumingi,  Megapodius,  228 
Cumming's  megapode,  228 

Cynictis  penicillata,  60 
Cynipidse,  576 

Dasyurus  maculatus,  208 
Dasyurus  viverrinus,  208 

Cuniculus,  Lepus,  118 

Cynips,  576 

Daubentoni,  Fossa,  57 

Cuniculus  torquatus,  103 

Cynips,  Kollari,  576 

Oaubentoni,  Vespertilio,  37 

Cup-and-Saucer  limpets,  634 

Cynocephalus,  Thylacinus,  207 

Daubenton's  bat,  37 

Cup  coral,  The,  705 

Cynodon,  501 

Oaubenton's  civit,  57 

Curassows,  The,  229 

Dynogale  bennetti,  60 

Daulias  luscinia,  370 

Curassow,  Crested,  229 

^ynomolgus,  Macacus,  22 

Daurica,  Perdix,  234 

Curlew,  Pearl-grey,  270 

Jynomys,  92 

Davidianus,  Cervus,  143 

Curlew,  Sandpiper,  269 

Dynopithecus  niger,  22 

David's  deer,  143 

Curlew,  Stone,  273 

Cynopterus,  35 

Dead  leaf  butterfly,  585 

Cursorii,  272 

Cyon,  67 

Death-adder,  425 

Cursorius,  272 

Cypraeidae,  636 

Decapoda,  536 

Cursorius  coromandelicus,  273 

Cyprina,  624 

Decapodo,  646 

Cursorius  gallicus,  272 

Cyprinidae,  497 

Deccanensis,  Canis,  68 

Curtidae,  468 

Jyprinodontidae,  501 

Decemlineata,  Leptinotarsa,  561 

Curtiformes,  468 

Cyprinus,  498 

Decumana,  Alactaga,  110 

Curtilla  gryllotalpa,  567 

Cyprinus  carpio,  498 

Decumanus,  Mus,  105 

Curtis,  468 

Cypseli,  345 

Deer,  Axis,  143 

Curtus,  471 

Cypselinee,  346 

Deer,  Chinese  water,  146 

Cuscus,  Black,  200 

Cyrenidae,  623 

Deer,  Costa  Rica,  146 

48 

738 


INDEX. 


Deer,  David's,  143 

Desmodus,  41 

Dipnoi,  459 

Deer,  Eld's,  143 

Desmodus  rufus,  41 

Dipodidse,  109 

Deer,  Fallow,  144 

Desmognathinae,  450 

Dipodomys,  109 

Deer,  Hog,  143 

Desmognathus,  450 

Dipodomys  phillipsi,  109 

Deer,  Irish,  144 

Destructor,  Cecidomyia,  603 

Diporpa,  688 

Deer,  Japanese.  143 

Development  of  corals,  707 

Dippers,  The,  371 

Deer,  Large-eared  mule,  146 

Devil-fish,  521 

Dipper,  Common,  371 

Deer,  Musk,  141 

Devil,  Tasmanian,  207 

Diprera  homaloptera,  608 

Deer,  Pampas,  146 

Devil's  coach-horse,  556 

Dipsadomorphinae,  423 

Deer,  Persian  fallow,  144 
Deer,  Pudu,  147 

Dhaval  birds,  370 
Diadema,  Epeira,  544 

Dipsadomorphus,  423 
Dipsas,  426 

Deer,  Red,  143 

Diadema  setosum,  660 

Diptera,  553,  602 

Deer,  Roe,  146 

Diamond  beetles,  560 

Diptera  aphaniptera,  609 

Deer,  Ruff's,  144 

Diamond  snake,  419 

Diptera  brachycera,  605 

Deer,  Spotted,  143 

Diana  monkey,  21 

Diptera  homaloptera,  608 

Deer,  Swamp,  143 

Dianthus,  Actinoloba,  702 

Diptera  nemocera,  603 

Deer,  Thorold's,  143 

Diatrematid*,  486 

Dipus,  110 

Deer  tribe,  The,  140 

Dibamidae,  411 

Discina,  651 

Deer,  Virginian,  146 

Dibamus,  411 

Discinisca,  651 

Deep-sea  holothurian,  661 

Dibranchiata,  643 

Discoglossidae,  444 

Degu,  111 
Delichonyx  oryzivora,  361 

Dictum,  367 
Dicamptodon,  450 

Discoglossus  pictus,  444 
Discophora,  675 

Delphacinre,  600 

Diceidse,  367 

Discopyge,  521 

Delphinapterus  leucas,  179 

Dicerobatis,  522 

Dissemurus,  361 

Delphinidse,  180 

Dichocerus  bicornis,  339 

Dissura  episcopus,  280 

Delphinidse,  178 

Dicholophi,  277 

Distira,  426 

Delphinulidse,  632 

Dichromanassa  rufa,  283 

Distoechurus  pennatus,  202 

Delphinus,  181 

Dichrous,  Arctomys,  94 

Distoma  hepaticum,  689 

Deltocephalus,  601 

Diclidurus,  39 

Distomeae,  688 

Demiegretta,  283 

Dicotyles,  9,  135 

Ditrema,  486 

Demodex  folliculorum,  547 

Dicotylidae,  135 

Divers,  The,  254 

Demodicidae,  517 

Dicrocercus,  340 

Diver,  Black-throated,  254 

Dendraeca,  365 

Dicruridae,  361 

Diver,  Great  northern,  254 

Dendragapus,  231 

Dicyemidae,  689 

Diver,  Red-throated,  254 

Dandragapus  obscurus,  231 

Didactylus,  Cycloturus,  184 

Diver,  White-billed,  254 

Dendrelaphis,  422 

Didelphyidae,  9,  210 

Diving-ducks,  The,  297 

Dendrobates,  438 

Didelphys,  211 

Diving-duck,  Stiff-tailed,  297 

Dendrobates  tinctorius,  438 

Didelphys  crassicaudata,  213 

Diving  petrel,  257 

Dendrobatidse,  438 

Didelphys  marsupialis,  211 

Docimastes  ensiferas,  348 

Dendroccela,  685 

Didelphys  opossum,  213 

Docoglossa,  631 

Dendrocolaptidse,  375 

Didelphys  velutina,  213 

Dodo,  The,  246 

Dendrocopus,  354 

Didi,  242 

Dogs,  The,  63 

Dendrocygna,  296 

Didunculus,  245 

Dog,  Azara's,  69 

Dendrogale,  44 

Didunculus  strigirostris,  245 

Dog,  Bush,  74 

Dendrolagus,  195 

Didus,  245 

Dog,  Crab-eating,  69 

Dendrolagus  bennettianus,  195 

Didus  ineptus,  246 

Dog,  Hunting-,  Cape,  73 

Dendromys,  101 

Dieffenlachii,  Cabalus,  249 

Dog,  Prairie-,  92 

Dendromyinae,  101 

Dimyaria,  618 

Dog,  Racoon,  69 

Dendrophis,  422 
Dendrophryniscidae,  441 

Dingo,  66 
Dingo,  Canis,  66 

Dog  tribe,  The,  63 
Dog-faced  baboons,  22 

Dendrophryniscus,  441 

Dinomys,  115 

Dog-fish,  518 

Dendrositta,  368 

Dinoponera  grandis,  579 

Dog-fishes,  Spiny,  519 

Dendrosoma,  722 
Dentalium  shell,  629 

Dinornithidaa,  224 
Dinornithiformes,  221 

Dog-flea,  609 
Dog-periwinkle,  637 

Deomys,  104 

Diodontidse,  489 

Dog-whelks,  637 

Depressa,  Libellula,  569 

Diomedea,  258 

Dolichotis,  115 

Depressicornis,  Bos,  162 

Diomedea  exulans,  258 

Doliidae,  636 

Derbian  screamer,  290 

Diomedeidae,  257 

Doliolum  tritonis,  527 

Derbianus,  Oreophasis,  229 

Diomediae,  Psolus,  661 

Dolomedes  fimbriatus,  543 

Derbinse,  600 

Dione,  Cytherea,  625 

Dolphins,  169 

Derby's  guan,  229 

Diotocardia,  631 

Dolphin,  Amazonian,  178 

Dermatemys,  389 

Diphylla,  41 

Dolphins,  Fresh  water,  177 

Dermestes,  556 

Diphylla  ecaudata,  42 

Dolphin,  Gangetic,  177 

Dermestes  lardarius,  556 

Diplocrepis,  482 

Dolphin,  Heaviside's,  179 

Dermochelyidae,  391 

Diploglossus,  405 

Dolphin,  Irawadi,  179 

Dermochelys  coriacea,  391 

Diplomesodon  pulchellus,  46 

Dolphin,  La  Plata,  178 

Desert-chough,  358 

Diplomystus,  507 

Dolphin,  Risso's,  180 

Desert  fox,  73 

Diploptera,  580 

Dolphin,  Rough-toothed,  181 

Desert  larks,  364 

Diplopterinaa,  351 

Dolphins,  True,  181 

Desmans,  The,  47 

Diplosis  tritici,  603 

Domestica,  Musca,  €07 

Desman,  Pyrenean,  47 

Diplozoon  paradoxum,  688 

Domesticus,  Gryllus,  567 

Desman  Russian  47 

Dipueumoues,  542 

Dominicus,  Charadrius,  270 

INDEX. 


739 


Donacidse,  625 

Duke  of   Burgundy   Fritillary, 

Echiurus,  678 

Donax,  625 

586 

Ectopistinae  migratoria,  244 

Dondersiidse,  616 

Dulitensis  rhizothera,  233 

Edentata,  181 

Dorab,  506 

Dung  beetles,  557 

Edible  arthropoda,  530 

Dorab,  Chirocentrus,  F;06 

Dupetor,  284 

Edible  crab,  538 

Dorca  kangaroos,  194 

Dusky  capercailzies,  231 

Edible  frog,  436 

Dorcatherium,  139 

Dusky  rail,  249 

Edible  swiftlets,  The,  346 

Dorcatragus,  153 

Duvauceli,  Cervus,  143 

Edouardi,  Guttera,  240 

Dorcopsis,  194 

Dwarf  geese,  294 

Edulis,  Mytilus,  621 

Dorite,  Ervthrotriorchis,  312 

Dwarf  tiger  bittern,  284 

Edwardsia,  702 

Doridiidfe,  640 

Dynastes  hercules,  558 

Edwardsia  carnea,  704 

Doridoidea,  641 

Dyscophidse,  439 

Edwardsi,  Eupodotis,  275 

Dormouse-phalanger,  202 

Dysporus  bassanus,  299 

Eels,  The,  493 

Dormouse  tribe,  The,  99 

Dytiscidse,  555 

Eel,  Electric,  495 

Dorsalis,  Bathythrissa,  506 

Dytiscus,  555 

Eel,  Glass,  494 

Doryichthys,  488 

Dytiscus  marginalis,  556 

Eel,  Serpent,  494 

Dotterel,  270 

Eel,  Spiny,  478 

Dotterel,  True,  271 

Eel  tribe,  The,  493 

Double-toothed  falcon,  318 

E. 

Eel,  True,  478 

Dougalli,  Sterna,  261 

Eel,  Paste,  679 

Douroucoulis,  26 

Eagles,  The,  313 

Eel,  Vinegar,  «79 

Douroucouli,    Three   striped, 

Eagle,  Bald,  315 

Eel,  Wheat,  679 

26 

Eagle,  Bateleur,  315 

Effodientia,  188 

Doves,  The,  244 

Eagle,  Bearded,  313 

Egg-eating  snake,  422 

Dove,  Cuckoo-.  244 

Eagle,  Birds'-nesting,  315 

Egg-laying  mammals,  214 

Dove,  Rock-,  244 

Eagle,  Black,  315 

Egg-urchin,  659 

Dove,  Ring-,  244 

Eagle,  Bonelli's,  315 

Egret,  Little,  283 

Dove,  Stock-,  244 
Dove,  Turtle-,  244 

Eagle,  Booted,  315 
Eagle,  Crested,  315 

Egyptian  asp,  424 
Egyptian  crocodile,  381 

Dove,  Turtle-,  British,  244 

Eagle,  Golden,  314 

Egyptian  sacred  beetle,  557 

Dove,  Turtle-,  Cream-coloured, 

Eagle,  Imperial,  314 

Egyptian  vulture,  306 

245 

Eagle,  Sea,  315 

Eiders,  The,  297 

Downy  owl,  324 

Eagle,  Serpent,  315 

Eider,  Steller's,  297 

Draco  volans,  399 

Eagle,  Spotted,  314 

Eighkrayed  corals,  707 

Dracunculus  medinensis,  679 
Dragon-fishes,  476 

Eagle,  Tawny,  314 
Eagle,  White-bellied  Sea,  315 

Elacate,  473 
Elachistidse,  594 

Dragonflies,  553,  569 

Eagle,  White-tailed,  315 

Elseniinse,  373 

Dreissensiidse,  623 

Eagle-owls,  The,  322 

Eland  bull,  156 

Drilophaga  bucephala,  683 

Eagle-rays,  521 

Elanoides  furcatus,  316 

Drinker  moth,  590 

Eared  owls,  324 

Elanus,  316 

Dromades,  264 

Eared  pheasants,  The,  236 

Elapinse,  424 

Dromedarius,  Camelus,  136 
Dromece,  223 

Eared  seals,  81 
Eared  vultures,  The,  306 

Elaphodus,  141 
Elaps  corallinus,  423 

Dromeoa  irroratus,  223 

Earth-worms,  674 

Elasmobranchii,  513 

Dromece  novae-hollandioe,  223 

Earwigs,  563 

Elateridse,  558 

Dromicia,  202 

Ecaudata,  435 

Eldi,  Cervus,  143 

Dromiciops,  214 

Ecaudata,  Diphylla,  42 

Eld's  deer,  143 

Dromornis,  224 

Ecaudata,  Pennula,  251 

Electric  centipede,  519 

Drongos,  The,  361 

Ecaudatus,  Centetes,  49 

Electric  eel,  495 

Drongo,  Black,  361 

Echeneis,  473 

Electricus,  Gymnotus,  495 

Drum,  The,  468 

Echidna  aculeata,  217 

Elegans,  Galidia,  61 

Drummer  cockroach,  564 

Echidna,  Bruijn's,  217 

Elegans,  Nectogale,  47 

Dryophis,  423 

Echidna,  Five-toed,  217 

Elegans,  Testudo,  386 

Dryopithecus,  14 

Echidnas,  216 

Elegant  mungoose,  61 

Drymornis  bridges!,  375 
Duck-bill,  215 

Echidnidse,  216 
Echinocardium  cordatum,  6J9 

Elephant,  African,  123 
Elephant  family,  The,  119 

Duck-mole,  215 

Eclrinococcus,  Taenai,  688 

Elephant,  Indian,  119 

Ducks,  The,  293 

Echinoderma,  653 

Elephant  seal,  87 

Duck,  Comb,  293 

Echinoidea,  659 

Elephantidse,  119 

Duck,  Ulving,  297 

Echinomys,  112 

Elephant's-tooth  shells,  628 

Duck,  Long-tailed,  297 

Echinops,  49 

Elephas,  118 

Duck,  Mandarin,  294 
Duck,  Pink-headed,  294 

Echinorhinus,  519 
Echinorhynchus,  681 

Elephas  africanus,  123 
Elephas  indicus,  119 

Duck,  Sheld,  296 

Echinorhynchus  angustatus,  682 

Elephus,  Cervus,  143 

Duck,  Steamer,  297 

Echinorhynchus  gigas,  681 

Eliomys,  99 

Duck,  Summer,  294 

Echinorhynchus  polymorphus, 

Eliurus,  102 

Duck,  Tree,  296 

682 

Elk,  145 

Duck,  True,  The,  296 

Echinorhynchus  proteus,  682 

Ellioti,  Callophasis,  238 

Duck,  Wild,  296 

Echinothrix,  106 

Ellobius,  104 

Dugongs,  165 

Echinus,  659 

Elops,  507 

Dugong  halicore,  167 

Echiostoma,  505 

Elseya,  393 

Duikerboks,  151 

Echis,  427 

Elvers,  494 

740 


INDEX. 


Elysioidea,  641 

Erinaceus,  45 

Eurypygse,  276 

Emarginula,  631 

Erinaceus  europaeus,  45 

Eurypyga  helias,  276 

Emballonura,  39 

Hriomys,  113 

Eurypyga  major,  276 

Emballonuridae,  38 

Erismatura,  297 

Eurystomina,  Pseudochelidon, 

Emberiza  cirlus,  364 

Erismaturinae,  297 

369 

Emberiza  citrinella,  364 

Eristalis  tenax,  606 

Eurystomus,  335 

Emberiza  hortulana,  364 

Erithecus,  Psittacus,  330 

Eurystomus  calonyx,  335 

Emberizinae,  363 

Ermine,  81 

Eusiferus,  Docimastes,  ;-,48 

Emperor  fish,  465 

Ermine  moths,  593 

Euspongia  officinalis,  693 

Emperor  moth,  589 

Erminea,  Mustela,  81 

Eustephanus,  Cervus,  143 

Emperor  penguin,  255 

Errantia,  672 

Euthyneura,  6H9 

Emphyodontes,  408 

Erycinidae,  624 

Eutolmaetus,  315 

Empidae,  606 

Erythacus  rubeculi,  370 

Eutolmaetus  fasciatns.  315 

Emu,  The,  223 

Erythrinidae,  500 

Entolrnaetus  pennatus,  315 

Emu,  Common,  223 

Erythrinus,  501 

Euxenura  maguari,  280 

Emu,  Spotted,  223 

Erythrocnema,  310 

Evania,  577 

Emyda,  395 

Erythrocnema  unicincta,  310 

Evaniidse,  576 

Emydura,  393 

Erythrogaster,  Hirundo,  373 

Evotomys,  103 

Emys  orbicularis,  388 

Erythromachus,  251 

Excalfactoria,  235 

Encheliophis,  491 

Erythrophthalmus,    Coccyzus, 

Excalfactoria  adansoni,  235 

Endodontidse,  643 

351 

Exclamationis,  Agrotis,  591 

Endrina,  29 

Erythrorhynchus,     Pelecanus, 

Excubitor,  Lanius,  3(J9 

Endynamis,  350 

302 

Exoccetus,  479 

English  puffin,  260 

Erythrotriorchis,  312 

Exomegas,  524 

Engraulis,  507 

Erythrotriorchis  doria?,  312 

Expansa,  Podocnemis,  393 

Engystomatidse,  438 

Erythrotriorchis  radiatus,  312 

Exquisita,  Ortygops,  252 

Engystomops,  441 

Eryx,  420 

Extinct  birds  of  Patagonia,  278 

Entellus,  Semnopithecus,  20 

Esacus  recurvfrostris,  273 

Exulans,  Diomedea,  258 

Enteropneusta,  528 

Esculenta,  Rana,  436 

Eyra,  South  American,  55 

Entomophaga,  576 

Esocidae,  502 

Eyra  felis,  55 

Entomostraca,  531 

Esox,  502 

Enygrus,  420 

Esox  lucius,  502 

Eos,  328 

Estrilda,  362 

F. 

Eos  rubiginosa,  328 

Etroplus,  487 

Epanorthidae,  204 

Eublepharidae,  398 

Fabalia,  Anser,  295 

Epanorthus,  204 

Euchloe  cardamines,  586 

Faber,  Zeus,  471 

Epauletted  fruit-bats,  35 

Euchore,  Gazella,  153 

Fairy  fly,  577 

Epeira  diadema,  544 

Euchoretes,  110 

Fairy  pink  armadillos.  1S8 

Epeiridae,  544 

Eudromias,  *71 

Faicinellus,  Plegadis,  288 

Ephemeridae,  571 

Eudromias  morinellus,  271 

Falco,  319 

Ephemera  vulgata,  571 

Eudyptila  minor,  255 

Falco  sesalon.  320 

Ephippium,  Anomia,  621 

Euglena,  718 

Falco  feldeggii,  319 

Ephippium,  Testudo,  387 

Eulabes,  360 

Falco  peregrinus,  319 

Ephippodonta,  624 

Eulabetidae,  360 

Falco  subbuteo,  319 

Epicrates,  419 

Eulamellibranchiata,  623 

Falcon,  Cuckoo,  317 

Epicriniops,  454 

Eulimidse,  633 

Falcon,  Double-toothed,  318 

Epimachinae,  359 

Eulipoa,  228 

Falcon,  Juggur,  319 

Epimachus,  359 

Eulipoa  wallacii,  228 

Falcon,  Peregrine,  319 

Episcopalis,  Mitra,  638 

Eumomota,  341 

Falcon,  True,  317 

Episcopus,  Dissura,  280 

Eunectes  murinus.  420 

Falcon-kite,  Grey,  318 

Epomophorus,  35 

Eunice  gigantea,  673 

Falcon  eri,  Capra,  159 

Epops,  Upupa,  340 

Eupetaurus,  95 

Falconets,  The.  319 

Equatorial  flying-squirrel,  90 

Euplectella,  693 

Falconidse,  305 

Eques  alexanor,  587 

Eupleres  goudoti,  61 

Falconinse,  307,  317 

Eques  machaon,  587 

Euplcea,  583 

Fallow  deer,  144 

Equidae,  127 

Eupodotis  australis,  275 

False  vampire  bats,  36 

Equinus,  Hippotragus,  153 

Eupodotis  edwardsi,  275 

Famelicus,  Canis,  73 

Equitidae,  587 
Equus,  127 

Europaea,  Talpa,  48 
Europaeus,  Caprimulgus,  342 

Familiaris,  Certhia,  366 
Famosa,  Nectarinia,  366 

Equus  asinus,  129 

Europaeus,  Erinaceus.  45 

Fan-tailed  flycatchers,  373 

Equus  burchelli,  128 

Europaeus,  Lepus,  118 

Fasciatus,  Bungarus,  424 

Equus  caballus,  128 

European  bison,  162 

Fasciatus,  Crossarchus,  61 

Equus  grevyi,  1-28 

European  horned-lark,  3G4 

Fasciatus,  Eutolmaatus,  315 

Equus  hemionus,  129 

European  tree-frog,  442 

Fasciatus,  Lagostrophus,  196 

Equus  prezevalskii,  128 

Eurostopodus,  334 

Fasciatus,  Myrmecobius,  209 

Equus  quagga,  129 

Eurybiidse,  640 

Fasciolariidifi,  637 

Equus  zebra,  128 

Euryceros,  360 

Feather-Star,  Crawling,  6C4 

Erethizon,  113 

Euryceros  prevosti,  "60 

Feldeggii,  Falco,  319 

Ericulus,  49 

Eurylsemi,  356 

Felidae,  5* 

Ericulus  setosus,  49 

Eurylaemus,  356 

Felis.  52 

Ericulus  telfairi,  49 

Eurylajmus  javanicus,  356 

Felis  badia,  55 

Erinaceidaa,  44 

Eurynorhynchus  pygmseus,  269 

Felis  bengalensis,  55 

INDEX. 


741 


Felis  caff  ra,  55 

Flammea,  Strix,  321 

Fornicata,  Gastracantha,  544 

Felis  canadensis,  56 

Flat-fishes,  492 

Forsteni,  Meropogon,  341 

Felis  caracal,  55 

Flat  worms,  685 

Fossa,  56 

Felis  catus,  55 

Flata  circulata,  600 

Fossa  daubentoni,  57 

Felis  chaus,  55 

Flatinse,  600 

Fossaridae,  635 

Felis  concolor,  53 

Flavescens,  Canis,  71 

Fossores,  579 

Felis  eyra,  55 

Flavicollis,  Mus,  105 

Fosteri,  Ortaria,  82 

Felis  leo,  53 

Flavigula,  Mustela,  80 

Fountain  shell,  636 

Felis  lynx,  56 

Flavirostris,  Phreton.  298 

Four-horned  antelope,  151 

Felis  marmorata,  55 

Flavirostris,  Rhynchops,  262 

Four-toed  mungooses,  60 

Felis  nebulosa,  55 

Flea,  Water,  534 

Fox-like  animals,  69 

Felis  onca,  53 

Fleas,  609 

Fox,  Arctic,  73 

Felis  pardalis,  55 

Flesh-eating  mammals,  50 

Fox,  Common,  71 

Felis  pardina,  56 

Fleshy  corals,  701 

Fox,  Bengal,  73 

Felis  pardus,  53 

Flies,  553,  602 

Fox,  Black,  71 

Felis  serval,  55 

Flies,  Blue-bottle,  COS 

Fox,  Corsac,  73 

Felis  tigrina.  55 

Flies,  Bot,  606 

Fox,  Cross,  71 

Felis  tigris,  53 

Flies.  Caddis,  572 

Fox,  Desert,  73 

Felis  uncia,  53 

Flies,  Crane,  604 

Fox,  Japanese,  73 

Fennecs,  73 

Flies,  Gad,  605 

Fox,  Kit-,  72 

Fennec,  Lalande's,  74 

Flies,  Gall,  576 

Fox,  Long-eared,  73 

Ferox,  Cryptoprocta,  56 

Flies.  House,  607 

Fox,  Mountain,  71 

Ferret-badgers,  80 

Flies,  Lace-winged,  571 

Fox,  Nile,  71 

Ferrilatus,  Canis,  73 

Flies,  Lantern,  599 

Fox,  Red,  71 

Feylinia,  411 

Flies,  May,  571 

Fox,  Tibetan,  73 

Fiber,  Castor,  96 

Flies,  Rohber,  605 

Fox,  Virginian,  72 

Fiber  ziberthicus,  103 

Flies,  Sand,  604 

Fox,  Yellow,  71 

Ficedula  atricapilla,  372 

Flies,  Saw,  574 

Fox-bats,  35 

Fiddler  beetle,  555 

Flies,  Smother,  601 

Fox-shark,  517 

Field  cricket,  567 

Flies,  Stone,  571 

Fragilis  anguis,  404 

Fieldfare,  371 

Florida  limpkin,  275 

Francolin,  Bare-throated,  233 

Field  -starling,  360 

Floscularia  coronetta,  682 

Francolin,  Common,  233 

Field  -vole,  103 

Flounder,  The,  492 

Francolin,  Hose's  long-billed, 

Field  wagtail,  365 

Flower-nosed  bat,  36 

233 

Fierasfer,  491 

Flower-  peckers,  The,  367 

Francolin,  Long-billed,  233 

Fierce  snakes,  4?2 

Fluke-worms,  688 

Francolinus  francolinus,  233 

Fighting  fish,  Siamese,  483 

Kluminalis,  Orcella,  179 

Fratercula  artica,  260 

Filaria  sanguinis-hominis,  680 

Flustra  foliacea,  665 

Free-swimming  holothurian, 

File-fishes,  489 

Flute-mouths,  481 

661 

Filibranchiata,  621 

Fluviatibis,  Tachybaptes,  253 

Free-tailed  bats,  38 

Fimbriata,  Chelys,  392 
Fimbriatus,  Dolomedes,  543 

Fluviatile,  Petromyzum,  524 
Fluviatilis,  Sterna,  261 

Fregata  aquila,  303 
Fregati,  298 

Finch-larks,  364 

Fly,  Candle,  599 

Fregilinae,  358 

Finches,  The,  363 

Fly,  Fairy,  577 

Fresh-  water  leech,  677 

Finfeet,  The,  252 

Fly,  Ichneumon,  577 

Fresh-water  mites,  545 

Finfoot,  Senegal,  252 

Fly,  Swallow,  608 

Fresh  -water  polyp,  694 

Finfoot,  South  Ameiican,  252 

Fly,  Tse-tse,  608 

Frigate-birds,  The,  303 

Finners,  173 

Flycatchers,  The,  372 

Frigate-birds,  Great,  303 

Finta,  Clupea,  507 

Flycatcher,  Common,  372 

Frilled  lizard,  399 

Fin-whale,  173 

Flycatcher,  Fan-tailed,  373 

Fringe-tinned  ganoids,  512 

Fin-whale,  Lesser.  174 

Flycatcher,  Paradise,  373 

Fringed  gecko,  398 

Fire  backed  pheasant,  236 

Flycatcher,  Pied,  372 

Fringilla  cselebs,  363 

Fire-bellied  frog,  444 

Flying-fish,  480 

FringillidiB,  363 

Fire  crest,  369 

Flying  frog,  437 

Fringillinae,  363 

Fire-flies,  559 

Flying  gurnard,  476 

Fringing  reef,  The,  709 

Fire  fly,  Italian,  559 
Firmisternia,  436 

Flying-lemur,  43 
Flying  lizard,  399 

Fritillaries,  585 
Fritillary,  Duke  of  Burgundy. 

Fish-eating  kingfisher,  336 

Flying-phalanger,  202 

586 

Fish-eating  rats,  102 

Fodiens,  Crossopus,  46 

Frogs  and  toads,  435 

Fish-owl,  Brown,  321 

Foina,  Mustela,  80 

Frog,  Agile,  436 

Fish,  Pilot,  471 

Foliacea,  Flustra,  665 

Frog,  Bull,  437 

Fish,  Scabbard,  470 

Folius,  Polyodon,  511 

Frog,  Common,  436 

Fishing  frog,  475 

Folliculorum,  Demodex,  547  • 

Frog,  Darwin's,  439 

Fishing  hawks,  320 

Foraminifera,  The,  7J5 

Frog,  Edible,  436 

Fishing  owl,  Pel's,  321 

Forficata,  Myrmecia,  579 

Frog,  Fire-bellied,  444 

Fishing  owls,  321 

Forficatus,  Lithobius,  548 

Frog,  Flying,  437 

Fissurellidse,  631 

ForSculidaj,  563 

Frog,  Grasshopper,  443 

Fistularia,  481 

Fork-tailed  gull,  262 

Frog,  Horned,  441 

Five-toed  echidna,  217 

Fork-tailed  petrel,  257 

Frog,  Lataste's,  436 

Flagellata,  The,  718 

Formica  rufa,  579 

Frog,  Midwife,  443 

Flagellate  Colonies,  718 
Flamingoes,  The,  288 

Formicariidse,  372 
Foruiicidse,  579 

Frog,  Painted,  444 
Frog,  Pouched,  443 

742 


INDEX. 


Frog,  Solomon  Island,  437 

Galidia  elegans,  61 

Gazelle,  Clarke's,  153 

Frog,  Spanish,  436 

Gall-flies,  576 

Gazelle,  Waller's,  153 

Frogs,  Spur-toed,  444 

Gall-gnats,  603 

Gecinus,  354 

Frog,  Tree-,  442 

Gall-mites,  546 

Geckos,  397 

Frogs,  Typical,  436 

Gall-parasites,  573 

Gecko,  Fringed,  393 

Frog-fishes,  474 

Gallicolse,  575 

Gecko,  Turkish,  397 

Frog-hoppers,  594,  598 

Gallicus,  Circaetus.  315 

Gecko,  Wall,  398 

Frog-mouths,  The,  333 

Gallicus,  Cursorius,  272 

Geckonidae,  397 

Frontalis,  Bos,  164 

Galliformes,  226 

Geese,  The,  292 

Frontatus,  Steno,  181 

Gallinago,  268 

Geese,  Blue-winged,  295 

Frugilegus,  Trypancorax,  358 

Gallinago  aucklandica,  268 

Geese,  Brent,  295 

Fruit  bats,  34 

Gallinago  australis,  268 

Geese,  Grey,  295 

Fruit  pigeons,  The,  242 

Gallinago  gallinago,  268 

Geese,  Magellanic,  295 

Frumentarius,  Cricetus,  101 

Gallinago  gigantea,  268 

Geese,  Snow,  295 

Fulgens,  yElurus,  75 

Gallinago  imperialis,  268 

Geese,  Spur-winged,  293 

Fulgora  laternaria,  599 

Gallinago  jamesoni,  268 

Geese,  The  true,  295 

Fulgoridae,  599 

Gallinago  major,  268 

Gegenophis,  455 

Fulica,  Heliornis,  252 

Gallinago  megala,  268 

Gelada  baboons,  22 

Fulicarius,  Crymophilus,  266 

Gallinago  nemoricola,  268 

Gelada,  Theropithecus,  22 

Fulicidae,  248 

Gallinago  pusilla,  268 

Gelasimus,  538 

Fuligula,  297 

Gallinago  stenura,  268 

Gemonensis,  Zamenis,  422 

Fuligulinae,  297 

Gallinago  undulata,  268 

Gemsbok,  153 

Fuliginosa,  Sterna,  262 

Gallinula  chloropus,  252 

Gemze,  156 

Fuliginosus,  Hyracodon,  204 

Gallinula,  Limnocryptes,  268 

Genets,  58 

Fulmars,  The,  258 

Gallinulidse,  248 

Genetta,  58 

Fulmar,  Petrel,  258 

Gallopavo,  Meleagris,  240 

Gennaeus,  236 

Fulmarinae,  258 

Gallus,  238 

Gentle  lemur,  30 

Fulmaris  glacialis,  258 

Gamasidae,  545 

Geocichla,  370 

Fulvimitrella  tinea,  593 

Gamasus,  545 

Geococeyx,  351 

Fulvus,  Canis,  71 

Game-birds,  The,  226 

Geocolaptes,  354 

Fungia,  705 

Gamma  moth,  591 

Geodephaga,  554 

Fungosa,  Aleyonella,  669 

Gamma,  Plusia,  591 

Geoemyda,  387 

Furcata,  Xema,  262 

Gammaridae,  535 

Geoffroyensis,  Inia,  178 

Furcatus,  Elanoides,  316 

Gammarus  pulex,  682 

Geogale,  48 

Furnariinae,  375 

Gangetic  dolphin,  177 

Geometrae,  592 

Furva,  Chalia,  589 

Gangetica,  Garialis,  382 

Geometrica,  Testudo,  380 

Fuscicaudatus,  Scaptonyx,  48 

Gangetica,  Platanista,  177 

Geometridae,  582 

Fuscus,  Larus,  263 

Gannets,  The,  299 

Geomyidae,  107 

Ganoids,  462 

Geomys  bursarius,  109 

Ganso,  293 

Geonemertes,  684 

G. 

Gaper,  626 

Geonemertes  australiensis,  684 

Garden  snail  (Helix),  643 

Geonemertes  novae-zelandiae, 

Gad-flies,  605 

Garden  spiders,  544 

684 

Gadidae,  490 

Garials,  382 

Geonemertes  palaensis,  684 

Gad  us  seglefinus,  491 

Garial,  Schlegel's,  382 

Geopeliinae,  244 

Gadus  merlangus,  491 
Gadus  morrhua,  491 

Garial,  True,  382 
Garialis,  382 

Geophilidae,  549 
Geoplana  australis,  686 

Gadus  pollachius,  491 

Garialis  gangetica,  382 

Geopsittacus,  331 

Gadus  virens,  491 

Gariepensis,  Steatornis,  332 

Georgian  black  grouse,  230 

Galago,  30 

Garpike,  479 

Georychus,  107 

Galago,  Senegal,  30 

Garrulus,  358 

Geospiza,  363 

Galago  senegalensis,  30 

Garrulus  ampelis,  369 

Geotria,  524 

Galagos,  30 

Garrulus,  Coracias,  335 

Geotrupes,  545 

Galapagos  sea-lizard,  402 

Garrulus  glandarius,  358 

Geotrygoninae,  244 

Galaxias,  504 

Garzetta,  283 

Geotrypetes,  455 

Galaxiidse,  504 

Garzetta  garzetta,  283 

Geotrypetes  petersi,  455 

Galbula  melanogenaia,  355 
Galbula,  Oriolus,  361 

Gastracantha  fornicata,  544 
Gastracanthidee,  544 

Gephyrea,  677 
Gephyrean  worms,  677 

Galbulidae,  355 

Gastrochisina,  472 

Geranospizias,  309 

Galeodes  arabs,  540 

Gastrochaenidae,  627 

Gerbil  group,  The,  101 

Galeodes  araneoides,  541 

Gastropod  Shell,  Topography 

Gerbillinfe,  101 

Galeoides,  468 

of,  630 

Germanica,  Phyllodromia,  564 

Galeommidae,  624 
Galeopithecidse,  43 

Gastropoda,  629 
Gastropteridae,  640 

Germanicum,  Polyzonium,  549 
Gerrhonotus,  405 

Galeopithecums  volans,  43 

Gastrosteidae,  480 

Gerrhosauridse,  410 

Galeopithecus,  43 

Gastrosteiformes,  480 

Ghost  moth,  591 

Galeoscoptes  carolinensis,  372 

Gastrosteus,  480 

Giant  armadillo,  187 

Galericulata,  M\,  294 

Gaur,  164 

Giant  clam,  626 

Galerita,  364 

Gaurus,  Bos,  164 

Giant  cobra,  424 

Galeus,  516 

Gayal,  164 

Giant  extinct  lemur,  32 

Galeus  canis,  516 

Gazella,  152 

Giant  humming-birds,  347 

Galictis,  80 

Gazella  euchore,  153 

Giant  salamander,  450 

INDEX. 


743 


Gibbons,  18 

Goat,  Rocky  Mountain,  157 

Graphiurus,  99 

Gibbon,  Hainan,  19 

Goatsucker,  342 

Grass  moth,  593 

Gibbus,  Zabrus,  555 

Gobies,  The,  476 

Grass  owls,  325 

Gigantea,  Eunice,  673 

Gobiidse,  476 

Grass  warblers,  370 

Gigantea,  Gallinago,  268 

Gobiiformes,  476 

Grasshoppers,  568 

Gigantea,  Leguatia,  252 
Gigantea,  Ossifraga,  258 

Gobio,  499 
Gobioesocidse,  482 

Grasshopper,  Blue-winged,  568 
Grasshopper,  Long-horned,  567 

Giganteus,  Blaberus,  564 

Gobioesociformes,  482 

Grasshopper  frog,  443 

Giganteus,  Cervus,  144 

Gobioesox,  482 

Grayi,  Argusianus,  239 

Giganteus,  Macropus,  194 

Gobius,  476 

Grayling,  509 

Gigantostraca,  538 

Godwit,  269 

Gray's  argus,  239 

Gigas,  Arapaiina,  504 

Gold-crests,  The,  308 

Great  ant-eater,  184 

Gigas,  Dacelo,  337 

Gold-crest,  Common,  368 

Great  auk,  The,  260 

Gigas,  Echinorhynchus,  681 

Gold-fish,  498 

Great-billed  Rhea,  222 

Gigas,  Patagona,  347 

Gold  sinny,  486 

Great  black  cockatoo,  328 

Gigas,  Priodon,  187 

Golden  bat,  38 

Great  black  woodpecker,  354 

Gigas,  Rhytina,  168 

Golden  bird  of  Paradise,  359 

Great  bustard,  273 

Gigas,  Sirex,  575 

Golden  cuckoo,  350 

Great-crested  grebe,  253 

Gigas,  Strombus,  636 

Golden  eagle,  314 

Great  frigate-bird,  303 

Gigas,  Tridacna,  626 

Golden  eyes,  The,  297 

Great  grey  shrike,  369 

Gillespie's  sea-lion,  82 

Golden  fruit-pigeon,  243 

Great  honey-guide,  353 

Gillespii,  Otaria,  82 

Golden-green  beetle,  555 

Great  hornbill,  339 

Gilt  heads,  466 

Golden  marmot,  93 

Great  Japanese  crab,  538 

Ginginianus,  Neophron,  306 

Golden-moles,  50 

Great  mole-rat,  106 

Giraffidfe,  147 

Golden  oriole,  The,  361 

Great  northern  diver,  254 

Giraffa  camelopardalis,  147 

Golden  plover,  271 

Great  sand-mole,  107 

Giraffe  family,  The,  147 

Golunda,  105 

Great  skuas,  The,  263 

Girdled  lizards,  403 

Gomphidse,  569 

Great  snipe,  268 

Glacialis,  Colymbus,  254 

Gonatidse,  646 

Great  spotted  cuckoo,  350 

Glacialis,  Fulmaris,  258 

Gonorhynchidse,  505 

Great  tinamou,  226 

Gladiator,  Orca,  180 

Gonorhynchus  greyi,  505 

Great  tit,  367 

Gladius,  Psephurus,  511 

Goosander,  297 

Great  vampire,  41 

Glandarius,  Coccystes,  350 

Goose  barnacles,  533 

Great  water-beetle,  557 

Glandarius,  Garrulus,  358 

Goose,  The,  294 

Greater  black-backed  gull,  263 

Glanis,  Silurus,  496 

Goose,  Bean,  295 

Greater  horse  shoe  bat,  36 

Glareolse,  272 

Goose,  Cereopsis,  294 

Greaved  lizards,  407 

Glareola  pratincola,  272 

Goose,  Dwarf,  294 

Grebes,  The,  253 

Glareolus,  Microtus,  103 

Goose,  Knobbed,  293 

Grebe,  Great-crested,  253 

Glass  eels,  494 

Goose,  Maned,  295 

Grebe,  Little,  The,  254 

Glass  rope  sponge,  693 

Goose,  Pink-footed,  295 

Grebe,  Sclavonian,  253 

Glaucidium,  324 

Goose,  Red-breasted,  295 

Grecian  tortoise,  386 

Glaucidium  brodiei,  324 

Goose,  Semipalmated,  293 

Greek  partridge,  232 

Glaucidium  gnoma,  324 

Goose,  White-fronted,  295 

Green-bottle,  608 

Glaucidium  pygmaeum,  S24 

Gophers,  91 

Green  fruit-pigeon,  242 

Glaucomyidse,  625 

Gopher,  Striped,  92 

Green  hairstreak,  586 

Glauconia,  417 

Goral,  157 

Green  kingfisher,  336 

Glauconiidae,  417 

Gordius,  680 

Green  lizard,  409 

Glaucus,  Carcharias,  516 

Gorilla,  15 

Green  monkey,  21 

Glis,  Myoxus,  99 

Gorilla,  Dentition  of,  6 

Green  oak  tortrix,  593 

Globator,  Volvox,  719 

Gorilla  savagei,  15 

Green  sandpiper,  269 

Globe-bearers,  716 

Gorsachius,  284 

Green-tailed  lory,  328 

Globicera,  243 

Gos-hawk,  Chanting,  310 

Green  tiger-beetle,  554 

Globigerina,  716 

Gos  hawk,  Common,  310 

Green  toad,  442 

Globiocephalns  melas,  180 

Gos-hawk,  Red-thighed,  310 

Green  turtle,  391 

Glochidium,  623 

Gos-hawk,  White,  311 

Green  woodpecker,  354 

Glomeridae,  550 

Goudoti,  Eupleres,  61 

Greenfinch,  Common,  363 

Glossina  moristans,  608 

Goura,  245 

Greenland  jer-falcon,  The,  319 

Glossophaga,  41 

Goura  coronata,  245 

Greenland-whale,  172 

Glossy  ibis,  288 

Gracilaria  syringella,  594 

Greenland  seal,  85 

Glossy  starling,  360 

Graculus,  358 

Greenland  shark,  519 

Glow-worms,  559 
Glutinosus,  Ichthyophis,  453 

Graculus  graculus,  358 
Graculus,  Phalacrocorax,  299 

Greenlets,  The,  370 
Gregarinae,  The,  720 

Glutton,  81 

Graeca,  Testudo,  386 

Grevyi,  Equus,  128 

Glycimeris,  626 

Graffila,  685 

Grevy's  zebra,  128 

Glyptodonts,  9 

Grakles,  Wattled,  360 

Grey  geese,  295 

Gmelini,  Ovis.  160 

Grallarius,  Burhinus,  273 

Grey  kangaroo,  Great,  194 

Gnathobdellidse,  675 

Grampus  griseus,  180 

Grey  kite-falcon,  318 

Gnats,  603 

Grampuses,  179 

Grey  lag-goose,  295 

Gnoma,  Glaucidium,  324 

Grandis,  Dinoponera,  579 

Grey  mullet,  479 

Gnus,  150 

Grandis,  Leucospis,  576 

Grey  parrot,  330 

Goat  moth,  590 

Grandis,  Nyctibius,  344 

Grey  phalarope,  260 

Goat,  Persian  wild,  159 

Grandis,  Phryganea,  572 

Grey  plover,  271 

744 


INDEX. 


Grey  wagtail,  365 

Gull,  Little,  263 

Haliaetus  leucogaster,  315 

Grey-whale,  172 

Gull,  Ross's,  262 

Haliaetus  leucoryphus,  32 

Greyi,  Gonorhynchus,  505 

Gull,  Sabine's,  262 

Haliaetus,  Pandion,  320 

Griffon,  The,  306 

Gull,  True,  262 

Haliaetus  vocifer,  315 

Griseum,  Acanthosoma,  595 

Gulo,  Aulostomum,  676 

Haliastur,  316 

Griseus,  Grampus,  180 

Gulo  luscus,  81 

Haliastur  indus,  316 

Grisola,  Muscicapa,  372 

Gumbi  owl,  321 

Halibut,  492 

Grizzled  skipper,  588 

Gundi,  111 

Halichaerus  grypus,  85 

Grizzly  bear,  75 

Gunni,  Perameles,  206 

Halicore  dugong,  167 

Groenlandica,  Phoca,  85 

Gunn's  bandicoot,  206 

Halicoridae,  165 

Gromia  oviformis,  715 

Guppyi,  Rana,  437 

Haliotidae,  632 

Groove-toothed  mice,  105 

Gurami,  483 

Hallomys,  102 

Groove-toothed  squirrel,  91 

Gurnard,  Beaked,  476 

Halobates,  597 

Groove-toothed  vole,  103 

Gurnard,  Common,  475 

Halys  vipers,  429 

Grosbeaks,  363 

Gurnard,  Flying,  476 

Hamiltoni,  Damonia,  388 

Grosbeaks,  Cardinal,  363 

Guttata,  Percopsis,  509 

Hammer-head  stork,  281 

Grossulariata,  Abraxas,  592 

Guttera,  240 

Hammer-headed  oyster,  622 

Ground-beetles,  555 

Guttera  cristata,  240 

Hamsters,  101 

Ground  hornbills,  339 

Guttera  edouardi,  240 

Hamster,  True,  101 

Ground  parrot,  331 

Guttera  pucherani,  240 

Hang-nests,  The,  361 

Ground  pigeons,  The,  244 

Gygis  alba,  262t 

Hang-nest,  Red-winged,  361 

Ground-rollers,  335 

Gymnarchus,  503 

Hangul,  143 

Ground  sloths,  183 

Gymnelis,  490 

Hapalemur,  30 

Ground-squirrels,  91 

Gymno  scopelus,  505 

Hapalidse,  27 

Ground-thrushes,  370 

Gymnobelideus  leadbeateri,  201 

Hapaloderma,  349 

Ground  woodpeckers,  354 

Gymnogenes,  The,  309 

Hapalomys  berdmorei,  104 

Grouse  family,  The,  229 

Gymnoglossa,  633 

Haplocerus  montanus,  157 

Grouse,  Black,  230 

Gymnomuraena,  494 

Haplochiton,  507 

Grouse,  Georgian  black,  230 

Gymnophaps,  244 

Haplochitonidae,  507 

Grouse,  Pinnated,  231 

Gymnophaps  albertisi,  244 

Haplodactylinae,  466 

Grouse,  Red,  230 

Gymnopis,  455 

Haplodactylus,  466 

Grouse,  Ruffed,  231 

Gymnotidae,  495 

Haplognathidae,  466 

Grouse,  Sand-,  241 

Gymnotus  electricus,"  495 

Haplopeltura,  426 

Grouse,  Sand-,  Pallas',  241 

Gymnura  rafflesi,  45 

Haplopomi,  501 

Grouse,  Sand-,  Pin-tailed,  241 

Gypaetus,  313 

Hapolodontidae,  95 

Grouse,  Willow-,  229 
Grues,  274 

Gypaetus  barbatus,  313 
Gypaetus  ossifragus,  314 

Haptoglossa,  450 
Hardella,  389 

Gruiformes,  274 

Gyps,  306 

Hardwickei,  Hemigale,  58 

Grunniens,  Bos,  164 

Gyrfalco,  Hierofalco,  319 

Hardwicke's  hernigale,  58 

Grus,  Grus,  275 

Gyrinidae,  555 

Hares  and  rabbits,  117 

Grylle,  Uria,  260 

Hare,  Common,  118 

Gryllidse,  566 

Hare,  Cape  jumping,  110 

Gryllotalpa,  Curtilla,  567 

H. 

Hare,  Mountain,  118 

Gryllus,  Acris,  443 

Hare-lipped  bats,  39 

Gryllus  domesticus,  567 

Habroptila  wallacii,  249 

Hare-wallabies,  194 

Grypus,  Halichcerus,  85 

Habroptilus,  Stringops,  331 

Harelda,  297 

Guacharo,  332 

Haddock,  The,  491 

Harengus,  Clupea,  507 

Guan,  Derby's,  229 

Hadomys,  102. 

Hargitti,  Thriponax,  355 

Guanaco,  138 

Haemacephala,  Xantholaema, 

Hargitt's  woodpecker,  355 

Guanacus,  Lama,  138 

353 

Harlequins,  The,  297 

Guemels,  146 

Haematopoda,  605 

Harmless  vampires,  41 

Guenons,  21 

Haematopodinae,  271 

Harnessed  antelopes,  156 

Guentheri,  Ceratobrachus,  439 

Hsematopota  pluvialis,  605 

Harpa,  638 

Guerezas,  21 

Hsematortyx,  234 

Harpactes,  349 

Gugeons,  499 

Haemophila,  364 

Harpactoridae,  596 

Guianensis,  Morphnus,  313 

Hag-fishes,  523 

Harpagus,  318 

Guib,  156 

Haie,  Naia,  424 

Harpidfe,  638 

Guillemot,  260 
Guillemot,  Black,  260 

Hainan  gibbon,  19 
Hainan  us,  Hylobates,  1 

Harpy,  The,  313 
Harpyhaliaetus,  313 

Guinea-fowls,  The,  240 

Hair  sea-egg,  660 

Harpyhaliaetus  coronatus,  313 

Guinea  fowl,  Crested,  240 

Hair-tails,  The,  470 

Harpyia,  35 

Guinea-fowl,  Vulturine,  240 

Hairstreak,  Green,  58 

Harpyia,  Thrasaetus,  313 

Guinea-pig,  115 

Hairy  armadillo,  186 

Harpyio-cephalus,  37 

Guinea-worm,  679 

Hairy  saki,  27 

Harriers,  The,  309 

Gulls,  The,  261 

Hairy-tailed  moles, 

Harrier,  Marsh,  309 

Gull,  Black-headed,  262 

Hakes,  491 

Harrier,  Montagu's,  309 

Gull,  Common,  262 

Halacaridse,  545 

Harriotta,  461 

Gull,  Fork-tailed,  262 

Halcyon,  338 

Hartebeests,  150 

Gull,  Greater  black-backed,  263 

Haley  ones,  336 

Hartlaubi,  Lophocerus,  339 

Gull,  Herring,  263 

Haliaetus,  315 

Harvest  bug,  547 

Gull,  Hooded-,  262 

Halisetus  albicilla,  315 

Harvest-men,  541 

Gull,  Lesser  black-backed,  263 

Haliaetus  leucocephalus,  315 

Harvest-mouse.  105 

INDEX. 


745 


Hawfinch,  Common,  363 

Heniochus,  465 

Hippopotamus,  The,  133 

Hawk-cuckoos,  350 

Hepalicum,  Distoma,  689 

Hippopotami  family,  The,  130 

Hawks,  304,  307 

Hepialidae,  591 

Hippopotamidse,  130 

Hawks,  Long-legged,  308 

Hepialus  humuli,  591 

Hippopotamus  amphibius,  131 

Hawk,  White-tailed,  312 

Hercules  beetle,  568 

Hippopotamus,  Common,  131 

Hawk-owl,  323 

Hercules,  Dynastes,  558 

Hippopotamus  hipponensis,  133 

Hawk-owl,  Brown,  323 

Hermit  crabs,  537 

Hippopotamus  iravaticus,  132 

Hawksbill,  391 

Herodias,  283 

Hippopotamus  lemerlei,  133 

Hazel-hens,  231 

Herodiones,  282 

Hippopotamus  liberiensis,  131 

Heart-and-dart  moth,  591 

Herons,  The,  282 

Hippopotamus  namadicus,  132 

Heart-cockles,  624 

Heron,  Agami,  283 

Hippopotamus  palaeindicus,  132 

Heavisidei,  Cephalorhynchus, 

Heron,  American,  9,83 

Hippopotamus,  Pigmy,  131 

179 

Heron,  Common,  282 

Hippopotamus  sivalensis,  132 

Heaviside's  dolphin,  179 

Heron,  Night,  283 

Hippopotamus,  Siwalik,  132 

Hebomoia,  587 

Heron,  Purple,  282 

Hippopus,  626 

Hedgehog  tribe,  44 

Heron,  Reef,  283 

Hipposiderus,  36 

Hedgehog,  Shrew-,  Raffle's,  45 

Herpele,  455 

Hippotragus  equinus,  153 

Hedgehog,  Shrew-,  Smaller,  45 

Herpestes  ichneumon,  60 

Hippotragus  niger,  153 

Hedgehog-tenrecs,  49 

Herpestinae,  60 

Hirudinea,  675 

Hedymeles,  363 

Herpetodryas,  422 

Hirudo  medicinalis,  676 

Helenae,  Calypte,  347 
Heliaca,  Aquila,  314 

Herrings,  The,  506 
Herring,  Common,  507 

Hirundinidae,  373 
Hirundo,  Avicula,  622 

Helias,  Eurypygae,  276 

Herring  gull,  263 

Hirundo  erythrogoaster,  373 

Heliastes,  485 

Hesperia  malvae,  588 

Hirundo  rustica,  373 

Helicidse,  643 

Hesperiidae,  588 

Hispanica,  Capra,  158 

Helicinidae,  632 

Hessian  fly,  603 

Hispidus  sigmodon,  102 

Heliconinse,  584 

Hetaerina,  570 

Histiophorus,  469 

Helicostyla,  643 

Heterocarpus,  486 

Hive-bee,  581 

Helictis,  80 

Heterocephalus,  107 

Hoary-bat,  37 

Heliopais,  252 

Heterocera,  588 

Hoatzin,  246 

Heliopora,  708 

Heterodactyli,  349 

Hobby,  The,  319 

Heliornis,  252 

Heterodera  schachti,  679 

Hodgsoni,  Ovis,  160 

Heliornis  fulica,  252 

Heterogeomys,  109 

Hodgsoni,  Pantholops,  152 

Heliornithidse,  252 

Heterogyna,  578 

Hodgsoni,  Vespertilio,  38 

Heliozoa,  The,  716 

Heteromera,  559 

Hodgsonise,  Perdix,  234 

Helix,  643 

Heteromys,  109. 

Hodomys,  102 

Hell-bender,  451 

Heteropoda,  636 

Hog-deer,  143 

Helmet-shells,  636 

Heteroptera,  595 

Hog,  Pigmy,  134 

Heloderma,  405 

Heterotis,  504 

Hog,  Wart-,  134 

Helodermatidae,  397,  405 

Hexactinel  lidae,  693 

Holacanthus,  465 

Helodromas,  269 

Hexactinia,  705 

Holboelli,  Hierofalco,  319 

Helodromas  ochropus,  269 

Hexadactyla,  Alucita,  594 

Holboell's  jer-falcon,  319 

Helogale  parva,  60 

Hexarthra  polyptera,  682 

Holocentrum,  468 

Helotarsus,  315 

Heyi,  Anmoperdix,  233 

Holocephali,  461 

Helvetica,  Squatarola,  271 

Hibernica,  Mustela,  81 

Holochilus,  102 

Hemiaspida,  539 

Hierococcyx,  350 

Holosericeus,  Ptilonorhynchus, 

Hemibungarus,  424 

Hierofalco,  319 

359 

Hemicardium,  626 

Hierofalco  candicans,  319 

Holothurian,  Deep-sea,  661 

Hemicentetes,  49 

Hierofalco  gyrfalco,  319 

Holothurian,    Free-swimming, 

Hemichorda,  528 

Hierofalco  hendersoni,  319 

661 

Hemichromis,  487 

Hierofalco  holboelli,  319 

Holothurian,  Plated,  661 

Hemidactylus,  397 

Hierofalco  islandus,  319 

Holothuroidea,  660 

Hemigale,  58 

Hierofalco  saker,  319 

Hollow-horned  ruminants,  149 

Hemigale  hardwickei,  58 

Himalayan  black  bear,  75 

Homalogyra,  633 

Hemigale,  Hardwicke's,  58 

Himalayan  ibex,  159 

Homalogyridae,  633 

Hemigale  hosei,  58 

Himalayan  marmot,  93 

Homalopsis,  423 

Hemigalidia,  61 

Himalayan  tahr,  159 

Homaloptera,  Diprera,  608 

Hemionus,  Equus,  129 

Himalayanus,  Arctomys,  93 

Homalopterus,  498 

Hemiphractidae,  444 

Himalayensis,  Regulus,  369 

Homoptera,  598 

Hemipodes,  The,  241 

Himalayensis,  Tetraogallus,  232 

Homopus,  387 

Hemipodii,  226 

Himantopodinae,  270 

Homopus  arcolatus,  387 

Hemiptera,  553,  594 
Hemitragus  hylocrius,  159 

Himantopus  melas,  270 
Hinged  brachiopod,  649 

Honduras  turkey,  240 
Honey  buzzards,  317 

Hemitragus  jemlaicus,  159 

Hiposrita  jacobaea,  588 

Honey  guides,  The,  353 

Hen,  Black  water,  252 

Hippoboscidse,  608 

Honey-guide,  Great,  353 

Hen,  Blue  water,  248 

Hippocampus,  487 

Honey-guide,  Indian,  353 

Hen,  North  American  harrier, 

Hippocastani,  558 

Honey-kites,  317 

309 

Hippocrepis,  Zamensis,  422 

Honey-suckers,  The,  366 

Henderson!,  Hierofalco,  319 

Hippoglossus,  492 

Hooded  gulls,  262 

Hender&oni,  Podoces,  358 

Hipponensis,     Hippopotamus, 

Hooded  seal,  87 

Henderson's  jer-falcon,  319 

133 

Hoofed  mammals,  The,  118 

Heniconetta  stelleri,  297 

Hipponicidse,  634 

Hook-billed  kingfisher,  337 

74<3 


INDEX. 


Hook-billed  kites,  316 

Huso,  Acipenser,  511 

Hypsiprymnodontinfe,  198 

Hoopoes,  The,  340 

Hutia,  112 

Hyptiotes  cavatus,  544 

Hoopoe,  Common,  340 

Hyaenas,  62 

Hyraces  family,  The,  123 

Hoopoe,  Indian,  340 

Hyaena,  Brown,  62 

Hyracodon,  204 

Hoopoes,  Wood,  340 

Hyaena  brunnea,  62 

Hyracodon  fuliginosus,  204 

Hoplognathidse,  466 

Hyaena  crocuta,  63 

Hyracoidea,  123 

Hoplopterus,  271 

Hyaena,  Spotted,  63 

Hyrax,  124 

Hopolgnathus,  466 

Hyaena  striata,  62 

Hystricidse,  113 

Hopping-ftsh,  477 

Hyaena,  Striped,  62 

Hystrix,  113 

Hornbills,  The,  339 

Hysenidse,  62 

Hornbill,  Great,  339 

Hyalimax,  642 

Hornbill,  Ground,  339 

Hyalonema,  693 

I. 

Hornbill,  Malabar  pied,  339 

Hybrida,  Tatusia,  187 

Hornbills,  Pied,  339 

Hydra,  694 

lanthinicte,  633 

Hornbill,  Rhinoceros,  339 

Hydrachnidae,  545 

Iberica,  Rana,  436 

Horned  frog,  441 

Hydradephaga,  555 

Ibex,  158 

Horned-larks,  364 

Hydraspis,  393 

Ibex,  Capra,  158 

Horned  lark,  European,  364 

Hydrobates,  Sitornys,  101 

Ibex,  Himalayan,  159 

Horned  lizards,  399 

Hydrocenidae,  632 

Ibex,  Nilgiri,  159 

Horned-owls,  321 

Hydrochaerus,  116 

Ibex,  Spanish,  158 

Horned  pheasants,  The,  235 

Hydrochserus  capivara,  89 

Ibididae,  287 

Horned  screamer,  290 

Hydrochelidon,  261 

Ibidorhynchinae,  270 

Horned  vipers,  427 

Hydrochelidon  nigra,  261 

Ibidorhynchus  struthersi,  270 

Hornet,  580 

Hydrocorallia,  697 

Ibises,  287 

Horribilis,  Ursus,  75 

Hydrocyon,  501 

Ibis  aethiopica,  288 

Horridus,  Moloch,  400 

Hydroid  colonies,  6£6 

Ibis,  Glossy,  288 

Horse  tribe,  The,  127 

Hydromedusae,  698 

Ibis,  Pseudotantalus,  281 

Horse,  Common,  128 

Hydrometridse,  597 

Ibis,  Sacred,  288 

Horse-hair  worm,  680 

Hydromyinse,  100 

Ibycter,  307 

Horse  leech,  676 

Hydrophiinae,  425 

Iceland  jer-falcon,  319 

Horse  mackerel,  471 

Hydrophis,  426 

Icerya  purchasi,  602 

Horse  mussel,  621 

Hydropotes  inermis,  146 

Ichneumon  fly,  577 

Horse-shoe  bats,  36 

Hydroprogne  caspia,  261 

Ichneumons,  60 

Horsefleld's  broadbill,  356 

Hydrous  piceus,  557 

Ichneumon,  Herpestinae,  60 

Horseshoe  snake,  422 

Hydrozoa,  694 

Ichneumonidse,  577 

Hortensis,  Cryptops,  549 

Hydrus,  426 

Ichthyomys,  102 

Hortulana,  Emberiza,  364 

Hyla  arborea,  442 

Ichthyophis  glutinosus,  453 

Hosei,  Hemigale,  58 

Hyetornis,  351 

Ichthyophis  monochrous,  454 

Hose's  long-billed  francolin,  233 

Hylidse,  442 

Icteridae,  361 

Hosii,  Calyptomena,  356 

Hylobates,  18 

Icterus,  361 

Hotinus  candelarius,  599 

Hylobates  hainanus,  19 

Icticyon  venaticus,  74 

Hounds  (Shark),  516 

Hylobates  hulock,  18 

Ictinia,  318 

Houbaropsis,  273 

Hylobates  leuciscus,  19 

Ictinia  mississippiensis,  318 

House-ant,  579 
House  cricket,  567 

Hylobates  syndactylus,  19 
Hylocrius,  Hemitragus,  159 

Ictonyx,  81 
Ictonyx  zorilla,  80 

House  flies,  607 

Hvlodes  martinicensis,  440 

Idiosepiidae,  646 

House  martin,  373 

Hylomanes,  341 

Idiurus,  90 

House-mouse,  105 

Hylomys  suillus,  45 

Ignicapillus,  Regulus,  369 

Hova,  Oryzorictes,  49 

Hymenoptera,  553,  573 

Igneus,  Bombinator,  444 

Howlers,  23 

Hymenoptera,  Aculcata,  578 

Iguana  tribe,  The,  401 

Howler,  Black,  24 

Hymenoptera,  Boring,  574 

Iguana,  Ring-tailed,  403 

Howler,  Red,  23 

Hymenoptera,  Stinging,  578 

Iguanidse,  401 

Hucho,  The  Danubian,  508 

Hynobius,  450 

Iliacus,  Turdus,  371 

Hucho,  Salmo,  508 

Hyodon  tergissus,  504 

Ilysia  scytale,  421 

Hudsonius,  Circus,  309 

Hyodontidae,  505 

Ilysiidse,  421 

Hulock,  18 

Hyperboreus,  Phalaropus,  266 

Imberbis,  Strepsiceros,  154 

Hulock,  Hylobates,  18 

Hypercompa  caia,  588 

Imbricata,  Chelone,  391 

Human  skeleton,  3-4 

Hyperoodon  rostratus,  177 

Imhausi,  Trilophomys,  102 

Humble  bees,  581 

Hypnus,  521 

Immutabilis,  Cygnus,  292 

Humboldti  Lagothrix,  24 

Hypocharmosyna,  328 

Impennis,  Plautus,  260 

Humboldt's  woolly  monkey,  24 

Hypoderma  bbvis,  606 

Imperatoria,  Pomponia,  598 

Humise,  Callophasis,  238 

Hypogeomys,  102 

Imperial  Eagle,  314 

Humilis,  Podoces,  358 
Humming-birds,  The,  347 

Hypogeophis,  455 
Hypoleucus,  Cebus,  24 

Imperial  snipe,  268 
Imperialis,  Gallinago,  268 

Humming-bird,  Giant,  347 
Humming-bird,  King,  348 

Hyponomeuta,  593 
Hyponomeutidse,  594 

Impeyan  pheasants,  235 
Inachis,  Kallima,  585 

Humming-bird,  Sword  bill,  848 

Hypoptopoma,  497 

Inarticulata,  651 

Humpback  whale,  173 

Hypositta,  368 

Indian  atlas-moth,  589 

Humuli,  Hepialus,  591 

Hypotfenidia,  249 

Indian  black-buck,  152 

Hunting-dog,  Cape,  73 
Hunting-leopard,  56 

Hypselornis,  224 
Hypsiprymnodon  moschatus, 

Indian  buffalo,  162 
Indian  cobra,  424 

Hunting  spiders,  543 

197 

Indian  crested  cuckoo,  350 

INDEX. 


747 


Indian  glephant,  119 

Ithomiinse,  584 

Kakapo,  331 

Indian  honey-guide,  353 

luliformis,  Peripatus,  551 

Kalij  pheasants,  The,  236 

Indian  hoopoe,  340 

Ixodidae,  545 

Kallama  inachis,  585 

Indian  humped  cattle,  165. 

lynginae,  354 

Kampferi  macrocheira,  533 

Indian  musk-shrew,  46 

lynginae  torquilla,  354 

Kamtchaticus,  Tetrao,  230 

Indian  pied  kingfisher,  336 

Izard,  156 

Kangaroo  tribe,  192 

Indian  porpoise,  179 

Kangaroos,  Dorca,  194 

Indian  rat-snake,  422 

Kangaroo,  Grey,  194 

Indian  rhinoceros,  126 

J. 

Kangaroo,  Musk,  197 

Indian  shikra,  311 

Kangaroo,  Plain  rat,  197 

Indian  sloth  bear,  75 

Jacamars,  The,  355 

Kangaroos,  Prehensile-  tailed 

Indian  tailor  bird,  370 

Jacamerops  aurea,  355 

Rat,  197 

Indian  wolf,  65 

Jacares,  380 

Kangaroos,  Rat,  197 

Indica,  Upupa,  340 

Jack  snipe,  268 

Kangaroo,  Rufous  rat,  197 

Indicator  xanthonotus,  353 

Jackal,  Black-backed,  66 

Kangaroos,  Tree,  195 

Indicatores,  353 

Jackal,  Common,  66 

Kangaroo-rats,  109 

Jndicus,  Bos,  165 

Jackal,  Side-striped,  66 

Kashmir  stag,  143 

Indicus,  Elephas,  119 

Jacobaea,  Hiposrita,  588 

Katydids,  567 

Indris,  29 

Jacobinus,  Cuculus,  350 

Kea  parrot,  327 

Indris  brevicaudata,  29 

Jaguar,  53 

Kelb-el-bahr,  501 

Indus,  Haliastur,  316 

Jamaica  tody,  The,  342 

Kelb-el-moyeh,  501 

Ineptus,  Didus,  246 

Jamaicensis,  Nyctibus,  344 

Kellyellidaa,  624 

Inermis,  Hydropotes,  146 

Jamesi,  Phaenicoparrus,  290 

Kestrels,  The,  320 

Infundibulata,  668 

Jamesoni,  Gallinago,  268 

Ketupa,  321 

Infusoria,  The,  720 

Jameson's  snipe.  268 

Ketupa  ceylonensis,  321 

Infusorian  colonies,  722 

Japanese  deer,  143 

Kewense,  Bipalium,  684 

Infusorians,  Ciliated,  720 

Japanese  fox,  73 

Keyhole  limpets,  631 

Infusorians,  Tentacled,  720,  722 

Japanese  waxwing,  369 

Khannanay,  229 

Inguinalis,  Pthirius,  602 

Japonica,  Coturnix,  235 

Kieneri,  Lophotriorchis,  315 

Inia  geoffroyensis,  178 

Japonicus,  Ampelis,  369 

Killer,  179 

Inornata,  Amblyornis,  859 

Japonicus,  Canis,  73 

Killer,  Lesser,  180 

Inornata,  Ckephaga,  296 

Jararaca,  429 

King  crabs,  538 

Insect-eating  mammals,  42 

Jassidae,  601 

Kingfishers,  The,  336 

Insect-mites,  545 

Javan  rhinoceros,  126 

Kingfisher,  Belted,  336 

Insecta,  551 

Javanicus,  Eurylaemus,  356 

Kingfisher,  Common,  337 

Insecta  haustellata,  553 

Javelin-bats,  41 

Kingfisher,  Crested,-  337 

Insecta  mandibulata,  553 

Jays,  358 

Kingfisher,  Fish-eating,  336 

Insectivora,  42 

Jeffreysiidae,  635 

Kingfisher,  Green,  336 

Insectivorous  kingfishers,  The, 

Jelly-fish,  700 

Kingfisher,  Hook-billed,  337 

337 

Jelly-fish,  Root-footed,  700 

Kingfisher,  Indian-pied,  336 

Insects,  Lace-winged,  568 

Jemlaicus,  Hemitragus,  159 

Kingfisher,  Insectivorous,  337 

Insects,  Praying,  565 

Jerboa-rats,  106 

Kingfisher,  Laughing,  337 

Insects,  Stick,  566 
Insects,  Wingless  (Neuroptera), 
573 

Jerboa  tribe,  The,  109 
Jerboa,  Kirghiz,  110 
Jer-falcon,  Greenland,  319 

Kingfisher,  Pied,  336 
Kingfisher,  Ringed,  336 
Kingfisher,  Shoe-billed,  337 

Intercedens,  Rhynchops,  262 

Jer-falcon,  Henderson's,  319 

Kingfisher,  Stork-billed,  336 

Intermedia,  Porzana,  251 

Jer-falcon,  Holboell's,  319 

Kingfisher,  Three-toed,  337 

Interpres,  Arenaria,  272 

Jer-falcon,  Iceland,  319 

King  humming-birds,  348 

Inuus  macacus,  22 

Jer-falcon,  Norwegian,  319 

Kingi,  Anops,  408 

Involucris,  Ardetta,  284 

Jer  falcon,  Saker,  319 

Kingi,  Chlamydosaurus,  399 

Iphis,  Rhopalocampta,  588 

John-dory,  471 

King-of-the-herrings,  485 

Ipnops,  505 

Johnnie,  255 

King  penguin,  255 

Iravaticus,  Hippopotamus,  132 

Jouanettia,  627 

Kinkajou,  76 

Irawadi  dolphin,  179 

Jubata,  Myrmecophaga,  184 

Kirghiz  jerboa,  110 

Irish  elk,  144 

Jubata,  Otaria,  82 

Kirghiz  shrew,  46 

Irregular  sea-urchin,  659 
Irrisoridae,  340 

Jubatus,  Canis,  69 
Jubatus,  Cynaelurus,  56 

Kiroumbos,  The,  335 
Kites,  The,  316 

Irritans,  Pulex  (Flea),  609 

Jubatus,  Rhinochetus,  276 

Kite,  African  swallow-  tailed, 

Irroratus,  Dromece,  223 

Juggar  falcon,  319 

316 

Isabelline  bear,  75 

Julidae,  550 

Kite,  American  swallow-tailed 

Isabellinus,  Ursus,  75 

Jumping-  mice,  110 

316 

Ischnochitonidae,  616 

Jumping-shrews,  44 

Kite,  Black-shouldered,  316 

Islandica  Arctica,  624 

Junco,  364 

Kite,  Brahminy,  316 

Islandus,  Hierofalco,  319 

Jungle-cat,  55 

Kite,  Common,  316 

Isocardiidae,  624 

Jungle  fowl,  The,  238 

Kites,  Honey,  The,  317 

Isopoda,  534 

Kite,  Hooked-billed,  316 

Isospondyli,  503 

Kite-falcon,  Mississippi,  319 

Ispida,  Aicedo,  337 

K. 

Kit-fox,  72 

Ispidina,  337 

Kittiwake,  263 

Italian  fire-fly,  559 

Kagus,  The,  276 

Kiwis,  The,  224 

Itch-mites,  546 

Kagu,  Madagascar,  276 

Klipspringer,  151 

Ithagenes,  235 

Kaka  parrots,  326 

Kneria,  500 

748 


INDEX. 


Kneriidae,  500 

lampreys,  523 

Jaughing  kingfisher,  337 

Knobbed  goose,  293 

jamprey,  River,  524 

^axocemus,  419 

Knob-billed  pelican,  302 

^amprey,  Sea,  524 

L.ayardi,  Mesoplodon,  177 

Knot,  The,  269 

L,ampris,  472 

Leach's  petrel,  257 

Koala,  199 

Lamprocolius,  360 

Leadbeateri,   Gymnobelideus, 

Koels,  The,  350 

Lampshells,  648 

201 

Koklass  pheasant,  The,  237 

Lampyris  noctiluca,  559 

Leadbeater's  phalanger,  201 

Kollari,  Cynips,  576 

Lancelet,  The,  526 

Leaf-cutter  bees,  581 

Kolyvanensis  ascalaphus,  570 

Lanceolatus,  Amphioxus,  526 

Leaf  -nosed  bats,  36 

Kudu,  Lesser,  154 

Lanceolatus,  Lachesis,  429 

Leathery  turtle,  3ll 

Kudu,  Strepsiceros,  154 

Land  planarian,  684 

Leda,  621 

Kudu,  True,  154 

Land-tortoises,  385 

Leeches,  The,  675 

Kuhli,  Vinia,  328 

Langurs,  20 

Leech,  Fresh  water,  677 

Kuhl's  Lory,  328 

Langur,  Sacred,  20 

Leech,  H  orse,  676 

Laniger,  Antechinomys,  209 

Leech,  Medicinal,  676 

L. 

Laniger,  Canis,  65 
Lanigera,  Avahis,  29 

Leguatia  gigantea,  252 
Lemerlei,  Hippopotamus,  133 

Laniidae,  369 

Lemming,  Banded,  103 

Labrax,  486 

Lanius,  369 

Lemming,  Common,  103 

Labrax  maculatus,  486 

Lanius  collyrio,  369 

Lemcniidae,  585 

Labfax  mixtus,  486 

Lanius  exciibitor,  369 

Lemmus,  Myodes,  103 

Labridae,  486 

Lanius  senator,  369 

Lemurs,  The,  29 

Labyrinthici,  483 

Lanner,  319 

Lemur  catta,  29 

Lacerta,  409 

Lantern  flies,  599 

Lemur,  Flying,  43 

Lacerta  agilis,  409 

Lapaphus  cocophage*,  566 

Lemur,  Gentle,  30 

Lacerta  ocellata,  409 

Lapillus,  Purpura,  637 

Lemur,  Giant  extinct,  32 

Lacerta,  Viridis,  409 

La  Plata  dolphin,  178 

Lemur,  Mouse,  30 

Lacerta  vivipara,  409 

Lapland  bunting,  364 

Lemur,  Ring-  tailed,  29 

Lacertidae,  409 

Lappet,  590 

Lemur,  Sportive,  30 

Lacertilia,  396 

Lapponicus,  Calcarius,  364 

Lemurs,  True,  29 

Lacertina,  Siren,  452 

Lapradei,  Polypterus,  513 

Lemurs,  Typical,  28 

Lace-winged  flies,  571 

Lapwing,  Common,  271 

Lemuridae,  28 

Lace  winged  insects,  568 

Lardarius,  Dermestes,  556 

Lemuroidea,  11 

Lace-work  sponge,  693 

Large-eared  mule-deer,  146 

Lencorrhoa,  Oceanodroma,  257 

Lachesis  lanceolatus,  429 

Large  fruit-pigeons,  The,  243 

Lendigera,  Amathia,  668 

Lachesis  mutus,  429 

Large  sun-bittern,  276 

Leo,  Felis,  53 

Lackey  moth,  590 

Large-trained  trogon,  349 

Leona,  Nightjar,  343 

Lady-birds,  562 

Laridae,  260 

Leoninus,  Macrorhinus,  87 

Lady-bird,  Australian,  602 

Lariformes,  261 

Leopards,  53 

Lady  Ross  Touracoe,  352 

Larks,  The,  364 

Leopard,  Clouded,  55 

Laemargus,  519 

Lark,  Calandra,  364 

Leopard,  Hunting,  56 

Laemmergeier,  313 

Lark,  Crested,  364 

Leopard,  Seal,  86 

Laemodipodidae,  535 

Lark,  Desert,  364 

Leopard,  Snow,  53 

Lsevis,  Coronella,  422 

Lark,  Finch,  364 

Lepadidae,  533 

Lagenorhynchus,  180 

Lark,  Horned,  364 

Lepadogaster,  482 

Lag-goose,  Grey,  295 

Lark,  Short-toed,  364 

Lepas  anatifera,  533 

Lagidium,  114 

Lark,  Skv,  364 

Lepetidae,  631 

Lagomyidae,  117 

Lark,  Wood,  364 

Lepidolemur,  30 

Lagomys,  117 

Lark-heeled  cuckoos,  The,  351 

Lepidolemur  caniceps,  30 

Lagonosticta,  362 

Larus,  262 

Lepidopleuridae,  616 

Lagopus,  229 

Larus  argentatus,  263 

Lepidoptera,  553,  581 

Lagopus,  Canis,  73 

Larus  canus,  262 

Lepidopus,  470 

Lagopus  lagopus,  229 

Larus  fuscus,  263 

Lepidosirenidae,  460 

Lagopus  mutus,  230 

Larus  marinus,  263 

Lepidosteidae,  509 

Lagopus  scoticus,  230 

Larus,  minutus,  263 

Lepidosteus,  509 

Lagorchestes,  194 

Larus,  ridibundus,  262 

Lepisma  saceharina,  573 

Lagostomatidae,  113 

Larval  Forms  of  Crustacea,  530 

Leporidae,  117 

Lagostomus,  114 

Larvatus,  Nasalis,  19 

Lepralia  of  Pallas,  667 

Lagostrophus  fasciatus,  196 

Lasiocampidae,  590 

Lepralia,  Pallasiana,  667 

Lagothrix,  24 

Latastei,  Rana,  436 

Leptinotarsa  decemlineata,  5C1 

Lagothrix,  humboldti,  24 
Laisurus,  Platacanthomys,  100 

Lataste's  frog,  436 
Latax  lutris,  77 

Leptodactylidge,  440 
Leptodactylus,  440 

Lalande's  fen  nee,  74 

Lateralis,  Cryptobranchus,  451 

Leptodera,  679 

Lama  guanacus,  138 

Laternaria,  Fulgora,  599 

Leptognathus,  426 

Lama  vicuna,  138 

Lates,  464 

Leptonychotes  weddelli,  87 

Lamellariidae,  634 

Lathami,  Catheturus,  227 

Leptonyx,  Ogmorhinus,  86 

Lamellibranchiata,  616 

Latham's  snipe,  268 

Leptoptilus,  278 

Lamellicorns,  557 

Laticaudatus,  Platurus,  425 

Leptoscopus,  473 

Lamiidae,  561 

Latrans,  Canis,  66 

Leptosomati,  3J5 

Lamna  cornubica,  517 
Lamnidae,  517 

Latro,  Birgus,  537 
Latus,  Botliriocephalus,  687 

Lepus,  117 
Lepus  cuniculus,  118 

Lainpides  bseticus,  586 

Laughing  jackass,  337 

Lepus  europaeus,  118 

INDEX. 


749 


Lepus  timidus,  118 

Liparis,  476 

Long-legged  pouched-mouse,209 

Lerwa,  231 

Lipoa,  228 

Long-legged  thick-knee,  273 

Lesser  ant-eater,  184 

Lipoa  ocellata,  228 

Long-nosed  crocodile,  381 

Lesser  black-backed  gull,  263 

Lipocephala,  618 

Long-nosed  j  urn  ping-shrews,  44 

Lesser  bustard,  273 

Lithobiidse,  549 

Long-nosed  rat,  106 

Lesser  fin-whale,  174 

Lithobius  forficatus,  549 

Long-snouted  phalanger,  203 

Lesser  killer,  180 

Lithocranias  walleri,  153 

Long-tailed     African      flying- 

Lesser  kudu,  154 

Lithomelissa,  717 

squirrel,  90 

Lessoni,  Momotus,  341 

Lithosiidse,  589 

Long-tailed  bat,  39 

Lesson's  Motniot,  341 

Litiopidae,  635 

Long-tailed  ducks,  The,  297 

Lesser  shrew,  46 

Litopterna,  9 

Long-tailed  marmot,  94 

Lesser  sperm-whale,  176 

Litorale,  Pycnogonum,  539 

Long-tailed  parrakeet,  329 

Lesser  tern,  261 

Little  auk,  260 

Long-tailed  pigeons,  244 

Lethrinus,  466 

Little  bittern,  284 

Long-tailed  skuas,  264 

Leucas,  Delphinapterus,  179 

Little  crake,  251 

Long  tailed  tit,  368 

Leucerodea,  Platalese,  286 

Little  egret,  283 

Loopers,  592 

Leuciscus,  499 

Little  gull,  263 

Lophiidse,  474 

Leuciscus,  Hylobates,  19 

Little  owls,  323 

Lophiomys,  102 

Leucocephalus,  Cladorhynchus, 

Little  skunk,  78 

Lophius  piscatorius,  474 

270 

Littorinidse,  635 

Lophoaetus  occipitalis,  315 

Leucocephalus,  Haliaetus,  315 

Liver-fluke,  689 

Lophobranchii,  487 

Leucopus,  Canis,  73 

Livia,  Columba,  244 

Lophocerus,  340 

Leucoryphus,  Haliaetus,  321 

Livingstonianus     nanotragus, 

Lophocerus  hartlaubi,  339 

Leucosomus,  Astur,  311 

151 

Lophodytes,  297 

Leucospis,  576 

Lizards,  896      . 

Lophogyps,  303 

Leucospis  grandis,  576 
Levaillanti,  Plotus,  301 

Lizard,  Flying,  399 
Lizard,  Frilled,  399,  400 

Lopholaimus,  243 
Lopholatilus,  473 

Liasis,  419 

Lizard,  Girdled,  403 

Lophophanes  cristatus,  368 

Libellula  depres?a,  569 

Lizard,  Greaved,  407 

Lophophanes,  368 

Libellulidse,  569 

Lizard,  Green,  409 

Lophophorus,  235 

Liberiensis,  Hippopotamus,  131 

Lizard,  Horned,  399 

Lophopoda,  668,  669 

Libitina,  624 

Lizard,  Moloch,  400 

Lophopus,  668 

Libythea  celtis,  586 

Lizard,  Pearly,  409 

Lophortyx  californiana,  240 

Libytheidse,  586 

Lizards,  Poisonous,  405 

Lophotes  cepedianus,  484 

Lidse,  Hexactinel,  693 

Lizard,  Sail-tailed,  400 

Lophotidse,  484 

Ligurinus,  363 

Lizard,  Sand,  409 

Lophotiformes,  484 

Ligurinus  chloris,  363 

Lizard,  Snake-like,  404 

Lophotis,  273 

Lima,  623 

Lizard,  Spiny,  401 

Lophotriorchis,  315 

Limacidse,  643 

Lizard,  Stump-tailed,  410 

Lophotriorchis  Kieneri,  315 

Limacinidae,  640 

Lizard,  Thorny-tailed,  400 

Lophura,  236 

Limacomys,  101 

Lizard,  Tree,  399 

Lophuromys,  101 

Limnaea,  642 

Lizard,  Viviparous,  409 

Lophurus  amboynensis,  400 

Limnaeidse,  642 

Llamas,  138 

Loricaria,  497 

Limnas  chrysippus,  5^3 

Loach,  Common,  500 

Lories,  The,  327 

Limnocryptes  gallinula,  268 

Loach,  Spiny,  500 

Loriidse,  327 

Limnopardalus,  219 

Lobed  pheasant,  236 

Loris,  31 

Limonites,  269 

Lobiophasis  bulweri,  236 

Lorisis,  31 

Limopsis,  621 

LobivanellinsB,  271 

Lorius  chlorocercus,  328 

Limosa,  269 

Lobodon  carcinophaga,  86 

Lory,  Green-tailed,  328 

Limpets,  631 

Lobsters,  536 

Lory,  Kuhl's,  328 

Limpets,  Cup-and-saucer,  634 

Lobster,  Spiny,  537 

Lota  vulgaris,  491 

Limpets,  Keyhole,  631 

Loculator,  Tantalus,  281 

Lotoriidae,  63d 

Limpkins,  The,  275 

Locustidse,  568 

Louse,  Whale,  535 

Limpkin,  Florida,  275 

Locusts,  568 

Love-birds,  329 

Limpkin,  South  American,  275 

Loddigesia  mirabilis,  348 

Lowi,  Ptilocercus,  44 

Limulus,  538 

Loggerhead  tortoise,  391 

Lowries,  352 

Limulus  moluccarms,  539 

Loliginidae,  646 

Loxia,  363 

Linearis,  Chiroxiphia,  374 

Loligo,  646 

Loxosoma,  667 

Linearis,  Ranatra,  597 

Loncheres,  112 

Lucanus  cervus,  558 

Lineus  marinus,  684 

Long-billed  francolin,  233 

Lucayanum,  Asyminetron,  527 

Linguselapsus,  449 

Long-eared  bats,  36 

Lucifuga,  491 

Linguaelapsus  annulatus,  449 

Long-eared  fox,  73 

Lucilia  caesar,  608 

Linguatulida,  548 
Lingula,  648 

Long-eared  owl,  324 
Long-horned  beetles,  560 

Lucina,  Nemoebius,  586 
Lucinidae,  624 

Lingula  anatina,  650 

Long-horned  grasshoppers,  567 

Luciocephalidae,  483 

Linotsenia  crassipes,  549 

Longicornes,-560 

Luciocephalus  pulcher,  483 

Linsanga,  58 

Longipermis,    Macrodipteryx, 

Lucioperca,  464 

Linsangs,  58 

343 

Lucius,  Esox,  502 

Liobunum  religiosum,  542 

Longirostris,  Aptenodytes,  255 

Lucorum  Trichiosoma,  574 

Lion,  53 

Longirostris,  Rhizothera,  233 

Lug  worm,  672 

Lion  -tailed  monkey,  22 

Long-legged  hawks,  307 

Lugubris,  Ceryle,  336 

Liparidae,  589 

Long-legged  petrel,  257 

Lugubris,  Motacilla,  365 

INDEX. 


Lullula,  364 

Macropus  giganteus,  194 

Malvse,  Hesperia,  588 

Lumbricidae,  674 

Macropus  walabatus,  194 

Mammalia,  1 

Lumbricoides,  Ascaria,  679 

Macropygia,  244 

Mammalia,  Dentition  of,  5 

Lump-suckers,  476 

Macrorhinus  leoninua,  87 

Mammalia,   Human  Skeleton, 

Lung-fishes,  459 

Macrorhyncha,  Rhea,  222 

3-4 

Lung-fish,  Australian,  469 

Macroscelides,  44 

Mammals,  Distinctive  features 

Lunulata,  Cyclopsitta,  329 

Macroscelides  tetradactylus,  44 

of,  2 

Lupus,  Canis,  64 

Macroscelididae,  44 

Mammals,  Egg-laying,  214 

Luscinia,  Daulias,  370 

Macrotis,  Canis,  73 

Mammals,  Flesh-eating,  50 

Luscus,  Gulo,  81 

Macrotis,  Cervus,  146 

Mammals,  Geographical  distri- 

Lusitanica, Chioglossa,  447 

Macrura,  536 

bution  of,  7 

Luth,  391 

Macrura,  Sterna,  261 

Mammals,  Insect  eating,  42 

Lutra,  76 

Macruridse,  492 

Mammals,  Pouched,  190 

Lutreola,  Mustela,  81 

Macrurus,  492 

Mammals  that  gnaw,  88 

Lutris  Latax,  77 

Mactridae,  625 

Manakins,  The,  374 

Lycaenidae,  586 

Maculata,  Aquila,  314 

Manatis,  165 

Lycaon  pictus,  73 

Maculatus,  Dasyurus,  208 

Manatus,  167 

Lycodes,  490 

Maculatus,  Labrax,  486 

Manculus,  450 

Lycodidae,  490 

Maculatus,  Phalanger,  200 

Mandarin  duck,  294 

Lycosidae,  543 

Maculosa,  Salamandra,  446 

Mandril,  32 

Lycosa  arenicola,  543 

Madagascar  kagu,  276 

Maned  goose,  295 

Lycosa  tarentula,  543 
Lygia  oceanica,  534 

Madagascar  mungoose,  61 
Madagascariensis,  Chiromys,  31 

Mangabeys,  21 
Manidae,  189 

Lygosoma,  410 

Maderensis,  Regulus,  369 

Manillensis,  Pelecanus,  302 

Lyncodon,  81 

Madoqua,  151 

Manis,  190 

Lynx,  Canadian,  56 

Madreporo,  706 

Man-like  apes,  11 

Lynx,  Common,  56 

Maeandrina,  707 

Mantella,  438 

Lynx,  Felis,  56 

Maehoerhamphus,  317 

Mantidse,  563 

Lynx,  Spanish,  56 

Maehoerhamphus  alcinus,  317 

Mantis  religiosa,  565 

Lyonsiidse,  628 

Maehoerhamphus  anderssoni, 

Mantis,  Squilla,  535 

Lyre-birds,  357 

317 

Manx  shearwater,  258 

Lyrurus,  229 

Maforensis,  Nasiterna,  329 

Mapi,  195 

Lyrurus  mlokosiewiczi,  230 

Magar,  Oriental,  381 

Marabous,  278 

Lyrurus  tetrix,  230 

Magellania,  651 

Maral,  Cervus,  143 

Lysiurus  unicinctus,  186 

Magellanic  geese,  295 

Maral,  Persian,  143 

Lystrinae,  600 

Magilus,  637 

Marbled  cat,  55 

Maginrostris,  Orthorhamphus, 

Mareca,  296 

273 

Margaritacea,  Nereis,  673 

M. 

Magna,  Caccibis,  232 

Margaroperdix,  234 

Magnifica,  Megaloprepia,  243 

Marginalis,  Dytiscus,  556 

Macacus,  21 

Magnificent  fruit-pigeon,  243 

Marginata,  Testudo,  386 

Macacus  cynomolgus,  22 

Magpies,  358 

Margined  tortoise,  386 

Macacus  inuus,  22 

Magpie  moth,  592 

Marginellidse,  638 

Macacus  rhesus,  22 

Maguari,  Euxenura,  280 

Marina,  Arenicola,  672 

Macacus  silenus,  22 

Maguari  stork,  279 

Marine  gurnards,  475 

Macaques,  21 

Mahasir,  498 

Marine  lings,  491 

Macaque,  Crab-eating,  22 

Maia  squinado,  530 

Marine  mites,  545 

Macaws,  329 

Maimon,  Papio,  23 

Marine  mussel,  621 

Maccormicki,  Megalestris,  263 
Machaon,  Eques,  587 

Major,  Eurypyga,  276 
Major,  Gallinago.  268 

.Marinum,  Petromyzum,  524 
Marinus,  Larus,  263 

Machlis,  Alces,  145 

Major,  Parus,  367 

Marinus,  Lineus,  684 

Mackerels,  The,  472 

Malabar  pied  hornbill,  339 

Maritima,  Anisolabis,  563 

Mackerel,  Common,  473 

Malabar  spiny  mouse,  100 

Maritimus,  Bathyergus,  107 

Mackerels,  Horse,  471 

Malacanthidae,  474 

Maritimus,  Ursus,  75 

Macrauchenia,  9 

Malacanthus,  474 

Markhor,  159 

Macro,  Lepidoptera-,  592 

Malaccensis,  Viverra,  57 

Marmorata,  Felis,  55 

Macrocephalus,  Physeter,  175 

Malachite  sun-bird,  366 

Marmosets,  The,  27 

Macrocheira  Kampferi,  538 

Malacobdella,  684 

Marmot,  Alpine,  93 

Macroclemmys  temmincki,  390 

Malacoclemmys,  388 

Marmot,  Cabul,  94 

Macrodipteryx  longipennis,  343 

Malacodermi,  559 

Marmot,  Common,  92 

Macrogeomys,  109 

Malacomys,  101 

Marmot,  Golden,  93 

Macrolopha,  Pucrasia,  237 

Malacoptila,  355 

Marmot,  Himalayan,  93 

Macronyx,  365 

Malacostraca,  533 

Marmot,  Long-tailed,  94 

Macronyx  ameliae,  365 

Malaiensis,  Neopus,  315 

Marmots,  Prairie,  92 

Macropodidae,  192 

Malayan  badger,  79 

Marmot,  Red,  94 

Macropodinae,  193 

Malayan  bear,  75 

Marmots,  True,  92 

Macropteryginae,  346 

Malayan  tapir,  124 

Marmotta,  Arctomys,  92 

Macropteryx,  346 

Malayanus  ursus,  75 

Marpurito,  Conepatus,  78 

Macropus,  193 

Maleo-bird,  226 

Marsh  harrier,  309 

Macropus  agilis,  194 

Malleus,  622 

Marsh  tern,  261 

Macropus  browni,  194 

Mallophaga,  573 

Marsh  tit,  367 

Macropus  brunii,  194 

Mallophagus  ovinus,  608 

Marsipobranchii,  523 

INDEX. 


751 


Marsupial  mole,  210 
Marsupialia,  190 

Melanocephala,  Caccabis,  232 
Melanocephala,  Uacaria,  27 

Mexican  turkey,  240 
Mice,  Groove-toothed,  105 

Marsupialis,  Didelphys,  211 

Melanocetus,  475 

Mice,  Jumping,  110 

Marten,  Beech-,  80 

Melanocorypha,  364 

Mice,  Mosaic-tailed,  106 

Marten,  North  American,  80 

Melanogenia,  Galbula,  355 

Mice,  Narrow-footed  pouched, 

Marten,  Pennant's,  80 

Melanoleucus,  Aeronautes,  346 

209 

Marten,  Pine,  80 

Melanoleucus,  JSluropus,  75 

Mice,  Pouched,  208 

Marten,  Sable,  80 

Melanonota,  Sarcidiornis,  293 

Mice,  Singing,  105 

Marten,  Yellow-throated,  80 

Melanope,  Motacilla,  365 

Mice,  Spiny,  106 

Martes,  Mustela,  80 

Melanoperdix  nigra,  234 

Mice,  Waltzing,  105 

Martin,  Bank,  373 

Melanorhamphus,  Cocorax,  358 

Mice,  White-footed,  101 

Martin,  House,  373 

Melanura,  Rhynchops,  262 

Micoureus,  213 

Martin,  Purple,  373 

Melas,  Himantopus,  270 

Micrastur,  310 

Martinicensis,  Hylodes,  440 

Melas,  Globiocephalus,  180 

Microcebus,  30 

Martius,  Picus,  354 

Meleagrina,  622 

Microchaeta  rappi,  674 

Mary-sole,  492 

Meleagris  gallopavo,  240 

Microgale,  49 

Masked  bug,  596 

Meleagris  ocellata,  240 

Microglossus  aterrimus,  328 

Mastacembelus,  478 

Meles,  79 

Microhierax,  319 

Mastacomys,  106 

Meliceps,  Mydaus,  79 

Micromonacha,  355 

Masterdons,  9 

Melidora,  337 

Microperdix,  234 

Mastiff-bats,  39 

Melierax,  310 

Microphyllum,  Rhinopoma,  39 

Matamata,  392 

Meliphagidse,  366 

Micropterygidse,  591 

Maximus,  Cetorhinus,  517 

Melittophagus,  340 

Micropus,  467 

Maximus,  Megalobatrachus, 

Melleri,  Ehynchogale,  61 

Micropus  apus,  346 

450 

Meller's  mungoose,  61 

Microstoma,  685 

May  flies,  571 

Mellifica,  Apis,  581 

Microtinse,  103 

Mayeri,  Nesaenas,  244 

Mellivora,  79 

Microtus,  103 

Meadow  brown,  585 

Melee,  560 

Microtus  agrestis,  103 

Meadow  pipit,  365 

Melolontha  vulgaris,  557 

Microtus  amphibius,  103 

Meadow-starling,  361 

Melolouthidse,  557 

Microtus  glareolus,  103 

Meagre,  The,  468 

Melophagus  ovinus,  608 

Micrura,  Talpa,  48 

Meal-worms,  560 

Melospiza,  364 

Midaidse,  605 

Medicinal  leech,  676 

Melursus  ursinus,  75 

Midas,  27 

Medicinalis,  Hirudo,  676 

Membracidse,  601 

Midwife  frog,  443 

Medina  worm,  679 

Menhaden,  Clupea,  507 

Migratoria,  Ectopistinae,  244 

Medinensis,  Dracunculus,  679 

Menura  superba,  357 

Migratory  quail,  234 

Medusoid,  696 

Menurse,  356 

Miliaria  miliaria,  364 

Meerkat,  61 

Mephitis,  77 

Millepedes,  548 

Megacephalum,  226 

Mephitis,  Mephitica,  78 

Millepora,  697 

Megachile,  581 

Merganettinae,  297 

Milliolite  shells,  716 

Megacrex,  249 

Mergansers,  The,  297 

Milvus,  316 

Megaderma,  36 

Merganser  australis,  297 

Mimeta,  361 

Megala,  Gallinago.  268 

Merganser  brasilianus,  297 

Mirnidae,  372 

Megaladapis,  32 

Merganser  merganser,  297 

Mimus  polyglottus,  372 

Megalestris,  263 

Merganser,  Red-breasted,  297 

Mindorensis,  Bos,  162 

Megalestris  antarctica,  263 

Merginse,  297 

Minimum,  Carychium,  641 

Megalestris  catarrhactes,  263 

Mergulus  alle,  258 

Minimus,  Chironectes,  214 

Megalestris  chilensis,  263 

Mergus  albellus,  297 

Miniopterus  schreibersi,  38 

Megalestris  maccormicki,  263 

Meriones,  101 

Mink,  North  American,  81 

Megalobatrachus  maximus,  451 

Merlangus,  Gadus,  491 

Minor,  Chionarchus,  265 

Megaloblatta,  564 

Merlin,  The,  320 

Minor,  Endyptila,  255 

Megalocephalum,    Platyster- 

Merluccius,  491 

Minor,  Phaeniconaias,  290 

num,  389 

Mermaid's  head,  660 

Minor,  Philohela,  267 

Megaloprepia,  243 

Mermis,  680 

Minor,  Phylloscopus,  370 

Megaloprepia  magnifica,  243 

Meropogon  forsteni,  341 

Minuta,  Ardetta,  284 

Megalotherium,  183 

Merops,  340 

Minuta,  Sterna,  261 

Megalotis,  Otocyon,  74 

Meropes,  340 

Minutus,  Dasypus,  186 

Megapode,  Australian,  228 

Merostomata,  539 

Minutus,  Larus,  263 

Megapode,  Cumming's,  228 

Merula,  370 

Minutus,  Mus,  105 

Megapode,  Nicobar,  228 

Merula  merula,  371 

Mirabilis,  Loddigesia,  348 

Megapode,  Ocellated,  228 

Mesembry-anthemum,  Actinia. 

Mirafra,  364 

Megapodes,  True,  228 

703 

Mirum,  Pedalion,  682 

Megapodii,  226 

Mesites  variegata,  276 

Misgurnus,  500 

Megapodius,  228 

Mesodesmatidse,  625 

Mississippi  kite-falcon,  318 

Megapodius  cumingi,  228 

Mesomelas  canis,  66 

Mississippi  salamander,  451 

Megapodius  nicobariensis,  228 
Megapodius  tumulus,  228 

Mesomyodi,  373 
Mesomys,  112 

Mississippiensis,  Alligator,  380 
Mississippiensis,  Ictinia,  318 

Megaptera,  173 

Mesoplodon,  177 

Mitchelli,  Phegornis,  267 

Megaptera  boops,  173 
Melampsalta  montana,  599 

Mesoplodott  layardi,  177 
Mesopotamicus,  Cervus,  144 

Mites,  539,  545 
Mites,  Cheese,  547 

Melaniidae,  635 

Mesotrochous,  673 

Mites,  Fresh-water,  545 

Melanocephala,  Arenaria,  272 

Metachirus,  213 

Mites,  Gall,  546 

INDEX. 


Mites,  Itch,  546 

Monkeys,  New  World,  23 

Moth,  Drinker  590 

Mites,  Marine,  545 

Monkeys,  Old  World,  19 

Moth,  Emperor,  589 

Mite,  Sugar,  547 

Monkeys,  Spider,  25 

Moth,  Ermine,  593 

Mithan,  164 

Monkeys,  Woolly,  24 

Moth,  Hart-and  dart,  5D1 

Mitra  episcopal  is,  638 

Monocentris,  468 

Moth,  Gamma,  591 

Mitridse,  638 

Monochrous,  Ichthyophis,  454 

Moth,  Ghost,  591 

Mixocebus,  30 

Monodon  monoceros,  178 

Moth,  Goat,  590 

Mixtus,  Labrax,  486 

Monomyaria,  618 

Moth,  Grass,  593 

Mlokosiewiczi,  Lyrurus,  230 

Monopora  vivipara,  684 

Moth,  Lackey,  590 

Mniotiltidae,  365 

Monorhina,  523 

Moth,  Magpie,  592 

Moas,  The,  220 

Monosiga,  718 

Moth,  Mother-of-pearl,  592 

Mocking-birds,  The,  372 

Monotocardia,  632 

Moth,  Silk-worm,  590 

Modestus,  Cabalus,  249 

Monotremata,  214 

Moth,  Small  magpie,  592 

Modiola,  622 

Monotrochous,  673 

Moth,  Tiger,  588 

Modiola  modiolus,  621 

Montagu's  Harrier,  309 

Moth,  Twenty-plume,  594 

Modiolopsidae,  623 

Montana,  Melampsalta,  599 

Moth,  White  plume,  594 

Modiolus,  Modiola,  621 

Montana,  Perdix,  234 

Moth,  Yellow  underwing,  591 

Modoqua  saltiana,  151 

Montanus,  Canis,  71 

Moths,  Bell,  593 

Moles,  The,  47 

Montanus,  Haploceros,  157 

Moths,  Plume,  594 

Mole,  Cape  golden,  50 

Moon  eye,  504 

Moths,  Swift,  591 

Mole,  Common,  48 

Moonals,  The,  235 

Motmots,  The,  341 

Mole,  Duck-,  215 

Moor-hen,  252 

Motmot,  Lesson's,  341 

Moles,  Golden,  50 

Moose,  145 

Mottled  night-heron,  284 

Moles,  Hairy-tailed,  48 

Mopaliidaj,  616 

Mottled  nightjars,  344 

Mole,  Marsupial,  210 

Mordacia,  524 

Mouflon,  160 

Mole,  Musk-,  48 

Morenia,  389 

Mound-builders,  The,  226 

Mole,  Sand-,  Great,  107 

Mori,  Bombyx,  590 

Mountain  fox,  71 

Mole,  Star-nosed,  48 

Morinellius  eudromias,  271 

Mountain  hare,  118 

Moles,  True,  48 

Moristans,  Glossina,  608 

Mountain  partridge,  234 

Moles,  Web-footed,  47 

Mormolyce  phylloes,  555 

Mountain  zebra,  128 

Mole,  Yellow-tailed,  48 

Mormops,  41 

Mouse  tribe,  The,  100 

Mole-cricket,  567 

Mormops  blainvillei,  41 

Mouse,  Barbary,  105 

Mole-rats,  The,  106 

Mormyridae,  503 

Mouse,  Blind,  106 

Mole-shrews,  46 

Mormyrops,  503 

Mouse,  Harvest,  105 

Molge,  447 

Mormyrus,  503 

Mouse,  House,  105 

Molge  cristata,  447 

Mormyrus  petersi,  503 

Mouse,  Long-legged  pouched, 

Molge  palmata,  448 

Morococeyx,  351 

209 

Molge  vulgaris,  448 

Morone,  464 

Mouse,  Malabar  spiny,  100 

Molitor,  Tenebrio,  560 

VJorphinae,  584 

Mouse,  Prehensile-tailed,  106 

Mollusca,  610 

Morphnus,  313 

Mouse,  Tree-.  Pencil-tailed. 

Moloch  horridus,  400 

Morphnus  guianensis,  313 

104 

Moloch  lizard,  400 

Morpho,  584 

Mouse,  Wood,  105 

Molossus,  39 

Morrhua,  Gadus,  491 

Mouse-lemurs,  30 

Molothrus,  361 

Morse,  84 

Mucedo,  Cristatella,  6C8 

Molothrus  bonariensis,  361 

Mosaic-tailed  mice,  106 

Mud-skippers,  477 

Moluccanus,  Limulus,  539 

Moschata,  Aromia,  561 

Mud-terrapins,  389 

Molurus,  Python,  418 

Moschata,  Cairina,  293 

Mugil,  479 

Molybdophanes,  Struthio,  223 
Momotidae,  341 

Moschata,  Myogale,  47 
Moschata,  Talpa,  48 

Mugilidse,  479 
Mugiliformes,  478 

Momotus,  341 

Moschatus,  Hypsiprymnodon, 

Mulita,  187 

Momotus  lessoni,  341 

197 

Mulleria,  623 

Mona,  Cercopithecus,  21 

Moschatus,  Nesotragus,  151 

Mullet,  Grey,  479 

Mona  monkey,  21 

Moschatus,  Ovibos,  160 

Mullidae,  465 

Monacha,  355 

Moschiferus  moschus,  141 

Mullus  barbatus,  465 

Monachus,  85 

Moschus,  141 

Mungoose,  The,  60 

Monachus,  Neophron,  306 

Moschus  moschiferus,  141 

Mungoose,  Banded,  61 

Monachus,  Pithecia,  27 

Moschus  sifanicus,  141 

Mungoose,  Brown-tailed,  61 

Monachus,  Vultur,  306 
Monasa,  Aphanolimnas,  251 

Mosquitoes,  604 
Moss  animals,  665 

Mungoose,  Egyptian,  60 
Mungoose,  Elegant,  61 

Moneceros,  Monodon,  178 

Mossbanker,  The,  507 

Mungoose,  Four-toed,  60 

Monera,  The,  713 

Motacilla  campestris,  365 

Mungoose,  Madagascar,  61 

Monitors,  The,  406 

Motacilla  lugubris,  365 

Mungoose,  Meller's,  61 

Monitor,  Nile,  406 

Motacilla  melanope,  365 

Mungoose,  Pencilled,  60 

Monk  fish,  519 

Motacillidse,  364 

Mungoose,  Small  African,  60 

Monkeys,  The,  10 

Motella,  491 

Mungoose,  Small-  toothed,  61 

Monkey,  Bengal,  22 

Moths,  581 

Muntjacs,  141 

Monkey,  Diana,  21 

Moth,  Atlas,  589 

Muntjac,  Cervulus,  142 

Monkey,  Green,  21 

Moth,  Burnished  brass,  591 

Muraena,  493 

Monkey,  Lion-tailed,  22 

Moth,  Cinnabar,  588 

Muranidse,  478,  493 

Monkey,  Mona,  21 

Moth,  Clothes,  593 

Muraria,  Tichodroma,  366 

Monkey,  Proboscis,  19 

Moth,  Codling,  593 

Murea,  637 

Monkey,  Squirrel,  26 

Moth,  Corn,  593 

Murex,  637 

INDEX. 


753 


Murex  tenui-spina,  637 

Myioceyx,  337 

Narrow-footed  pouched-mice, 

Muricata,  Pontobdella,  677 

Myiodioctes,  365 

209 

Muricidse,  637 

Mylabris,  560 

Narrow-necked  woodpecker 

Muridae,  100 

Myliobatidae,  521 

354 

Murinae,  104 

Myliobatis,  521 

Narwhal-spotted,  178 

Murinus,  Eunectes,  420 

Mymar  pulchellus,  577 

Nasalis  larvatus,  19 

Mus,  104 

Mynas,  360 

Naseus,  471 

Mus  barbarus,  105 

Myobiidfe,  547 

Nasiterna,  329 

Mus  decumanus,  105 

Myodes,  103 

Nasiterna  maforensis,  329 

Mus  flavicollis,  105 
Mus  minutus,  105 

Myodes  lemmus,  103 
Myogale,  47 

Nasiterna  pygmoea,  329 
Nasomaculatus,  Addax,  154 

Mus  musculus,  105 

Myogale  moschata,  47 

Nassa  reticulata,  637 

Mus  rattus,  105 

Myogale  pyrenaica,  47 

Nassidse,  637 

Mus  sylvaticus,  105 

Myopotamus,  111 

Nasua,  9,  76 

Musaeorum,  Chiridium,  541 

Myopotamus,  Coypu,  112 

Natal  rock-snake,  419 

Musca  domestica,  607 

Myopsida,  646 

Natalus,  38 

Muscardinus  avellanarius,  99 

Myoscalops,  107 

Natatrix,  Pelagothuria,  66 

Muscicapa  grisola,  372 

Myosorex,  46 

Naticidae,  633 

Muscicapidae,  372 

Myoxidae,  99 

Natrix,  Tropidonotus,  421 

Muscidae,  606 

Myoxus,  99 

Natterjack  toad,  442 

Muscidaa  acalypterae,  607-608 

Myoxus  glis,  99 

Nauclerus  riqcouri,  316 

Muscidae  calypterae,  607 

Myoxus  nitella,  99 

Naucrates,  471 

Musculus,  Balsenoptera,  174 

Myriopoda,  548 

Nauplius,  530 

Musculus,  Mus,  105 

Myripristis,  468 

Nautilus,  645 

Mushroom,  Coral,  705 

Mynnecia,  579 

Nebulosa,  Felis,  55 

Musica,  Tubipora,  708 

Myrmecia  forficata,  579 

Necrophago,  556 

Musicus,  Cygnus,  292 

Myrmecobiinae,  209 

Necrophorus  vespillo,  556 

Musicus,  Turdus,  371 

Myrmecobius  fasciatus,  209 

Nectarinia  famosa,    66 

Musimon,  Ovis,  160 

Myrmecophaga  jubata,  184 

Nectariniidae,  366 

Musk-beetle,  561 

Myrmecophagidae,  183 

Nectes,  441 

Musk-deer,  141 

Myrmeleonidse,  570 

Nectogale  elegans,  47 

Musk-kangaroo,  197 

Myrmica,  579 

Nectophryne,  441 

Musk-mole,  48 

Myrmicidse,  579 

Necturus,  452 

Musk-ox,  160 

Mystacoceti,  171 

Needle-tailed  swift,  34 

Musk-rat,  Round-tailed,  103 

Mystacops  tuberculatus,  40 

Nemachilus,  500 

Musk-rat,  True,  103 

Mystromys,  101 

Nemachilus  barbatulus,  500 

Musk-shrews,  46 

Mytilacea,  621 

Nematagnathi,  496 

Musophaga  rossae,  352 

Mytilus,  622 

Nematohelminthes,  678 

Musophagidse,  351 

Mytilus  edulis,  621 

Nematu,  575 

Musquash,  103 

Myxine,  525 

Nemeobius  lucina,  586 

Mussel,  Horse,  621 

Myxinidae,  524 

Nemertine  worms,  683 

Mussel,  Marine,  621 

Myxopoda  urita,  38 

Nemertinea,  683 

Mustela,  80 

Myzostoma,  675 

Nemopteridae,  571 

Mustela  americana,  80 

MyzostornidEe,  675 

Nemorhaedus,  157 

Mustela  erminea,  81 

Nemoricola,  Gallinago,  268 

Mustela  flavigula,  80 
Mustela  foina,  80 

Nemorum,  Phyllotreta,  562 
Neobalsena,  172 

Mustela  hibernica,  81 

N. 

Neochanna,  504 

Mustela  lutreola,  81 

Neofiber,  103 

Mustela  martes,  80 

Nahura,  Ovis,  160 

Neomeniidae,  616 

Mustela  pennanti,  80 

Naia,  424 

Neomeniina,  616 

Mustela  putorius,  81 

Naia  bungarus,  424 

Neomorphinaj,  351 

Mustela  vison,  81 

Naia  haie,  424 

Neomorphus,  351 

Mustela  vulgaris,  81 

Naia  tripudians,  424 

Neophron,  306 

Mustela  zibellina,  80 

Nais  proboscidea,  674 

Neophron  ginginianus,  306 

Mustelidse,  76 

Nais,  Snouted,  674 

Neophron  monachus,  306 

Mustelus,  516 

Naked  bat.  40 

Neophron  percnopterus,  306 

Mute  swan,  292 

Nakong,  156 

Neophron  pileatus,  306 

Muticus,  Paro,  239 

Namadicus,  Hippopotamus,  132 

Neopsittacus,  328 

Mutillidae,  579 

Nana,  Rhea,  221 

Neopus  malaiensia,  315 

Mutus,  Lachesis,  429 

Nandidse,  464 

Neoscolopax  rochusseni,  267 

Mutus,  Lagopus,  230 

Nandinia,  59 

Neotoma,  102 

Mya,  626 

Nandu,  222 

Neotoma  alleni,  102 

Myacea,  623,  626 

Nannosciurus,  95 

Neotramata,  651 

Mvcerobas,  363 

Nanotraginae,  151 

Nepa  cinerea,  597 

Mycteria  australis,  280 
Mycteria  senegalensis,  280 

Nanotragus  livingstonianus,  151 
Nanotragus  moschatus,  151 

Nepidae,  597 
Neptune's  cup,  693 

Mydas,  Chelone,  391 
Mydaus  meliceps,  79 

Nanotragus  pygmaeus,  151 
Napoleonis,  Polypectrum,  238 

Nereis  margaritacea,  673 
Neritidae.  632 

Mygalidae,  542 

Narcine,  521 

Neritina,  £32 

Mygnimia,  580 

Nardoa,  419 

Neritopsidae,  632 

Myidae,  626 

Naricidse,  634 

Nerophis,  488 

49 

754 


INDEX. 


Nertz,  81 

North  American  alligator,  380 

0 

Nesaenas,  244 

North  American  hen  harrier, 

Nessenas  mayeri,  244 

309 

Oak  eggar,  590 

Nesiotis,  Porphyriornis,  252 

North  American  marten,  80 

Oaten  straw  coralline,  697 

Nesocia,  105 

North  American  wapiti,  143 

Obscurus,  Dendragapus,  231 

Nesoctites,  354 

Northern  sea-cow,  168 

Obscurus,  Theropithecus,  22 

Nesomys,  102 

Northern  sea-lion,  82 

Ocadia,  389 

Nestor  norfolcensis,  326 

Norwegian  jer-falcon,  319 

Occipitalis,  Lophoaetus,  315 

Nestor  notabilis,  327 

Notabilis,  Nestor,  327 

Oceanica,  Lvgia,  534 

Nestor  productus,  326 

Notacanthidse,  485 

Oceanitinae,  257 

Nestoridae,  326 

Notacanthiformes,  485 

Oceanodroma  leucorrhoa,  257 

Nettion,  296 

Notacanthus,  485 

Ocellata,  Lacerta,  409 

Nettopus,  294 

Notidanidae,  518 

Ocellata,  Lipoa,  228 

Nettopus  coromandelianns,  294 

Notiosorex,  46 

Ocellata,  Meleagris,  240 

Neurobasis  chinensis,  570 

Notobranchaeidae,  640 

Ocellated  megapode,  228 

Neuroptera,  568 
Neuroptera,  Pseudo,  569 

Notodelphyidse,  532 
Notonectidae,  597 

Ocellatus,  Rheinhaidms,  239 
Ocelot,  55 

Neurotrichus,  47 

Notopteridse,  503 

Ochropus,  Helodroraas,  209 

Neustria,  Clisiocampa,  590 
New  world  monkeys,  8,  23 

Notopterus,  503 
Notornis,  252 

Ochthodromus,,  271 
Octactinia,  707 

Newts  and  salamanders,  445 

Notoryctes  typhlops,  210 

Octodon,  111 

Newt,  Common,  448 

Notoryctidae,  210 

Octodont  tribe,  The   110 

Newt,  Crested,  447 

Nototrema,  443 

Octodontidae,  110 

Newt,  Webbed,  448 

Novae-hollandiae,  Astur,  311 

Octopoda,  646 

Newtoniana,  Prionodura,  359 

Novae-hollandiae,  Dromeae,  223 

Octopodidae,  647 

Nicobar  megapode,  228 

Novae-zealandiae,  Coturnix,  235 

Ocycerus,  340 

Nicobar  pigeon,  '245 

Novae-zealandiae.  Geonemertes, 

Ocydromus,  251 

Nicobariensis,  Megapodius,  228 

684 

Odonata,  569 

Nicoria,  387 

Noveboracensis,  Ortygops,  252 

Odontaspis,  517 

Niger,  Canis,  65 

Novius  cardinalis,  602 

Odontoceti,  171 

Niger,  Cynopitheeus,  22 

Nucleobranchiata,  636 

Odontomachus,  579 

Niger,  Hippotragus,  153 

Nucula,  620 

Odontophorinae,  231 

Nigra,  Alouatta,  24 

Nuculidse,  620 

(Edemia,  297 

Nigra,  Ciconia,  279 

Nucum,  Balaninus,  560 

ffidicnemi,  273 

Nigra,  Hydrochelidon,  261 

Nudibranchiata,  640 

ffidicnemus  oedicnemus,  273 

Nigra,  Melanoperdix,  234 

Nudibranchis,  640 

OZdipoda  caerulescens,  568 

Nigra,  Rhynchops,  262 

Numenius,  269 

OZstrelata  brevipes,  257 

Night-heron,  Mottled,  284 

Numida,  239 

CEstridae,  606 

Nightingale,  370 

Nummilites,  715 

Officinalis  euspongia,  693 

Nightjars,  The,  342 

Nut  hatches,  The,  368 

Officinalis,  Scincus,  410 

Nightjar,  Leona,  343 

Nut  hatch,  Common,  368 

Ogmorhinus  leptonyx,  86 

Nightjar,  Mottled,  344 

Nut-weevil,  560 

Oigopsida,  646 

Nile  fox,  71 

Nutria,  111 

Oikopleura,  527 

Nile  monitor,  406 

Nyctala,  324 

Oil  beetles,  560 

Nilgai,  154 
Nilgiri  ibex,  159 

Nyctalea  acadica,  324 
Nyctalea  tengmalmi,  324 

Oil  birds,  The,  332 
Oil  fish,  478 

Niloticus,  Canus,  71 

Nyctea  nyctea,  322 

Old  world  monkeys,  19 

Niloticus,  Crocodilus,  381 

Nyctereutes,  69 

Olens,  Ocypus,  556 

Niloticus,  Varanus,  406 

Nycteribiidge,  608 

Oligochaeta,  673 

Ninox,  323 

Nycteridse,  36 

Olividae,  638 

Nit,  Coralline,  668 

Nycteris,  36 

Olm,  452 

Nitella,  Myoxus,  99 

Nyctibiinae,  344 

Olor,  Cygnus,  292 

Nitidissima,  Alectraenas,  243 

Nyctibus  grandis,  344 

Ommastrephidae,  646 

Nivalis,  Plectrophenax,  363 

Nyctibus  jamarcensis,  344 

Ommatophoca  rossi,  87 

Nivicola,  Ovis,  160 

Nycticebus,  31 

Onca,  Felis,  53 

Noble  falcons,  The,  319 

Nycticejus,  37 

Onchidiidae,  642 

Noctilio,  39 

Nycticejus  albofuscus,  38 

Onchorhynchus,  508 

Noctiluca,  718 

Nyctieorax,  283 

Oniscidae,  534 

Noctiluca,  Lampyris,  559 

Nyctieorax  nyctieorax,  283 

Onocrotalus,  Pelecr.nus,  302 

Noctilucus,  Pyrophorus,  559 

Nyctinomus,  40 

Onychodactylus,  450 

Noctuae,  588 

Nyctinomus  cestoni,  40 

Onychogale,  194 

Noctula,  Vesperugo,  37 

Nyctiornis,  341 

Onychomys,  101 

Noctule,  37 

Nyctiornis  amicta,  341 

Onychoteuthidae,  646 

Noisy  scrub-bird,  376 

Nyctiornis  athertoni,  341 

Oocorythidae,  637 

Nomada,  580 

Nyctipithecus,  26 

Opelet,  The,  703 

Nomaeidae,  472 

Nyctipithecus  trivirgatus,  26 

Open-billed  storks,  ?80 

Nomaeus,  472 

Nymphalidse,  582 

Open  -bills,  278 

Nomonyx,  297 

Nyroca,  297 

Opercula,  Principal  forms  of,630 

Non  -hinged  brachiopod,  650 

Operculum,  630 

Nonnula,  355 

Ophichthys,  494,  495 

Norfolcensis,  Nestor,  326 

Ophideres,  591 

Norfolk  plover,  273 

Ophidia,  412 

INDEX. 


755 


Ophidiidaa,  491 

Oryzivorus,  Cassidix,  362 

Owl,  Tengmalm's,  324 

Ophidium,  491 

Oryzomys,  101 

Owl,  Wood,  320,  324 

Ophiocephalidae,  482 

Oryzodctes,  49 

Owls,  Eared,  324 

Ophiocephalus,  482 

Oryzorictes  nova,  49 

Owls,  Fishing,  321 

Ophiodes,  405 

Oryzorictes  tetradactylus,  49 

Owls,  Tufted,  322 

Ophion,  Ovis,  160 

Osmerus,  508 

Owl-parrot,  331 

Ophisaurus,  405 

Osphromenus,  483 

Owlets,  The,  324 

Ophisaurus  apus,  405 

Ospreys,  320 

Owlet,  Pigmy,  324 

Ophispholis  aculeata,  657 

Ossifraga  gigantea,  258 

Owlet-nightjar,  334 

Ophiuroidea,  658 

Ossifragus,  Gypaetus,  314 

Ox,  Common,  165 

Opisthobranchiata,  639 

Osteoglossidae,  504 

Ox,  Musk,  161 

Opisthocomus  cristatus,  247 

Osteolaemus,  382 

Oxygyrus,  637 

Opolemur,  30 

Osteolaemus  tetraspis,  382 

Oxymycterus,  101 

Opossums,  211 

Ostracium,  489 

Oxynoidae,  640 

Opossum,  Common,  211 

Ostracoda,  532 

Oxyrhamphidae,  373 

Opossum,  Didelphys,  213 

Ostrea,  622 

Oxyrhamphus,  37* 

Opossum  quica,  213 

Ostreacea,  622 

Oxyuris  vermicularis,  679 

Opossum,  Thick-tailed,  213 

Ostrich,  The,  222 

Oyster-catchers,  271 

Opossum,  Velvety,  213 

Ostrich,  Somali-land,  223 

Oyster,  Hammer-headed,  622 

Opossum,  Water,  211 

Ostrich,  South  African,  223 

Oyster,  Pearl,  622 

Orang-utan,  16 

Otaria,  82 

Oyster,  Saddle,  621 

Orange  tip,  586 

Otaria  fosteri,  82 

Oyster,  Thorny,  623 

Orbicularis,  Emys,  388 

Otaria  pusilla,  82 

Orca,  179 

Otaria  gillespii,  82 

Orca  gladiator,  180 

Otaria  jubata,  82 

P. 

Orcella  fluminalis,  179 

Otaria  stelleri,  82 

Oreocicla,  370 

Otaria  ursina,  82 

Pacas,  115 

Oreocicla  varia,  371 

Otariidae,  81 

Paca,  Branick's,  115 

Oreophasis  derbianus,  229 

Otides,  273 

Pacas  family,  The,  115 

Oreopithecus,  14 

Otinidse,  641 

Pachycalmus,  408 

Oreopsittacus,  328 

Otis,  273 

Pachycephala,  369 

Oreotragus  saltator,  151 

Otis  tarda,  273 

Pachyrhina  crocata,  604 

Orias,  156 

Otocorys,  364 

Pachytriton,  449 

Oribi,  South  African,  151 

Otocorys  alpestis,  364 

Pachyuromys,  101 

Oribia,  Scoparia,  151 

Otocyon  megalotis,  74 

Pacificus,  Pareudiastes,  252 

Oriental  chevrotains,  139 

Otogyps,  306 

Pagellus,  466 

Oriental  leopard  cat,  55 

Otomys,  101 

Pagodus,  635 

Oriental  magar,  381 

Otters,  The,  76 

Pagrinae,  466 

Oriental  shrews,  46 

Otter,  Sea,  77 

Pagrus,  466 

Orientalis,  Blatta,  564 

Otus,  Asio,  324 

Paguridse,  537 

Orioles,  The,  361 

Ounce,  53 

Pagurus,  Cancer,  538 

Oriole,  Golden,  361 

Ovalis,  Cyamus,  535 

Painted  frog,  444 

Oriolidae,  361 

Oven-birds,  375 

Painted  fruit-pigeon,  242 

Oriolus  galbula,  361 

Ovibos  moschatus,  160 

Painted  pigeons,  The,  243 

Organ-pipe  coral,  708 

Oviformis,  Gromia,  715 

Painted  quails,  235 

Ormers,  The,  632 

Ovinus,  Melophagus,  608 

Painted  snipes,  The,  267 

Ornata,  Ceratophrys,  441 

Ovis,  159 

Pala,  152 

Ornatus,  Anthops,  36 

Ovis  ammon,  160 

Palseindicus,  Hippopotamus, 

Ornatus,  Ursus,  75 

Ovis  canadensis,  160 

132 

Ornithomyia  avicularia,  608 

Ovis  gmelini,  160 

Palaensis,  Geonemertes,  684 

Ornithoptera,  587 

Ovis  hodgsoni,  160 

Palseolodus,  290 

Ornithorhynchidfe,  215 

Ovis  musimon,  160 

Palamedea,  290 

Ornithorhynchus  anatinus, 

Ovis  nahura,  160 

Palamedea  cornuta,  290 

215 

Ovis  nivicola,  160 

Palinuridse,  537 

Ortalinse,  608 

Ovis  ophion,  160 

Pallasiana,  Lepralia,  667 

Orthagoriscus,  472 

Ovis  poli,  160 

Pallas'  sand-grouse,  241 

Orthalicidse,  643 

Ovis  tragelaphus,  160 

Pallas'  sea-eagle,  321 

Orthalicus,  643 

Ovis  vignei,  160 

Palliata,  Adamsia,  703 

Orthogeomys,  109 

Owls,  The,  320 

Pallipes,  Canis,  64 

Orthonectidse,  689 

Owl,  Barn,  325 

Palm-civit,  59 

Orthoptera,  562 

Owl,  Brown  Hawk,  323 

Palm  squirrel,  Indian,  91 

Orthorhamphus  maginrostris, 

Owl,  Burrowing,  323 

Palm  swifts,  346 

273 

Owl,  Downy,  324 

Palm  weevil,  560 

Ortolan,  364 

Owl,  Eagle,  322 

Palmarum,  Sciurus,  91 

Ortygops,  251 

Owl,  Grass,  325 

Palmata,  Molge,  448 

Ortygops  exquisita,  252 

Owl,  Horned,  321 

Palmeri,  Porzanula,  251 

Ortygops  noveboracensis,  252 

Owl,  Little,  323 

Palseornis,  329 

Ortyx  virginianus,  240 

Owl,  Long-eared,  324 

Paludestrinidae,  635 

Orycteropodidae,  189 

Owl,  Pel's  Fishing,  3?.l 

Paludicola,  103,  441 

Orycteropus  capensis,  189 

Owl,  Short-eared,  324 

Palumbarius,  Astur,  310 

Oryx,  153 

Owl,  Snowy,  322 

Palustris,  Parus,  367 

Oryzivora,  Delichonyx,  361 

Owl,  Tawny,  321 

Pamir  sheep,  160 

756 


INDEX. 


Pampas-deer,  146 

Partridge,  The  true,  234 

Pelicans  and  allies,  298 

Panda,  The,  75,  76 

Partridges,  Snow,  231 

Pelicans,  The,  301 

Panderi,  Podoces,  358 

Partridges,  Tooth-billed,  231 

Pelican,  Knob-billed,  302 

Pandiones,  304,  320 

Parula,  365 

Pelican,  Roseate,  302 

Pandion  haliaetus,  320 

Parus,  367 

Pelican,  Spotted-billed,  302 

Pandora,  627 

Parus  caeruleus,  367 

Pelican's  foot  shell,  636 

Pandoridse,  627 

Parus  major,  367 

Pelidna,  269 

Pangolins,  188 

Parus  palustris,  367 

Pelobatidae,  443 

Panoplus,  405 

Parva,  Helogale,  60 

Pelochelys,  395 

Panther,  53 

Parva,  Zapornia,  251 

Pelodera,  679 

Pantholops,  Hodgsoni,  152 

Parvirostris,  Tetrao,  230 

Pelodytes  punctatus,  443 

Pantodon  bucholzi,  505 

Pasang,  159 

Pelomedusidje,  393 

Pantodontidse,  505 

Passenger  pigeons,  The,  244 

Pelopaeus  spirifex,  580 

Papatasii,  Phlebotomus,  604 

Passeriformes,  357 

Pelor,  467 

Paper  nautilus,  647 

Paste,  Eel,  679 

Pel's  fishing-owl,  321 

Papillata,  Cidaris,  659 

Pastor,  Rose-coloured,  360 

Pel's  flying-squirrel,  90 

Papio,  10,  22 

Pastor  roseus,  360 

Peltella,  643 

Papio  babuin,  23 

Patachonica,  Aptendytes,  255 

Peltohyas,  270 

Papio  maimon,  23 

Patagona  gigas,  347 

Peltohyas  australis,  270 

Papio  porcarius,  23 

Patellidse,  631 

Peltohyatinae,  '270 

Pappogeomys,  109 

Paterina,  650 

Peludo  argentine,  186 

Paradise-fish,  Chinese,  483 

Paumotensis,  Actinia,  704 

Pemperis,  468 

Paradise  flycatchers,  373 

Pavoncella,  269 

Pempheris,  471 

Paradiseidae,  358 

Pavoncella  pugnax,  269 

Pencillata,  Cynictis,  60 

Paradiseinae,  359 

Pavonia-minor,  Saturnia,  589 

Pencilled  mungoose,  60 

Paradoxuna,  Diplozoon,  688 

Pea-fowl,  The,  239 

Pencil-tailed  tree-mouse,  10i 

Paradoxurus,  59 

Peacock  butterfly,  585 

Pendadactylus,    Pterophorus, 

Paradoxus,  Syrrhoptes,  241 

Peacock  pheasants,  The,  238 

594 

Paralepis,  505 

Pearl-grey  curlew,  270 

Penguins,  The,  255 

Parameniidse,  616 

Pearl  oyster,  622 

Penguin,  Emperor,  255 

Parasitic  Hymenoptera,  576 

Pearly  lizard,  409 

Penguin,  King,  255 

Parasitica,  Callidina,  683 

Pearly  nereis,  673 

Pennanti,  Mustela,  80 

Parasiticus,  Stercorarius,  263 

Peccaries,  9 

Pennant's  marten,  80 

Pardalis,  Felis,  55 

Peccaries  family,  The,  135 

Pennatula,  709 

Pardina,  Felis,  56 

Pecora,  140 

Pennatus,  Distaechurus,  202 

Pardus,  Felis,  53 

Pecten,  622 

Pennatus,  Eutolmsetus,  315 

Paretroplus,  487 

Pectinacea,  622 

Pennula  ecaudata,  251 

Pareudiastes  pacifieus,  252 

Pectinator,  111 

Pentacrini,  664 

Paridse,  367 

Pectinibranchiata,  632 

Pen-tailed  phalanger,  202 

Parnassius,  587 

Pectintinibranchiate,  614 

Pen-tailed  shrew,  44 

Parnassius  Apollo,  587 

Pectunculus,  621 

Pen-tailed  tree-shrew,  202 

Paro,  239                         . 

Pedalion  mirum,  682 

Pentanemus,  468 

Paro  cristatus,  239 

Pedetes  caffer,  110 

Pentatomidse,  595 

Paro  muticus,  239 

Pediculus  capitis,  602 

Peragale,  205 

Paroaria,  364 

Pediculus  vestimeuti,  602 

Perameles,  206 

Parrakeet,  Long-tailed,  329 

Pedionomus,  241 

Perameles  gunni,  206 

Parrots,  The,  325 

Pedipalpi,  541 

Peramelidse,  205 

Parrot,  Grey,  330 

Pedunculate  Brachiopod,  648 

Peramys,  213 

Parrot,  Ground,  331 

Pegasus,  476 

Perca,  464 

Parrot,  Kea,  327 

Pelagica,  Procellaria,  257 

Percarina,  464 

Parrot,  Owl,  331 

Pelagonemertes,  684 

Perch,  Common,  464 

Parrot,  Sea-,  260 

Pelagothuria,  662 

Perching  birds,  The,  357 

Parrots,  Kaka,  326 

Pelagothuria  natatrix,  661 

Percichthys,  464 

Parrots,  True,  329 

Pelargopsis,  336 

Percidae,  464 

Parrot-wrasses,  486 

Pelargopsis  burmanica,  336 

Perciformes,  463 

Parti  -coloured  bear,  75 

Pelea  capreola,  151 

Percnopterus,    Neophron,  306 

Partridges,  The,  231 

Pelecaniformes,  298 

Percopsidae,  509 

Partridge,  Barbary  red-legged, 

Pelecani,  298 

Percopsis  guttata,  509 

232 

Pelecanoididse,  258 

Perdicinae,  231 

Partridge,  "Bearded,  234 

Pelecanus  erythrorhynchus, 

Perdicula,  234 

Partridge,  Black-headed  red- 

302 

Perdix,  234 

legged,  232 

Pelecanus  manillensis,  302 

Perdix  damascena,  234 

Partridge,  Chukar,  232 

Pelecanus  onocrotalus,  302 

Perdix  daurica,  234 

Partridge,  Common,  233 

Pelecinus,  578 

Perdix  hodgsoniae,  234 

Partridge,  Greek,  232 

Pelecinus  soliturator,  578 

Perdix  montana,  234 

Partridge,  Mountain,  234 

Pelecnanoidae,  257 

Perdix  perdix,  235 

Partridge,   Prjevalsky's  red- 

Pelecus,  500 

Perdix  sifanica,  234 

legged,  232 

Pelecypod  gills,  Development 

Peregrine  falcon,  319 

Partridge,   Rock  red-legged, 
232 

of,  619 
Pelecypoda,  616 

Peregrinus,  Falco,  319 
Perforate  formanifera,  715 

Partridge,  See-see,  233 

Peli,  Anomalurus,  90 

Perginae,  574 

Partridge,  Toothed,  240 

Peli,  Scotopelia,  321 

Periopthalmus,  476 

INDEX. 


757 


Peripatidae,  550 

Phalanger,  Flying,  Taguan,  20 

PhilydorinjB,  375 

Peripatus,  671 

Phalanger,  Leadbeater's,  201 

Phlaeomyinae,  101 

Peripatus  iuliformis,  551 
Periplaneta  americana,  564 

Phalanger,  Long-snouted,  203 
Phalanger  maculatus,  200 

Phlebotomus  papatosi,  604 
Phoca,  85 

Perissodactyla,  124 

Phalanger,  Pen-tailed,  202 

Phoca  barbata,  85 

Peristeridae,  244 

Phalanger,  Ring-tailed,  200 

Phoca  caspica,  85 

Peristerinaj,  244 

Phalanger  Tribe,  198 

Phoca  grcenlandica,  85 

Peristeropodes,  226 

Phalanger  ursinus,  200 

Phoca  sibirica,  85 

Periwinkles,  635 

Phalangeridse,  198 

Phoca  vitulina,  85 

Perlidae,  571 

Phalangerinse,  199 

Phocidae,  84,  85 

Pern,  Black,  317 

Phalangiida,  541 

Phoccena,  179 

Perna,  622 
Pernis,  317 

Phalaropes,  The,  266 
Phalarope,  Grey,    66 

Phocoena  communis,  179 
Phocoena  phocoenoides,  179 

Pernis  apivorus,  317 

Phalarope,  Red-necked,  266 

Phoccenoides,  Phocoena,  179 

Pernis  celebensis,  317 

Phalarope,  Wilson's,  266 

Phoebetria,  258 

Pernis  ptilonorhynchus,  317 

Phalaropinae,  266 

Phoenicens,  Agelaeus,  361 

Perodicticus,  31 

Phalaropus,  366 

Phoeniconaias,  290 

Perodicticus  potto,  31 

Phalaropus  hyperboreus,  266 

Phoeniconaias  minor,  290 

Perodipus,  109 

Pharyngognathi,  485 

Phoenicoparrus,  290 

Perognathus,  109 

Phascolarctinae,  199 

Phoenicoparrus  andinus,  290 

Perplexa,  Callidea,  595 

Phascolarctus  cincreus,  199 

Phoenicoparrus  jamesi,  290 

Persian  fallow-deer,  144 

Phascologale,  208 

Phoenicophaeinse,  351 

Persian  wild  goat,  159 
Persian  maral,  143 

Phascolomyidse,  204 
Phascolomys,  203 

Phoenicophaes,  351 
Phcenicopteriformes,  288 

Persicus,  Argas,  546 
Persicus,  Cassidix,  262 

Phascolosoma,  678 
Phasgonuridae,  567 

Phoenicopterus,  290 
Phoethornis,  348 

Persicus,  Phasianus,  237 
Personatus,  Reduvius,  596 

Phasiani,  226 
Phasiandae,  229 

Pholadacea,  623 
Pholadidae,  627 

Perspicillata,  Salamandrina,  448 

Phasianinfe,  235 

Pholadomya  caudida,  628 

Perspicillatus,  Artibeus,  41 

Phasianus  colchicus,  237 

Pholadomyidae,  628 

Persuasoria,  Rhyssa,  577 
Petauroides  volans,  201 

Phasianus  persicus,  237 
Phasianus  principalis,  237 

Pholas,  625 
Phoronis,  649 

Petaurus,  202 

Phasianus  reevesi,  238 

Photichthys,  505 

Petaurus  breviceps,  202 

Phasianus  scemmeringi,  238 

Phoyx  purpurea,  282 

Petersi,  Geotrypetes,  455 

Phasianus  scintillans,  238 

Phragmitis,  Acrocephalus,  370 

Petersi,  Mormyrus,  503 

3hasianus  talischensis,  237 

Phryganea  grandis,  572 

Petrels,  The,  256 

i'hasianus  veisicolor,  z'3S 

Phryganistria  serratipes,  566 

Petrel,  Canarian  fork-tailed,  257 

Phasidus,  239 

Phrygilus,  364 

Petrel,  Common  fulmar,  258 

Phasmidae,  551 

3hrynorhombus,  492 

Petrel,  Diving,  257 

'heasants,  The,  235 

5hrynosoma,  403 

Petrel,  Fork-tailed,  257 

Pheasant,  Argus,  235 

Phrynus,  541 

Petrel,  Fulmar,  258 

Pheasant,  Barred-backed,  238 

Phylactolaemata,  669 

Petrel,  Leach's,  257 

Pheasant,  Caped,  238 

Phyllobates  trinitatis,  438 

Petrel,  Long-legged,  257 

Jheasant,  Cheer,  237 

Phyllodes,  Mormolyce,  555 

Petrel,  Short-legged,  257 

Peasant,  Common,  237 

Phyllodromia  germanica,  564 

Petrel,  Storm,  257 
Petricolidse,  625 

Pheasant,  Copper,  238 
Pheasant,  Cuckoo,  351 

Phyllonycteris,  41 
Phyllopoda,  531 

Petrochelidon  pyrrhonota,  373 

Pheasant,  Fire-backed,  236 

PhyUopteryx,  487 

Petrodomus,  44 

Pheasant,  Horned,  235 

^hylloscopus  minor,  370 

Petrogale,  194 

>heasant,  Impeyan,  235 

'hylloscopus  trochilus,  370 

Petromys,  111 

Pheasant,  Kalij,  236 

'hyllostoma,  41 

Petromyzidae,  524 

Pheasant,  Koklass,  237 

Phyllostomatidae,  40 

Petromyzum,  524 

Pheasant,  Lobed,  236 

Phyllotreta,  562 

Petromyzum  fluviatile,  524 

Pheasant,  Pucras,  236 

'hyllotreta  nemorum,  562 

Petromyzum  mar  in  11111,  524 

Pheasant,  Reeves,  238 

'hymosoma,  678 

Petrosa,  Caccabis,  232 

Pheasant,  Silver,  236 

Physalia,  699 

Pewit,  Common,  271 

Pheasants,  Blood,  235 

'hyseter  macrocephalus,  175 

Pezophaps,  245 

Pheasants,  Eared,  236 

Physeteridae,  175 

Pezophaps  solitarius,  245 

'heasants,  Ring-necked,  237 

Physidae,  642 

Pezoporus,  331 

'hegornis  mitchelli,  267 

'hysodon,  176 

Phabinae,  244 

'henacomys,  103 

'hysostomi,  493 

Phacochaerus  aethiopicus,  134 
Phaeton  flavirostris,  298 

Philander,  213 
Philepittidae,  373 

Phytophaga,  561 
Phytopti,  545 

Phainopepla,  369 

Philhydrida,  557 

Phytoptidae,  546 

Phalacrocoraces,  299 

Philinidae,  640 

Phytotomidae,  373 

Phalacrocorax  carbo,  299 

Philippine  rats,  101 

Piaya,  351 

Phalacrocorax  graculus,  299 

Philippinus,  Cervus,  143 

Pica,  357 

Phalacrocorax  varius,  300 

Phillipsi,  Dipodomys,  109 

Pica  pica,  358 

Phalangers,  The,  200 

Phillotis,  101 

Picarian  birds,  The,  33? 

Phalanger,  Common,  200 

Philodryas,  423 

Picas  family,  The,  117 

Phalanger,  Dormouse,  202 

Philohela  minor,  267 

Piceus,  Hydrous,  557 

Phalanger,  Flying,  202 

Philomycidae,  643 

Pichi,  186 

758 


INDEX. 


Pichiago,  185 

Pipit,  Tree,  365 

Pleurotomidae,  632 

Pichiciagos,  188 

Pipridae,  373 

Ploceidae,  362 

Pici,  353 

Pirula,  636 

Ploceus  baya,  362 

Piciformes,  353 

Piscatorius,  Lophius,  474 

Plotidae,  301 

Picinae,  354 

Pisces,  456 

Plotus  anhin-ra,  301 

Picoides,  354 

Pisidium,  623 

Plotus  levaillanti,  301 

Pictus,  Aramus,  275 

Pit  vipers,  428 

Plovers,  The,  264 

Pictus,  Discoglossus,  444 

Pithechirus,  106 

Plover,  American  golden,  270 

Pictus,  Lycaon,  73 

Pithecia,  27 

Plover,  Crab,  264 

Piculets,  354 

Pithecia  monachus,  27 

Plover,  Golden,  271 

Picumninae,  354 

Pithecia  satanus,  27 

Plover,  Grey,  271 

Picumnus,  354 

Pittas,  The,  375 

Plover,  Norfolk,  273 

Picus  martius,  3=>4 

Pitta  angolensis,  375 

Plover,  Spur-winged,  271 

Piddocks,  The,  627 

Pitta,  The  Purple,  375 

Plover,  Stone,  273 

Pied  flycatcher,  372 

Pittidae,  373 

Plover,  True,  270 

Pied  hornbill,  339 

Pittoides,  Atelornis,  335 

Plover,  Wattled,  271 

Pied  kingfisher,  336 

Placuna  sella,  621 

Plover,  Wry-billed,  270 

Pied  shag,  300 

Plagiodon,  112 

Plume  moths,  594 

Pied  sparrow-hawk,  311 

Plagyodus,  505 

Plumose  anemone,  702 

Pied  swift,  346^ 

Plain  rat-kangaroo,  197 

Plumularians,  697 

Pied  wagtail,  The,  365 

Planarian,  Land,  684 

Plusia  chrysitis,  591 

Pied  woodpecker,  354 
Pieridae,  586 

Planarian  worms,  685 
Planci,  Cucumaria,  660 

Plusia  gamma,  591 
Pluvialis,  Charadrius,  271 

Pig  tribe,  The,  133 

Planipennia,  570 

Pluvialis,  Haematopota,  605 

Pig,  Bush,  134 

Planorbis,  642 

Pneumonodermatidae,  640 

Pigs,  True,  133 

Plant  bugs,  596 

Pochards,  The,  297 

Pig-footed  bandicoot,  206 
Pigeons,  The,  242 

Plant  cutters,  The,  374 
Plant-feeding  beetles,  561 

Pocket-gophers,  The,  107 
Podargi,  333 

Pigeon,  Crowned,  245 

Plant-lice,  598,  601 

Podarginae,  333 

Pigeon,  Fruit,  242 

Platacan  thorny  s  lasiurus,  100 

Podargus,  333 

Pigeon,  Ground,  244 

Plataleae,  286 

Podargus  strigoides,  333 

Pigeon,  Long-tailed,  244 

Plataleae  leucerodea,  286 

Podica,  252 

Pigeon,  Nicobar,  245 

Platanista  gangetica,  177 

Podica  senegalensis,  252 

Pigeon,  Painted,  243 

Platanistidae,  177 

Podicipes  auritus,  253 

Pigeon,  Passenger,  244 

Platax,  471 

Podicipes  cristatus,  253 

Pigeon,  Tooth-billed,  245 

Plated  holothurian,  661 

Podicipedidiformes,  253 

Pigeon,  Wood,  244 
Pigmy  hippopotamus,  131 

Platemys,  393 
Platibis,  286 

Podilymbus,  253 
Podoces,  358 

Pigmy  hog,  134 

Platurus,  425 

Podoces  hendersoni,  358 

Pigmy  owlet,  324 

Platurus  laticaudatus,  425 

Podoces  humilis,  358 

Pigmy  squirrels,  95 

Platycercomys,  110 

Podoces  panderi,  358 

Pigmy  whale,  172 

Platycercus,  329 

Podocnemis  expansa,  393 

Pike,  Bony,  509 

Platycheles,  Porcellana,  537 

Pcecile,  367 

Pike,  Common,  502 

Platygeomys,  109 

Pceciliidae,  502 

Pike  head,  483 

Platyhelminthes,  685 

Poecilogale  albinucha,  81 

Pike-perches,  464 
Pilaris,  Turdus,  371 

Platyrhina,  520 
Platyrhynchinae,  373 

Poensis,  Poiana,  58 
Poephila,  362 

Pilchard,  507 

Platysaurus,  404 

Pogonias,  468 

Pilchardus,  Clupea,  507 
Pileatus,  Neophron,  306 

Platysternidae,  389 
Platysternum  megalocephalum, 

Poiana  poensis,  58 
Poiphila  casei,  608 

Pilidium,  684 

389 

Poisonous  lizards,  405 

Pilot-fish,  471 

Plautus  impennis,  260 

Polar  bear,  75 

Pimelodus,  497 

Plecotus,  36 

Polecat,  81 

Pimplinse,  577 

Plecotus  auritus,  37 

Polecat,  Cape,  81 

Pine-marten,  80 
Pink-footed  goose,  295 

Plectispondyli,  497 
Plectognathi,  488 

Poll  ovis,  160 
Poliohierax,  319 

Pink-headed  duck,  294 

Plectrophenax  nivalis,  363 

Polish  swan,  292 

Pinna,  622 

Plectropterinae,  293 

Politurator,  Pelecinus,  578 

Pinnated  grouse,  231 

Plectropterus,  293 

Pollack,  The,  491 

Pinnotheres,  538 

Plegadis,  288 

Pollan,  509 

Pin-tailed  sand  grouse,  241 
Pin-tails,  296 

Plegadis  falcinellus,  288 
Plesiops,  464 

Pollan,  Coregonus,  509 
Polyacanthus,  483 

Piophilinse,  608 

Plethodon,  450 

Polyborinae,  307 

Pipa  americana,  444 

Plethodontinae,  450 

Polyboroides,  309 

Pipe  fishes,  487 

Pleurobranchoidea,  640 

Polyborus,  307 

Piper,  The,  659 

Pleuroceridae,  635 

I'olyborus  cheriway,  307 

Pipidae,  444 

Pleurodira,  392 

Polyborus  tharus,  307 

Pipilo,  364 

Pleuronectes,  492 

Polychaeta,  671 

Pipistrelle,  37 

Pleuronectidse,  492 

Polydesmidae,  550 

Pipistrellus,  Vesperugo,  37 
Pipits,  364 
Pipit,  Meadow,  365 

Pleuronectoidei,  492 
Pleurotoma,  632 
Pleurotomariaadansoniana,  632 

Polyglottus,  Mimus,  372 
Polygordius,  675                     [682 
Polymorphus,  Echinorhynchus, 

INDEX. 


759 


Polynemidae,  468 

Pouched  rats,  106 

Protospondyli,  510 

Polynemiformes,  468 

Pouched-winged  bats,  39 

Prototroctes,  507 

Polynemus,  468 

Powan,  509 

Protozoa,  The,  713 

Polyodon  folius,  511 

Prairie-dogs,  92 

Protracheata,  550 

Polyodontidae,  511 

Prairie-marmots,  92 

Protremata,  651 

Polyommatus,  586 
Poly  pectr  urn,  238 

Pratensis,  Anthus,  365 
Pratincola,  Glareola,  272 

Psauimobatis,  520 
Psammobiidae,  624 

Polypectrum  chinquis,  238 
Polypectrum  napoleonis,  238 

Pratincoles,  The,  272 
Pratincole,  Common,  272 

Psammodromus,  410 
Psarisomus,  356 

Polyplacophora,  615 

Prawns,  536 

Psarisomus  dalhousiae,  356 

Polyptera,  Hexarthr»,  682 

Praying  insects,  565 

Psephurus  gladius,  511 

Polypteridae,  512 

Prehensile-tailed  mouse,  106 

Psettodes,  492 

Polypterus,  513 

Prehensile-tailed  rat-kangaroos, 

Pseudechis  porphyriaca,  425 

Polypterus  bichir,  512 

197 

Pseudo  neuroptera,  569 

Polypterus  lapradei,  513 

Prevosti,  Euryceros,  360 

Pseudobranchus  striatus,  453 

Polystomeae,  688 

Prezevalskii,  Equus,  128 

Pseudochelidon,  369 

Polytrochous,  673 

Priapulus,  678 

Pseudochelidon  eurystomina, 

Polyxenidae,  550 

Priapulus  caudatus,  678 

369 

Polyzoa,  665 

Primates,  10 

Pseudochirus,  200 

Polyzoniidae,  549 

Principalis,  Phasianus,  237 

Pseudochloris,  364 

Polyzonium  germanicum,  549 

Priodon  gigas,  187 

Pseudochromis,  474 

Pomacentridse,  485 

Prionidse,  561 

Pseudocordylus,  404 

Pomacentrus,  485 

Prionirhynchus,  341 

Pseudogyps,  306 

Poipatorhine  skua,  264 

Prionochilus,  367 

Pseudolamellibranchiata,  622 

Pomatorhinus,  Stercorarius,  264 

Prionodura  newloniana,  359 

Pseudopareus,  426 

Pomonella,  Carpocapsa,  593 

Prionurus,  471 

Pseudophryne,  441 

Pompilidse,  579 
Pomponia  imperatoria,  598 

Prionus  coriarius,  561 
Pristidae,  519 

Pseudorca  crassidens,  180 
Pseudoscorpionidea,  541 

Pond-tortoise,  388 

Pristiophoridse,  519 

Pseudotantalus  ibis,  281 

Poneridae,  579 

Pristiophorus,  519 

Pseudotantalus  leucocephalus, 

Pontobdella  muricata,  677 

Pristis,  519 

281 

Poospiza,  364 

Prjevalski's  red-legged  par- 

Pseudotrimera, 562 

Porbeagle,  517 

tridge,  232 

Psittacea,  Khynchonella,  650 

Porcarius,  Papio,  93 

Proboscidea,  Nais,  674 

Psittacidae,  329 

Porcelain  crab,  537 

Proboscidiferus,  Semifuses,  637 

Psittaciformes,  325 

Porcellana  platycheles,  537 

Proboscis-monkey,  19 

Psittacula,  329 

Porcellanidae,  537 

Procavia,  124 

Psittacus  erithecus,  330 

Porcinus,  Cervus,  143 

Procaviidae,  123 

Psocidse,  572 

Porcupine,  Canadian,  113 

Procellaria  pelagka,  257 

Psolus  diomedise,  661 

Porcupine  tribe,  The,  113 

Procellariidae,  257 

Psophia  repitans,  277 

Porcupine,  True,  113 

Procellariiformes,  256 

Psvchidae,  589 

Porcupines,  Brush  tailed,  113 

Proctotrypidse,  576 

Psychodidas,  604 

Porcus,  Sus,  134 

Procyon,  75 

Psychropotes  raripes,  661 

Porifera,  690 

Procyonidae,  75 

Psyllidse,  601 

Poromyidae,  628 

Frocyonides,  Canis,  69 

Ptarmigan,  230 

Porosus,  Crocodilus,  381 

Prodissoconch,  617 

Ptenoglossa,  633 

Porphyriaca,  Pseud  echis,  425 

Productus,  Nestor,  326 

Pternistes,  233 

Por,phyrio,  248 

Proechedna,  217 

Pternistes  swainsoni,  233 

Porphyriovnis  comeri,  25? 

Proechidna,  Bruijn's,  217 

Pterocera,  636 

Porphyriovnis  nesiotis,  252 

Proglottis,  687 

Pteroclurus  alchata,  241 

Porpoises,  169 
Porpoise,  Common,  179 

Progne  purpurea,  373 
Proletella,  Aleyrodes,  602 

Pteroglossus,  352 
Pterois,  467 

Porpoise,  Indian,  179 

Proneomeniidae,  616 

Pteromys,  95 

Port  Jackson  shark,  518 

Prong-buck,  149 

Pterophoridae,  594 

Portuguese  man-of-war,  699 
Porzana  intermedia,  251 

Prongbuck  family,  The,  149 
Prong-horned  antelope,  149 

Pterophorus  pendadactylus,  594 
Pteroplatea,  524 

Porzana  porzana,  251 

Propithecus,  29 

Pteropoda,  640 

Porzana  sandwichensis,  251 

Proscolex,  687 

Pteropodidae,  34 

Porzanula  palmeri,  251 

Prosobranchiata,  631 

Pteroptochidae,  375 

Potamochaerus,  134 

Prosogyre,  617 

Pteropus,  35 

Potamogale,  43 

Prosperpinidae,  632 

Pterotrachaeidae,  637 

Potamogale  velox,  48 

Prosphyodontes,  408 

Pthirius  inguinalis,  602 

Potamogalidae,  48 

Proteidse,  452 

Ptilocercus,  202 

Potoroinae,  197 

Proteleidse,  62 

Ptilocereus  lowi,  44 

Patorus,  197 

Proteles  cristatus,  62 

Ptilocichla,  372 

Pottos,  31 
Potto,  Perodicticus,  31 

Proteus  anguineus,  452 
Proteus  animalcule,  714 

Ptilogonys,  369 
Ptilonorhynchidse,  359 

Potto,  True,  31 

Proteus,  Echenorhynchus,  682 

Ptilonorhynchus  holosericeus, 

Pottos  calabarensis,  31 

Protobranchiata,  620 

359 

Pouched  frog,  443 

Protochorda,  526 

Ptilonorhynchus,  Pernis,  317 

Pouched  mammals,  190 

Protodrilus,  675 

Ptilopodinae,  242 

Pouched-mice,  203 

Protopterus,  460 

Ptilorhis,  359 

76o 


INDEX. 


Ptilorhis  victorise,  359 

yrrhononta,  Petrochelidon,  373 

lanatra  linearis,  597 

Ptychozoum,  397 

'yrrhula,  363 

lanatridse,  597 

Ptyodactylus,  397 

'yrrbulauda,  364 

^angifer,  145 

Pucherani,  Guttera,  240 

ython,  418 

iangifer  tarandus,  145 

Pucras  pheasant,  236 

'ython  molurus,  418 

lanidae,  436 

Pucrasia,  237 

}ython  sebas,  419 

lanidens,  450 

Pucrasia  macrolopha,  237 

Python  spilotis,  419 

tapax,  Aquila,  314 

Pudu-deer,  147 

'ythoninse,  418 

taphiceros  campestris,  151 

Pudua,  147 

Pyxis  arachnoides,  387 

lappi,  Microchaeta,  674 

Puella,  Csenagrion,  570 

laripes,  Psychropotes,  661 

Puff  adder,  427 

Rasse,  57  • 

Puff  birds,  The,  355 

Q. 

lats,  The,  101 

Puffin,  English,  260 

Rat,  Bamboo-,  106 

Puffiniidfe,  257 

(uadricornis,  Cyclops,  532 

Rat,  Bandicoot-,  105 

Puffinus,  257 

•uadricornis,  Tetraceros,  151 

Rat,  Berdmore's,  104 

Pugnax,  Betta,  483 

Quagga,  129 

Rat,  Black,  105 

Pugnax,  Pavoncella,  269 

Quagga,  Equus,  129 

Rat,  Cane-,  112 

Pulchellus,  Diplomesodon,  46 

Quails,  The,  234 

lat,  Common,  105 

Pulchellus,  Mymar,  577 

Quail,  Bustard,"  241 

Rat,  Crested-,  102 

Pulcher,  Luciocephalus,  483 

Quail,  Californian,  240 

Rat,  Fish-eating,  102 

Pulex  canis  (dog  flea,),  609 

Quail,  Cape,  234 

lat,  Jerboa-,  106 

Pulex,  Daphnia,  531 

Quail,  Common,  234 

rlat,  Kangaroo,  109 

Pulex,  Gammarus,  63 

Quail,  Migratory,  234 

Rat,  Long-nosed,  106 

Pulex  irritans  (flea),  609 

Quail,  Painted,  235 

Rat,  Mole,  Great,  106 

Pulraonata,  641 

Quail,  Swamp,  235 

Rat,  Musk-,  103 

Pulsatoria,  Atropos,  572 

Quail,  Virginian,  240 

Rat,  Philippine,  101 

Puma,  53 

Queen  Victoria's  rifle-birds,  359 

Rat,  Pouched,  106 

Pumilus,  Bos,  162 

Querquedula,  296 

Rat,  Rice,  102 

Punctatus,  Pelodytes,  441? 

Quezal,  349 

Rat,  Sand,  107 

Punctatus,  Sphenodon,  430 

Quica-opossum,  213 

Rat,  Shrew-,  104 

Pupa,  643 

Quizes,  115 

Rat-snake,  Indian,  422 

Pupidse,  643 

Ratels,  79 

Purchasi,  Icerya,  602 

Rathbuni,  Typhlomolge,  452 

Purple  emperor,  585 

R. 

Ratitae,  221 

Purple  heron,  282 

Rattle  snake,  428 

Purple  martin,  373 

Rabbit,  118 

Rattus,  Mus,  105 

Purple  sandpiper,  269 

Rabbit-bandicoots,  205 

Ray's  wagtail,  365 

Purple  sea-snails,  633 

Rachiglossa,  637 

Razor-shells,  626 

Purpura  lapillus,  637 
Purpurea,  Phoyx,  282 

Racoon  -dog,  69 
Racoon  tribe,  The,  75 

Razorbill,  260 
Recurvirostra  andina,  270 

Purpurea,  Progne,  373 

Racoons,  American,  75 

Recurvirostris,  Esacus,  273 

Pusilla,  Gallinago,  268 

Radiatus,  Carpococeyx,  351 

Red  admiral,  585 

Pusilla,  Ortaria,  82 
Pusillus,  Anomalurus,  90 

Radiatus,  Erythrotriorchis,  312 
Radiolaria,  716 

Red  ant,  579 
Red-backed  shrike,  369 

Putorius,  80 

Raffle's  shrew-hedgehog,  45 

Red-billed  chough,  358 

Putorius,  Mustela,  81 

Raffles!,  Gymnura,  45 

Red-breasted  goose,  295 

Putorius,  Spilogale,  78 

Raflnesquina  alternate,  649 

Red  brocket,  146    . 

Pycnogonida,  539 

Ragosus,  Trachysaurus,  410 

Red  coral,  708 

Pycnogonum  litorale,  539 

Raia,  520 

Ked-deer,  143 

Pycnonotidae,  372 

Raiidse,  520 

Red  fox,  71 

Pycnorhamphus,  363 
Pygargus,  Bubalis,  150 

Rails,  The,  248 
Rail,  Barred,  249 

Red-grouse,  230 
Ked  herring,  506 

Pygargus,  Cervus,  146 

Rail,  Water,  249 

Red  howler,  23 

Pygargus,  Circus,  309 

Rail,  Wood,  249 

Red-legged  partridge,  232 

Pygamsea,  Nasiterna,  329 

Rails,  Weka,  251 

Red  marmot,  94 

Pygmseum,  Glaucidium,  324 

Rain  cuckoo,  351 

Red  mullet,  465 

Pygmseus,  Eurynorhynchus,  26 

Raj  -samp,  424 

Red-necked  phalarope,  266 

Pygmseus,  Nanotragus,  151 

Rallidse,  225 

Red  spider,  547 

Pygmaeus,  Sorex,  46 
Pygopodidse,  398 

Ralliformes,  248 
Rallus  aquaticus,  249 

Red-thighed  gos-hawks,  310 
Red-throated  diver,  254 

Pygoscelis  taeniata,  255 

Ramosa,  syllis,  673 

Red  uakari,  27 

Pyrales,  592 

Ramosa,  Bougainvillea,  696 

Red  vole,  103 

Pyralidae,  572 

Rampholeon,  412 

Red-winged  hang-nest,  361 

Pyramidellidse,  633 

Rana,  436 

Red-winged  starling,  361 

Pyramid  ula  rotundata,  643 

Rana  agilis,  436 

Rediae,  689 

Pyrenaica,  Capra,  158 

Rana  breviceps,  437 

Redstarts,  370 

Pyrenean  desman,  47 

Rana  catesbyana,  437 

Reduviidse,  596 

Pyrocephalus,  Spirostreptus,55 

Rana  esculenta,  436 

Reduvius  personatus,  596 

Pyrophorus  noctilucus,  559 
Pyrosoma,  528 

Rana  guppyi,  437 
Rana  iberica,  436 

Redwing,  371 
Reed-fish,  512 

Pyrrhocorax,  358 

Rana  latastei,  436 

Reed-warbler,  370 

Pyrrhocorax  pyrrhocorax,  358 

Rana  temporaria,  436 

Reedling,  Bearded,  368 

INDEX. 


761 


Reef-herons,  283 

Rhinoptilus,  273 

River  tern,  262 

Reeve,  209 

Rhinoptilus  bitorquatus,  273 

Rivulorum,  Tubifex,  674 

Reeve's  pheasant,  238 

Rhipidodendron,  719 

Roach,  499 

Reevesi,  Phasianus,  238 

Rhipidoglossa,  631 

Road-runners,  351 

Regalecus,  485 

Rhipidoinys,  101 

Robber  crabs,  537                   . 

Regalecus  banksi,  485 

Rhioidura,  373 

Robber  flies,  605 

Regulidfe,  368 

Rhiptoglossa,  411 

Robin,  370 

Regulus  azorensis,  369 

Rhithrodon,  102 

Rochusseni,  Neoscolopax,  268 

Regulus  calendula,  369 
Regulus  himalayensis,  369 
RegulusMgnicapillus,  369 

Rhithrodontomys,  102 
Rhithrosciurus,  91 
Rhizomys,  106 

Rock-dove,  244 
Rock  red-legged  partridge,  232 
Rock-snakes,  418 

Regulus  maderensis,  369 

Rhizomys  badius,  107 

Rock-snake,  Natal,  419 

Regulus  regulus,  368 

Rhizopoda,  714 

Rock-wallabies,  194 

Regulus  teneriffse,  369 

Rhizostomse,  700 

Rocklings,  The,  491 

Rehbok,  151 

Rhizothera,  233 

Rocky  Mountain  goat,  157 

Reindeer,  145 
Reinwardtsenas,  244 

Rhizothera  dulitensis,  233 
Rhizothera  longirostris,  233 

Rodeletii,  Carcharodon,  517 
Rodentia,  88 

Reitbok,  South  African,  152 

Rhizotrogus  solstitialis,  558 

Rodericanum,  Tetrastemma, 

Religiosa,  Mantis,  565 

Rhodeus,  499 

684 

Religiosum,  Liobunum,  542 
Reptans,  Scrupocellaria,  667 

Rhodonesoa  caryophyllacea,  294 
Rhodostethia  rosea,  262 

Roe,  Common,  146 
Roe-deer,  146 

Reptilia,  377 

Rhombus,  492 

Rollers,  The,  335 

Resplendent  adder,  424 

Rhopalocera,  582 

Roller,  Common,  335 

Reticulata,  Nassa,  6d7 

Rhopalocompta  iphis,  588 

Roller,  Ground,  335 

Retusa,  Chlamydophorus,  188 

Rhyacophilus,  269 

Rollulus,  234 

Rex,  Baheniceps,  '282 

Rhynchobatis,  520 

Rollulus  rouloul,  234 

Rhabdocaela,  685 
Rhabdopleura,  649 

Rhynchobdella,  478 
RhynchobdellidjB,  478,  676 

Rook,  358 
Root-footed  jelly-fish,  700 

Rhachianectes,  172 

Rhynchocephalia,  429 

Rorqual,  Common,  174 

Rhacophorous,  437 

Rhynchocyon,  44 

Rorqual,  Sibbald's,  173 

Rhamphastides,  352 

Rhynchogale  melleri,  61 

Rorquals,  Blue,  173 

Rhamphastos,  352 

Rhynchomys,  104 

Rosacea,  Antedon,  663 

Rhea  americana,  221 

Rhynchonella  psittacea,  650 

Rose-chafer,  558 

Rhea,  Common,  221 

Rhynchonellidse,  651 

Rose-coloured  pastor,  360 

Rhea  darwini,  222 

Rhynchophora,  560 

Rose-finches,  363 

Rhea,  Darwin's,  222 

Rhynchopinae,  261 

Rosea,  Rhodostethia,  262 

,  Rhea,  Great-billed,  222 

Rhynchops  albicollis,  262 

Roseate  pelican,  302 

Rhea  macrorhyncha,  222 

Rhynchops  flavirostris,  262 

Roseate  tern,  261 

Rhea  nana,  221 

Rhynchops  intercedens,  262 

Roseus,  Pastor,  360 

Rheiformes,  221 

Rhynchops  melanura,  262 

Rosmarus,  Trichechus,  84 

Rheinhardius  ocellatus,  239 

Rhynchops  nigra,  262 

Rossae,  Musophaga,  352 

Rhesus  macacus,  22 

Rhynchosuchus,  382 

Rossi,  Ommatophoca,  87 

Rhinemys,  393 

Rhynchosuchus  schlegeli,  382 

Ross's  gull,  262 

Rhinobatidse,  520 

Rhynchotus  rufescens,  226 

Ross's  seal,  87 

Rhinobatis,  520 

Rhyssa  persuasoria,  577 

Rosthramus,  316 

Rhinoceroses,  The,  125 

Rhytina,  168 

Rostrata,  Balsenoptera,  174 

Rhinoceros  bicornis,  126 

Rhytina  gigas,  168 

Rostratula,  -267 

Rhinoceros,  Blackr  126 

Ribband-fishes,  484 

Rostratula  australis,  267 

Rhinoceros,  Bucerus,  339 

Ribband-fish,  Banks',  485 

Rostratula  capensis,  267 

Rhinoceros,  Burchell's,  126 

Rice-rat,  102 

Rostratula  semicollaris,  267 

Rhinoceros,  Indian,  126 

Rice-tenrecs,  49 

Rostratus,  Hyperoodon,  177 

Rhinoceros,  Javan,  126 

Richardson's  skua,  264 

Rostratus,  Tarsipes,  203 

Rhinoceros  simus,  126 

Ridibundus,  Larus,  262 

Rosy  feather-star,  664 

Rhinoceros  sondaicus,  126 

Rifle-birds,  359 

Rosy  spoon-bill,  286 

Rhinoceros,  Sumatran,  126 

Rifle-bird,  Queen  Victoria's,  359 

Rotche,  260 

Rhinoceros  sumatrensis,  126 

Right-whales,  172 

Rotifera,  682 

Rhinoceros  unicornis,  126 

Ring-necked  pheasants,  237 

Rotundata,  Pyramidula,  643 

Khinocerotidse,  125 

Ring-tailed  iguana,  403 

Rough-toothed  dolphin,  181 

Rhinoceros-hornbill,  339 

Ring-tailed  lemur,  29 

Rouloul,  Rollulus,  234 

Rhinochetides,  276 

Ring  tailed  phalanger,  200 

Round  worm,  679 

Rhinochetus  jubatus,  276 

Ringed  kingfisher,  336 

Rove-beetles,  556 

Rhinococcyx,  351 

Ringed  snake,  British,  421 

Royal  antelope,  151 

Rhinoderma  darwini,  439 

Ringed  worms,  671 

Rubecula,  Erythaeus,  370 

Rhinodon  typicus,  517 

Ringiculidse,  640 

Rubens,  Asterias,  653 

Rhinodontidse,  517 

Ripa,  229 

Rubi,  Callophrys,  586 

Rhinolophidae,  36 

Riparia,  Argiope,  544 

Rubicunda,  Uacaria,  27 

Rhinolophus,  36 

Riqcouri,  Nauclerus,  316 

Rubiginosa,  Eos,  328 

Rhinolophus  ferrum-equinum, 

Risorius,  Turturinae,  245 

Rubrum,  Corallum,  708 

36 
Rhinophrynus,  441 
Rhinopoma  microphyllum,  39 

Rissa  tridactyla,  263 
Rissoiidse,  635 
Risso's  dolphin,  180 

Ruby-crest,  369 
Ruby-tailed  wasps,  578 
Rudis,  Ceryle,  336 

Rhinoptera,  522 

River  lamprey,  524 

Rufa,  Caccabis,  232 

762 


INDEX. 


Rufa,  Cassis,  636 

Salmo  hucho,  508 

Scabiei,  Sarcoptes,  546 

Kufa,  Dichromanassa,  283 

Salmo  salmo,  508 

Scabra,  Dasypeltis,  422 

liufa,  Formica,  579 

Salmon,  Beaked,  505 

Scalariidae,  633 

Rufescens,  ^Egyprymnus,  197 

Salmon  tribe,  The,  507 

Scale-footed  lizards,  393 

Rufescens,  Rhynchotus,  226 

Salmonidae,  507 

Scale  insects,  602 

Ruff,  269 

Saltator,  Oreotragus,  151 

Scaled  reptiles,  395 

Ruffed  grouse,  231 

Saltiana,  Modoqua,  151 

Scallop,  The,  622 

Ruffes,  464 

Salticidae,  543 

Scalops,  47 

Ruffi,  Cervus,  144 

Salt's  antelope,  151 

Scaly-finned  fishes,  465 

Ruff's  deer,  144 

Salvador]  ana,  Tanysiptera,  339 

Scandens,  Anabas,  483 

Ruficollis,  Branta,  295 

Salvanius  sus,  134 

Scansores,  352 

Rufous  buzzard-hawks,  312 

Sambar,  143 

Scapanus,  48 

Rufous  rat-kangaroo,  197 

Sand-badgers,  79 

Scaphandridae,  640 

Rufus.  Cervus,  146 

Sand-eels,  491 

Scaphiopus,  443 

Rufus,  Desmodus,  41 

Sand-flies,  604 

Scaphirhynchus,  511 

Runcinidse,  640 

Sand  grouse,  The,  241 

Scaphopoda,  628 

Rupicapra  tragus,  156 

Sand-launces,  491 

Scapteromys,  101 

Russelli,  Vipera,  428 

Sand-lizard,  409 

Scaptochirus,  48 

Russell's  viper,  428 

Sand-rats,  107 

Scaptonyx  fuscicaudatus,  48 

Russian  desman,  47 

Sand-smelts,  479 

Scarabaeidae,  557 

Rustica,  Hirundo,  373 

Sand-snakes,  418 

Scarabaeus  sacer,  557 

Ruthvenus,  Acipenser,  512 

Sand  viper,  427 

Scarus,  486 

Ruticilla,  370 

Sand  wasps,  579 

Scatharus,  466 

Rutilans,  Canis,  68 

Sand  worm,  672 

Scatophaga  Ktercoraria,  608 

Sanderling,  269 

Scaups,  The,  297 

S. 

Sandpipers,  The,  269 

Scavenger  vultures.  The,  300 

Sandpiper,  Curlew,  269 

Schachti,  Heterodera,  679 

Sabine's  gull,  262 

Sandpiper,  Green,  -269 

Schizopoda,  536 

Sabinii,  Xema,  262 

Sandpiper,  Purple,  269 

Scheltopusik,  405 

Sable  antelope,  153 

Sandpiper,  Spoon-billed,  269 

Schlegeli,  Rhynchosuchus,  382 

Sable  marten,  80 

Sandpiper,  Wood,  269 

Schlegel's  garial,  382 

Sacchari,  Tyroglyphus,  547 

Sandwich  tern,  261 

Schomburgki,  Cervus,  143 

Saccopharynx,  495 

Sandwichensis,  Porzana,  251 

Schreiber's  bat,  38 

Saccopteryx,  39 

Sanguinis-hominis,  Fiiaria,  680 

Schreibersi,  Miniopterus,  38 

Saccostomus,  106 

Sarcidiornis,  293 

Schultzii,  Convoluta,  686 

Saccopharynx,  495 

Sarcidiornis  carunculata,  293 

Sciaena,  468 

Saceharina,  Lepisma,  573 

Sarcidiornis  melanonota,  293 

Scisenidse,  468 

Sacer,  Scarabaeus,  557 

Sarcophanops,  356 

Sciaeniformes,  468 

Sacred  Ibis,  The,  288 

Sarcophilus  ursinus,  207 

Scincus  oflicinalis,  410 

Sacred  langur,  20 

Sarcoptes  scabiei,  546 

Scintillans,  Phasianus,  233 

Saddle  oyster,  621 
Saemmeringi,  Phasianus,  238 

Sarcoptes  scabiei-crustosae,  546 
Sarcoptidae,  546 

Scissor-bills,  262 
Sciuropterus,  95 

Saffron  finches,  363 

Sardine,  507 

Sciurus,  91 

Sagartia  bellis,  703 

Sarginae,  466 

Sciurus  palmanim,  91 

Sagartia  troglodytes,  704 

Sargus,  Common,  466 

Sciurus  vulgaris,  91 

Sagartiadae,  702 

Sarus  crane,  274 

Sclavonian  grebe,  253 

Saginata,  Taenia,  687 

Sasia,  354 

Scolopaceus,  Aramus,  275 

Sagitta,  682 

Satanus,  Pithecia,  27 

Scolopaeinae,  267 

Sagitta  bipunctata,  681 

Satin  bower-bird,  359 

Scolopax,  267 

Sagra,  562 

Satoria,  370 

Scolopax  saturata,  267 

Saiga,  152 

Satoria  satoria,  370 

Scolopendridae,  549 

Saiga  tartarica,  152 

Saturata,  Scolopax,  267 

Scolytidae,  560 

Sail-tailed  lizard,  400 

Saturnia  pavonia-minor,  589 

Scomber,  473 

Saker,  Hierofalco,  819 

Saturniidae,  589 

Scomberidae,  472 

Saker  jer-falcon,  319 

Satyrinse,  585 

Scombresocidae,  479 

Sakis,  27 

Satyrus,  Limia,  16 

Scombresociformes,  479 

Saki,  Black,  27 

Sauresia,  405 

Scombresox,  479 

Saki,  Hairy,  27 

Sauries,  479 

Scoparia,  Oribia,  151 

Salamanders,  The,  446 

Saurothera,  351 

Scopelidse,  505 

Salamander,  Common,  446 

Saururae,  220 

Scopelus,  505 

Salamander,  Giant,  450 

Saurus,  505 

Scopi,  278 

Salamander,  Mississippi,  451 

Savagei,  Gorilla,  15 

Scops,  322 

Salamander,  Spanish,  447 

Savana  cuckoos,  351 

Scops  scops,  322 

Salamander,  Spectacled,  448 

Saw  fish,  520 

Scopus  umbretta,  281 

Salamander,  Two-legged,  453 

Saw  flies,  574 

Scorpaena,  467 

Salamander,  Warty,  448 

Saw  viper,  427 

Scorpaenidae,  467 

Salamandra  atra,  447 

Saxatilis,  Caccabis,  232 

Scorpaeniformes,  467 

Salamandra  caucasica,  447 

Saxicava,  626 

Scorpions,  539,  540 

Salamandra  maculosa,  446 

Saxicavidae,  626 

Scorpion,  Book,  541 

Salamandrella,  450 

Saxicola,  370 

Scorpion,  False,  541 

Salamandridae,  446 

Scabbard  fish,  470 

Scorpion  shells,  636 

Salamandrina  perspicillata,  448 

Scabiei-crustosae,  Sarcputes,  546 

Scorpionidea,  540 

INDEX. 


Scotchman,  The,  351 

Seal,  Common  grey,  85 

Sexcinctus,  Dasypus,  186 

Scoters,  The,  297 

Seal,  Elephant,  87 

Sha,  160 

Scoticus,  Lagopus,  230 

Seal,  Greenland,  85 

Shad,  The,  507 

Scotonvcteris,  35 

Seal,  Hooded,  87 

Shag,  The,  299 

Scotopelia,  321 

Seal,  Leopard,  86 

Shag,  Pied,  300 

Scotopelia  peli,  321 

Seal,  Ross's,  87 

Shamas,  370 

Screamers,  The,  290 

Seals,  True,  85 

Sharks  and  rays,  513 

Screamer,  Crested,  290 

Seals,  The  typical,  85 

Shark,  Basking,  517 

Screamer,  Derbian,  290 

Seal,  Weddel's,  87 

Shark,  Blue,  516 

Screamer,  Horned,  290 

Sebae,  Python,  419 

Shark,  Fox,  517 

Screw-shells,  635 

Sebastes,  467 

Shark,  Greenland,  519 

Scriptus,  Tragelaphus,  156 

Secretary  birds,  The,  305 

Shark,  Port  Jackson,  518 

Scrobicu'ariidse,  624 

Secretrius,  Serpentarius,  305 

Shark,  Spiny,  519 

Scrofa,  Sus,  133 

Sedentaria,  672 

Shark,  Zebra,  518 

Scrub-birds,  The,  376 

Sedge  warbler,  370 

Sharp-bills,  The,  374 

Scrub-bird,  Noisy,  376 

Seed  snipes,  The,  •  66 

Shear-tails,  348 

Scrupocellaria  reptans,  667 

See-see  partridge,  233 

Shearwaters,  258 

Snuiridse,  91 

Seguenziidae,  637 

Sheathbills,  The,  265 

Scurria,  631 

Selachii,  515 

Sheathbill,  Yellow-billed,  265 

Scutellridse,  595 

Selenidera,  352 

Sheath  tailed  bats,  39 

Scutibranchiata,  631 

Selenitidse,  644 

Sheep,  159 

Scutigera  araneoides,  548 

Seleucides,  359 

Sheep,  Armenian,  160 

Scutigeridae,  548 
Scylliidse,  518 

Sella,  Placuna,  621 
Selvas,  204 

Sheep,  Pamir,  160 
Sheep  tick,  608 

Scyllium,  518 

Semicollaris,  Rostratula,  267 

Sheld-ducks,  296 

Scyphophori,  503 
Scyphomedusae,  The,  700 

Semifusus  proboscidiferus,  637 
Semipalmata,  Anseranas,  293 

Sheld-duck,  Common,  296 
Shell  ibises,  280 

Scyphozoa,  700 

Semipalmated  goose,  293 

Shell-less  slugs,  642 

Scytale,  Ilysia,  421 

Semnopithecus,  20 

Shell  storks,  280 

Scythrops,  350 

Semnopithecus  entellus,  20 

Shield  bug,  595 

Sea-anemones,  701 

Senator,  Lanius,  369 

Shield-tails,  421 

Sea-bats,  471 

Senegal  finfoot,  252 

Shikra,  Indian,  311 

Sea-bear,  82 

Senegal  galago,  30 

Ship  worm,  627 

Sea-breams,  466 

Senegalensis,  Galago,  30 

Shoe-billed  kingfisher,  337 

Sea-butterflies,  640 

Senegalensis,  Mycteria,  280 

Shoe-billed  storks,  278 

Sea-cow,'  Northern,  168 

Senegalensis,  Podica,  252 

Short-eared  owl,  324 

Sea-cucumbers,  660 

Seniculus,  Alouatta,  23 

Short-legged  petrel,  257 

Sea-eagle,  315 

Sepia,  646 

Short-nosed  fruit-bats,  35 

Sea-eagle,  Pallas,  321 

Sepiadariidae,  646 

Short-toed  larks,  364 

Sea-gooseberry,  The,  711 

Sepiidfe,  646 

Shou,  143 

Sea-hares,  640 

Sepiolidae,  646 

Shovellers,  296 

Sea-hedgehogs,  490 

Septentrionalis,  Colymbus,  254 

Shrews,  The,  45 

Sea-horse,  488 

Septibranchiata,  628 

Shrew,  Common,  46 

Sea-lamprey,  524 

Seriamas,  The,  277 

Shrew,  Jumping,  44 

Sea-leech,  Warty,  677 

Seriama,  Burmeister's,  277 

Shrew,  Kirghiz,  46 

Sea-lilies,  662 

Seriama,  Common,  277 

Shrew,  Lesser,  46 

Sea-lion,  81 

Serilophus,  356 

Shrew,  Mole,  46 

Sea-lion,  Gillespie's,  82 

Serotine,  37 

Shrew,  Musk,  46 

Sea-lion,  Northern,  82 

Serotinus,  Vesperugo,  37 

Shrew,  Oriental,  46 

Sea-lion,  Southern,  82 

Serows,  157 

Shrew,  Pen-tailed,  44 

Sea-lizard,  Galapagos,  402 

Serpens,  Ophichthys,  495 

Shrew,  Swimming,  47 

Sea-mat,  665 

Serpent  eagle,  315 

Shrew,  Tree,  43 

Sea-mouse,  673 

Serpent  eel,  494 

Shrew,  Water,  46 

Sea-otter,  76 

Serpent-heads,  482 

Shrew,  Web-footed,  47 

Sea-parrot,  260 

Serpentarii,  305 

Shrew-rat,  104 

Sea-pen,  709 

Serpentarius  secretarius,   277, 

Shrikes,  The,  369 

Sea-perches,  464 

305 

Shrike,  Great  grey,  369 

Sea-serpent,  484 

Serpula,  672 

Shrike,  Red-backed,  369 

Sea-slugs,  640 

Serpula  contortuplicata,  672 

Shrike,  Swallow,  369 

Sea-snakes,  425 

Serranidae,  464 

Shrimps,  536 

Sea-snake,  Banded,  425 

Serraninae,  464 

Shrimp,  Brine,  531 

Sea-squirt,  Common,  528 

Serranus,  464 

Siamang,  19 

Sea-swallow,  261 

Serricornes,  558 

Sibbaldi,  Balaenoptera,  173 

Sea-unicorn,  178 
Sea-urchin,  Irregular,  659 

Serrifera,  574 
Serval,  55 

Sibbald's  rorqual,  173 
Sibirica,  Capra,  159 

Sea-urchins,  659 

Serval,  Felis,  55 

Sibirica,  Phoca,  85 

Seals,  The,  85 
Seal,  Antarctic  white,  86 

Sessile  brachiopod,  648 
Setophaga,  365 

Sica,  Cervus,  143 
Side-striped  jackal,  66 

Seal,  Bearded,  85 

Setosum,  Diadema,  660 

Sifakas,  29 

Seal,  Bladder,  87 

Setosus,  Ericulus,  49 

Sifanica,  Perdix,  234 

Seal,  Caspian,  85 

Sewellels,  95 

Sifanicus,  Moschus,  141 

Seal,  Common,  85 

Sewellels  family,  The,  95 

Sigmodon  hispidus,  102 

764 


INDEX. 


Silenus,  Macacus,  22 

Sminthopsis,  209 

Solstitialis,  Rhizotrogus,  558 

Siliceous  sponges,  692 

Sminthus,  109 

Somali-land  ostrich,  223 

Silk-worm  moth,  590 

Smooth  snake,  422 

Somateria,  297 

Siluridse,  496 

Smother  flies,  601 

Sombre  wallaby,  194 

Silurus,  497 

Snails,  610 

Sondaicus,  Rhinoceros,  120 

Silurus  glanis,  496 

Snake-birds,  301 

Song  thrush,  371 

Silver  fish,  573 

Snakes,  The,  412 

Sooty  albatros,  258 

Silver  pheasant,  236 

Snake,  Blind,  417 

Sooty  tern,  262 

Simla  satyrus,  16 

Snake,  Carpet,  419 

Sordidus,  Artamus,  369 

Simiidae,  11 

Snake,  Cat,  423 

Sorex,  46 

Simuliidae,  604 

Snake,  Coral,  423 

Sorex  araneus,  46 

Simus  rhinoceros,  126 

Snake,  Cylinder,  421 

Sorex  pygmaeus,  46 

Sinensis,  Alligator,  380 

Snake,  Dark  green,  422 

Soricidae,  45 

Sinensis,  Centropus,  351 

Snake,  Diamond,  419 

Soriculus,  46 

Singing-mice,  105 

Snake,  Egg-eating,  422 

Sotalia,  181 

Siphneus,  104 

Snake,  Horseshoe,  422 

South  African  oribi,  151 

Siphonariidae,  611 

Snake,  Rat,  422 

South  African  ostrich,  223 

Siphonophora,  699 

Snake,  Rattle,  428 

South  African  reitbok,  152 

Siphonops,  455 

Snake,  Sand,  420 

South  American  finfoot,  252 

Siphonostoma,  487 

Snake,  Sea,  425 

South  American  limpkin,  275 

Siphuncle,  645 

Snake,  Smooth,  422 

South  American  ostrich,  221 

Sipunculus,  678 

Snake,  Whip,  423 

South  American  skunk,  78 

Sipunculus  bernhardus,  678 

Snake,  Wood,  422 

South  American  sun-bittern. 

Siren  lacertina,  452 

Snakes,  Water,  421 

276 

Sirenia,  165 

Snappers,  390 

Southern  sea-lion,  82 

Sirenidae,  453 

Snapper,  Temminck's,  3 

Sow  bugs,  534 

Sirex  gigas,  575 

Snapping  turtles,  390 

Spalacidae,  106 

Siro,  Tyroglyphus,  547 

Snipes,  The,  267 

Spalacopus,  111 

Sitatunga,  156 

Snipe,  Common,  268 

Spalax  typhlus,  106 

Sitella,  368 

Snipe,  Great,  268 

Spanish  frog,  436 

Sitomys,  101 

Snipe,  Imperial,  268 

Spanish  ibex,  158 

Sitomys  hydrobates,  101 

Snipe,  Jack,  268 

Spanish  lynx,  56 

Sitta,  368 

Snipe,  Jameson's,  268 

Spanish  salamander,  447 

Sitta,  Csesia,  368 

Snipe,  Latham's,  268 

Sparidae,  466 

Sittidae,  368 

Snipe,  Painted,  267 

Sparrow-hawk,  311 

Sivalensis,  Hippopotamus,  132 
Siwalik  hippoptamus,  132 

Snipe,  Seed,  266 
Snipe,  Summer,  269 

Sparrow-hawk,  Pied,  311 
Sparrows,  The,  363 

Six-banded  armadillo,  186 

Snipe,  True,  268 

Spatula,  296 

Six-rayed  corals,  705 

Snipe,  Wire-tailed,  268 

Spectacled  bear,  75 

Skate,  Thornback,  521 

Snipe,  Wood,  268 

spectacled  salamander,  448 

Skeleton  of  Mammals,  3 

Snoek,  The,  470 

spectrum,  Tarsius,  31 

Skimmers,  The,  261,  262 

Snouted  nais,  674 

Spectrum,  Vampirus,  41 

Skink  tribe,  The,  410 

Snow  bunting,  363 

Spekei,  Tragelaphus,  156 

Skink,  Common,  410 

Snow  cocks,  The,  232 

Spelerpes,  450 

Skippers,  588 

Snow  geese,  295 

Sperm-whale,  175 

Skipper,  Grizzled,  588 

Snow-leopard,  53 

spermophila,  363 

Skuas,  The,  263 

Snow  partridges,  The,  231 

Spermophilus,  89 

Skua,  260 

Snow  pheasants,  232 

Spermophilus  tridecemlineatus, 

Skua,  Buffon's,  263 

Snowy  owl,  322 

92 

Skua,  Great,  263 

Snowy  tern,  262 

Sphaerodon,  466 

Skua,  Long-tailed,  264 

Soft  tortoises,  394 

Sphegidse,  580 

Skua,  Pomatorhine,  264 

Sol,  Actinophrys,  713 

Sphenisciformes,  255 

Skua,  Richardson's,  2G4 

Solariidae,  633 

Sphenodon  punctatus,  430 

Skunks,  77 

Solea,  492 

Sphenodontidae,  4oO 

Skunk,  Common,  78 

Solen,  62tf 

Sphinges,  588 

Skunk,  Little,  78 

Solenidse,  626 

Sphyraena,  479 

Skunk,  South  American,  78 

Solenoconcha,  628 

Sphyraenidae,  478 

Skylark,  The,  364 

Solenodon,  49 

Sphyrna,  516 

Slipper  animalcule,  721 

Solenodontidae,  49 

Sphyropicus,  354 

Slit-shells,  632 
Sloths,  181 

Solenogastra,  616 
Solenomya,  621 

Spiders,  539 
Spider,  Bird-catching,  542 

Sloths,  Ground,  183 

Solenomya  togata,  621 

Spider,  Garden,  544 

Sloths,  Three-toed,  182 

Solenomyidae,  620 

Spider,  Hunting,  543 

Sloths,  Two-toed,  182 

Solenostoma,  487 

Spider,  Trap-door,  543 

Slugs,  641 

Solenostomatidae,  487 

Spider,  Water,  544 

Small  magpie  moth,  592 

Soles,  The,  492 

Spider,  Wolf,  543 

Small  mungoose,  60 

Solifugse,  541 

Spider-crab,  537 

Small-toothed  mungoose,  61 

Solitarius,  Pezophaps,  245 

Spider-crab.  Zoea-larva  of,  530 

Small-toothed  palm-civets,  59 
Smaller  shrew-hedgehog,  45 

Solitary  ants,  579 
Solium,  Taenia,  686 

Spider-monkey,    Variegated, 
25 

Smelt,  The,  508 

Solomon  Island  frog,  437 

Spider-monkey,  Woolly,  25 

Sinew,  The,  297 

Solpugidae,  541 

Spilogale  putorius,  78 

INDEX. 


765 


Spilornis,  315 

Squirrels,  Ground,  91 

Stomatidse,  632 

Spilotis,  Python,  419 

Squirrel,  Palm,  91 

Stomatopoda,  535 

Spinacidae,  519 

Squirrels,  Pigmy,  95 

Stomias,  505 

Spinax,  519 

Squirrels,  Spiny,  91 

Stomiatidaa,  505 

Spine-tailed  swifts,  345 

Squirrel-monkeys,  26 

Stomoxys  calcitrans,  607 

Spiny  dog-fishes,  519 

Stag  beetles,  558 

Stone-curlew,  273 

Spiny  eels,  478 

Stag,  Kashmir,  143 

Stone  flies,  571 

Spiny  lizard,  401 

Stag,  Thian  Shan,  143 

Stone  plovers,  The,  273 

Spiny  loach,  500 

Stair-case  shells,  633 

Stony  corals,  701 

Spiny  lobsters,  537 

Staphylinus  cresareus,  556 

Stork-billed  kingfisher,  336 

Spiny-mice,  106 

Star-coral,  706 

Storks,  The,  278 

Spiny  shark,  519 

Star-fish,  653 

Stork,  Black,  279 

Spiny  squirrels,  91 

Star-gazers,  473 

Stork,  Hammer-head,  281 

Spiralis,  Trichina,  680 
Spirifer,  651 

Star-nosed  mole,  48 
Starlings,  The,  360 

Stork  maguari,  279 
Stork,  Open-billed,  280 

Spirifer  sulcatus,  652 

Starling,  Common,  360 

Stork,  Shoe-billed,  282 

Spirifex,  Pelopaeus,  580 

Starling,  Field,  360 

Stork,  White,  278 

Spirorbis,  672 

Starling,  Glossy,  360 

Stork,  White-necked,  280 

Spirostreptus  pyrocephalus, 

Starling,  Meadow,  361 

Storks,  Wood,  The,  281 

550 

Starling,  Red-winged,  361 

Storm  petrel,  257 

Spirula,  646 
Spirulidae,  646 

Starling,  True,  360 
Staurotypus,  b89 

Stratiomyidae,  605 
Strawberry  anemone,  703 

Spiza,  364 

Steamer  ducks,  The,  297 

Streaked  tenrecs,  49 

Spizaetus,  315 

Steatomys,  101 

Streperus,  Acrocephalus,  370 

Spizella,  364 
Spondylus,  623 

Steatornis  gariepensis,  332 
Steatornithes,  332 

Strepsiceros,  154 
Strepsiceros  imberbis,  154 

Sponges,  The,  690 

Steel-blue  cuckoos,  351 

Strepsiceros  kudu,  154 

Sponge,  Bath,  693 

Steganopodes,  297 

Streptoneura,  631 

Sponge,  Birds'-nest,  693 

Steganopus,  266 

Striata,  Hyaena,  62 

Sponge,  Glass-rope,  693 

Stegostoma,  518 

Striatus,  Pseudobranchus,  453 

Sponge,  Lacework,  693 

Steinbok,  True,  151 

Striges,  304 

Sponge  spicules,  693 

Steinbok,  Zanzibar,  151 

Strigidse,  320 

Sponge,  System  of  a,  692 
Sponges,  Calcareous,  692 
Sponges,  Siliceous,  692 

Stelleri,  Heniconetta,  297 
Stelleri,  Otaria,  82 
Stelleri,  Ursina,  82 

Strigirostris,  Didunculus,  245 
Strigoides,  Podargus  333 
Stringops  habroptilus,  331 

Sponsa,  MX,  294 

Steller's  eider,  297 

Striped  gopher,  92 

Spoon-bills,  The,  ?86 

Steno  frontatus,  181 

Striped  hyaena,  62 

Spoon-bill,  Common,  286 

Stenodelphis  blainvillei,  178 

Striped  wrasse,  48S 

Spoon-bill,  Rosy,  286 

Stenoderma,  41 

Strix  Candida,  325 

Spoon  -billed  sandpiper,  269 

Stenogyra,  643 

Strix  capensis,  325 

Sporocyst,  689 

Stentor,  721 

Strix  flammea,  321 

Sportive  lemur,  30 

Stenura,  Gallinago,  268 

Strobilation,  701 

Spotted  billed  pelican,  302 

Stercorariidae,  260 

Stromateus,  472 

Spotted  crake,  251 

Stercorarius,  264 

Stromateidae,  471 

Spotted  cuscus,  200 

Stercorarius  crepidatus,  264 

Strombidse,  636 

Spotted-dasyure,  208 

Stercorarius  parasiticus,  263 

Strombus  gigas,  636 

Spotted  deer,  143 
Spotted  eagle,  314 

Stercorarius  pomatorhinus,  264 
Stercoraria,  Scatophaga,  608 

Strurnella,  361 
Struthersi,  Ibidorhynchus,  270 

Spotted  emu,  223 

Stereornithes,  278 

Struthio  australis,  223 

Spotted  Hyaena,  63 

Sterlet,  512 

Struthio  camelus,  223 

Spotted-narwhal,  178 
Spotted-tailed  dasyure,  208 
Spratt,  The,  507 

Sterna  cantiaca,  261 
Sterna  dougalli,  261 
Sterna  fluviatilis,  261 

Struthio  molybdophanes,  223 
Struthiolariidae,  636 
Struthiones,  220 

Sprattus,  Clupea,  507 

Sterna  fuliginosa,  262 

Struthioniformes,  221 

Springbok,  15  i 

Sterna  macrura,  ¥61 

Stump-tailed  lizard,  410 

Spring  tails,  573 

Sterna  minuta,  261 

Stumpy  crocodile,  382 

Spur-toed  frogs,  444 

Sterninae,  261 

Sturgeons,  510 

Spur-winged  geese,  The,  293 

Sternoptychidae,  505 

Sturgeon,  Common,  511 

Spur-winged  plover,  271 

Sternoptyx,  505 

Sturio,  Acipenser,  512 

Squamata,  395 

Sternothasrus,  393 

Sturnia,  360 

Square-tailed  bee  eaters,  340 

Stick-insects,  551 

Sturuidae,  360 

Squatarola  helvetica,  271 

Stickle-backs,  480 

Sturnus  vulgaris,  360 

Squatina  vulgaris,  519 

Stiff-tailed  diving  ducks,  297 

Stylasteridae,  697 

Squatinidae,  519 

Stilbum  amethystinum,  578 

Stylifer,  633 

Squilla  mantis,  535 

Stilts,  The,  270 

Stylommatophora,  641-642 

Squillidae,  535 

Sting-bull,  474 

Stylophorus,  485 

Squinado,  Maia,  537 

Stinging  hymenoptera,  574 

Subbuteo,  Falco,  319 

Squirrel  tribe,  The,  91 

Stink-bugs,  596 

Subcristatus,  Conolophus,  402 

Squirrel,  African  flying,  89 

Stint,  269 

Submytilacea,  623 

Squirrel,  Common,  91 

Stizostedion,  464 

Succinea,  642 

Squirrel,  Flying  woolly,  95 

Stoat,  81 

Succineidae,  642 

Squirrel,  Groove-toothed,  91 

Stock  dove,  244 

Sucking-fish,  473 

766 


INDEX. 


Sugar  mite,  547 

Symbranchidae,  495 

Tape  worms,  The,  686 

Suillus  hylomys,  45 

Synallaxinae,  375 

Taphozous,  39 

Suina,  135 

Synaphobranchus,  495 

Tapirs  family,  The,  124 

Sulae,  298 

Synapta,  661 

Tapir,  Malayan,  124 

Sulcatus,  Spirifer,  652 
Sulphur-bottom,  174 

Synaptomys,  103 
Syndactylus  hylobates,  19 

Tapiridae,  124 
Tapirus  indicus,  124 

Sulzori,  Atypus,  543 

Syngnathidae,  487 

Tarandus,  Rangifer,  145 

Sumatran  rhinoceros,  126 

Syngnathus,  487 

Tarantula,  543 

Sumatrensis,  Rhinoceros,  126 

Synotus,  37 

Tarbophis  vivax,  423 

Summer  duck,  294 

Syphax,  Castnia,  590 

Tarda,  Otis,  273 

Summer  snipe,  269 

Sypheotis,  273 

Tardigrada,  547 

Sun  animalcules,  716 

Syriacus,  Ursus,  75 

Tarentola,  398 

Sun-birds,  The,  366 

Syrian  bear,  75  ' 

Tarentula,  Lycosa,  543 

Sun-bird,  Malachite,  366 

Syringella,  Gracilaria,  594 

Tarsius,  31 

Sun-bitterns,  The,  276 

Syrniinae,  321 

Tarsiidae,  31 

Sun-bittern,  Large,  276 

Syrnium,  824 

Tarsipedinae,  203 

Sun-bittern,  South  American, 

Syrnium  aluco,  321 

Tarsipes  rostratus,  203 

276 

Syrphidae,  606 

Tarsius  spectrum,  31 

Sun  -fish,  490 
Sunset  shells,  624 

Syrrhoptes  paradoxus,  241 
Systema,  Cacopus,  438 

Tartarica,  Saiga,  152 
Tasmanian  devil,  207 

Superba  menura,  357 

Tasmanian  wolf,  207 

Superciliosa,  Ceryle,  336 

Tatlers,  The,  269 

Surciata  tetradactyla,  61 

T. 

Tatouay,  186 

Surinam  water-toad,  444 

Tatusia  hybrida,  187 

Surnia  ulula,  323 

Tabanidse,  605 

Taurus,  Bos,  165 

Sus,  133 

Tachininae,  607 

Tawny  eagle,  314 

Sus  africanus,  134 

Tachornis,  346 

Tawny  owl,  321 

Sus  cristatus,  134 

Tachybaptes  albipennis,  253 

Tawny  -shoulder  frog  -mouth. 

Sus  porcus,  134 

Tachybaptes  capensis,  253 

333 

Sus  salvanius,  134 

Tachybaptes  fluviatilis,  253 

Taxicolor,  Budorcas,  157 

Sus  scrofa,  133 

Tachytriorchis,  312 

Taxidea,  79 

Susliks,  91 

Tachytriorchis   albicadautua, 

Teal,  296 

Susu,  177 

312 

Te'alia  crassicornis,  703 

Swainsoni,  Pternistes,  233 

Tachytriorchis  abbreviatus,  312 

Tectibranchiata,  639 

Swallows,  The,  373 

Tadorna,  296 

Tectospondyli,  519 

Swallow,  American  barn,  373 

Tadorna  tadorna,  296 

Teeth  of  gorilla,  6 

Swallow,  Cliff,  373 

Taenia  echinococeus,  688 

Teeth  of  mammalia,  5 

Swallow,  Common,  373 

Tsenia,  Cobitis,  500 

Tegu,  The,  407 

Swallow,  Sea,  261 

Taenia  saginata,  687 

Teiidae,  407 

Swallow-fly,  608 

Taenia  solium,  686 

Teirao,  229 

Swallow  shells,  622 

Taeniata,  Pygoscelis,  255 

Telarius,  Tetranychus,  547 

Swallow-shrikes,  The,  369 

Taeniiformes,  484 

Teleostomi,  462 

Swallow-tail  butterfly,  587 

Taenioglossa,  633 

Telfairi,  Ericulus,  49 

Swallow-tailed  bee-eaters,  310 

Taeniopterinae,  373 

Tellinacea,  624 

Swamp  deer,  143 

Taguan  flying-phalanger,  201 

Tellinidse,  624 

Swamp  quail,  235 

Tahr,  Himalayan,  159 

Telmatornis,  248 

Swans,  The,  292 

Tailed  fruit-bats,  35 

Telotremata,  651 

Swan,  Bewick's,  292 

Tailless  tunicata,  527 

Temenuchus,  360 

Swan,  Black,  292 

Takin,  157 

Temera,  521 

Swan,  Chilian,  292 

Talegallus,  226 

Temmincki,  Coracias,  335 

Swan,  Coscoroba,  293 

Talischensis,  Phasianus,  237 

Temmincki,   Macroclemmys, 

Swan,  Mute,  292 

Talpa,  48 

390 

Swan,  Polish,  592 

Talpa  caeca,  48 

Temminck's  snapper,  390 

Swifts,  The,  345 

Talpa  europaea,  48 

Temporaria,  Rana,  436 

Swift,  Common,  346 

Talpa  micrura,  48 

Tenagodes,  636 

Swift,  Crested,  346 

Talpa  moschata,  48 

Tenax,  Eristalis,  606 

Swift,  Needle-tailed,  346 

Talpidae,  47 

Tench,  499 

Swift,  Palm,  346 

Tamahoa,  184 

Tenebrio  molitor,  560 

Swift,  Pied,  346 
Swift,  Spine-  tailed,  345 

Tamandua  tetradactyla,  184 
Tamarins,  27 

Teneriffae,  Regulus,  369 
Tengmalmi,  Nyctalea,  324 

Swiftlets,  The  Edible,  346 

Tameng,  143 

Tengmalm's  owl,  324 

Swift-moths,  591 

Tamias,  91 

Tenrecs,  The,  49 

Swimming-shrews,  47 

Tana  tupaia,  43 

Tenrecs,  Hedgehog,  49 

Swinhoei,  Cervus,  143 
Sword-bill  hummer,  348 

Tanagers,  The,  362 
Tanagridae,  362 

Tenrecs,  Rice,  49 
Tenrecs,  Streaked,  49 

Sword-fish,  Common,  469 

Tancrediidae,  6^5 

Tentacle  fish,  475 

Syllis  ramosa,  673 

Tantalus,  278 

Tentacled  infusorians,  722 

Sylvaticus,  Mus,  105 

Tantalus  loculator,  281 

Tenthredinidae,  574 

Sylvestris,  Cabalus,  249 

Tanysiptera,  3s8 

Tenui-spina,  Murex,  637 

Sylvia  atricapilla,  370 
Sylvia,  Tanysiptera,  338 
Sylviidse,  370 

Tanysiptera  salvadoriana,  339 
Tanysiptera  sylvia,  338 
Tapacolas,  376 

Teonoma,  102 
Tequexin,  Tupinambis,  407 
Terebra,  638 

INDEX. 


767 


Terebrantia,  574 
Terebratula,  651 
Terebella,  672 
Terebridae,  638 
Teredinidae,  627 
Teredo,  627 

Tergissus,  Hyodon,  505 
Termetidae,  571 
Terns,  The,  261 
Tern,  Arctic,  261 
Tern,  Black,  261 
Tern,  Caspian,  261 
Tern,  Common,  261 
Tern,  Lesser,  261 
Tern,  Marsh,  261 
Tern,  River,  262 
Tern,  Roseate,  261 
Tern,  Sandwich,  261 
Tern,  Snowy,  262 
Tern,  Sooty,  262 
Terpsiphone,  373 
Terrapins,  385 
Testacellidas,  644 
Testudinidie,  385 
Testudo,  386 
Testudo  elegans,  386 
Testudo  ephippium,  3S7 
Testudo  geometrica,  386 
Testudo  graeca,  386 
Testudo  marginata,  386 
Tetrabranchiata,  645 
Tetraceros  quadricornis,  151 
Tetradactyla,  Surciata,  61 
Tetradactyla,  Tamandua,  184 
Tetradactylus  macroscelides,  44 
Tetradactylus,  Oryzorictes,  49 
Tetranychidse,  547 
Tetranychus  autumnalis,  547 
Tetranychus  telarius,  547 
Tetrao  kamtchaticus,    30 
Tetrao  parvirostris,  230 
Tetrao  uralensis,  230 
Tetrao  urogallus,  230 
Tetraogallus,  232 
Tetraogallus  himalayensis,  232 
Tetraonidse,  229 
Tetrapneumones,  54-? 
Tetraspis  osteolgemus,  382 
Tetrastemraa,  684 
Tetrastemma  agricola,  684 
Tetrastemma     aquaruin-dul- 

cium,  684 

Tetrastemma  rodericanum,  684 
Tetrastes,  231 
Tetrax,  273 
Tetrax  tetrax,  273 
Tetrix,  Lyrurus,  230 
Tetrodon,  489 
Teucer,  Caligo,  584 
Thalassema,  678 
Thalassiornis,  '297 
Thalassochelys  caretta,  391 
Thalassogeron  cautus,  259 
Thallassophryne,  474 
Tharus,  Polyborus,  307 
Thaumastura,  M8 
Theraphosidae,  542 
Theridiidse,  544 
Theropithecus  gelada,  22 
Theropithecus  obscurus,  22 
Thian  shan,  159 
Thian  shan  stag,  143 


Thick-knee,  273 
Thick-knee,  Long-legged,  273 
Thick-lipped  fishes,  486 
Thick-tailed  opossum,  213 
Thinocorus,  266 
Thinornis,  270 

Thomensis,  Throphorella,  643 
Thomisidae,  543 
Thomomys,  109 
Thopha,  598 
Thoracostraca,  535 
Thorius,  450 
Thornback  skate,  521 
Thorn-backs,  485 
Thorny  devil,  401 
Thorny  oyster,  623 
Thorny-tailed  lizard,  400 
Thoroldi,  Cervus,  143 
Thorold's  deer,  143 
Thracia,  628 
Thrasaetus,  313 
Thrasaetus  harpyia,  313 
Thread  worms,  678 
Thread-worm,  Turnip,  679 
Three-banded  armadillos,  187 
Three-striped  douroucouli,  26 
Three-toed  kingfisher,  337 
Three-toed  sloths,  182 
Three-toed  woodpecker,  354 
Thresher,  517 
Thripidse,  572 
Thriponax,  355 
Thriponax  hargitti,  355 
Thrips  cerealium,  572 
Thrushes,  The,  370 
Thrush,  Ground,  370 
Thrush,  Song,  371 
Thrush,  True,  370 
Thrush,  White's,  370 
Thrynomys,  112 
Thylacine,  207 

Thylacinus  cynocephalus,  207 
Thymallus,  509 
Thynnidae,  579 
Thynnus,  473 

Thyrophorella  thomensis,  643 
Thyrophorellidae,  643 
Thyroptera  tricolor,  38 
Thyrsitis,  470 
Thysanoptera,  572 
Thysanoteuthidae,  646 
Thysanura,  573 
Tibetan  chiru,  152 
Tibetan  fox,  73 
Tibetan  yak,  164 
Tibicina,  598 
Tichodroma  muraria,  366 
Ticks,  545 
Tiger,  53 
Tiger-beetles,  554 
Tiger-beetle,  Green,  554 
Tiger  cat,  55 
Tiger  moths,  588 
Tigris,  Felis,  53 
Tile-fish,  473 
Timeliidas,  372 
Timidus,  Lepus,  118 
Tinamiformes,  225 
Tinamous,  The,  225 
Tinamou,  Great,  226 
Tinea,  499 
Tinctorius,  Dendrobates,  438 


Tineas,  591 

Tinea  fulvimitrella,  593 

Tineidae,  572 

Tinker,  353 

Tipulidae,  604 

Tits,  The,  367 

Tit,  Bearded,  368 

Tit,  Blue,  S67 

Tit,  Bottle,  368 

Tit,  Crested,  368 

Tit,  Great,  367 

Tit,  Long-tailed,  368 

Tit,  Marsh,  367 

Titis,  26 

Titi,  White-collared,  26 

Titiscaniidae,  632 

Tmetothylacus,  365 

Toads,  The,  441 

Toad,  Common,  442 

Toad,  Green,  442 

Toad,  Natterjack,  442 

Tobanus  bovinus,  605 

Todidae,  342 

Todies,  The,  342 

Todus  viridis,  342 

Tody,  Jamaica,  342 

Togata,  Solenomya,  621 

Tolypeutes,  187 

Tomb-bats,  39 

Tooth-billed  partridges,  231 

Tooth-billed  pigeons,  The  245 

Toothed  partridges,  The,  240 

Toothed  whales,  171 

Topaza,  348 

Tope,  516 

Tor,  Bar  bus,  498 

Torda,  Alca,  260 

Tornaria,  528 

Tornatina,  640 

Tornatinidae,  640 

Torpedinidae,  521 

Torpedo,  521 

Torquata,  Callithrix,  26 

Torquata,  Ceryle,  336 

Torquata,  Chiromeles,  40 

Torquatus,  Astur,  311 

Torquatus,  Cuniculus,  103 

Torquatus,  Ursus,  75 

Torquilla,  lynginse,  354 

Torrent  ducks,  The,  297 

Tortoises  and  turtles,  383 

Tortoise,    Amazonian    fresh 

water,  393 

Tortoise,  Grecian,  386 
Tortoise,  Land,  385 
Tortoise,  Loggerhead,  891 
Tortoise,  Margined,  386 
Tortoise,  Pond,  388 
Tortoise,  Soft,  394 
Tortoise,  True  Box,  388 
Tortoise-shells,  585 
Tortrices,  593 
Tortrix,  Green  Oak,  593 
Tortrix  viridana,  593 
Totaninse,  269 
Totanu«,  269 
Toucans,  The,  352 
Touracoe,  Lady  Ross,  352 
Touracoes,  351 
Toxodon,  9 
Toxoglossa,  638 
Tracheophonae,  375 


768 


INDEX. 


Trachichthys,  468 

Trilobita,  539 

True  mound-builders,  226 

Trachinidse,  473 

Trimeresaurus,  429 

True  palm-civets.  59 

Trachinops,  46t 

Tringa,  269 

True  parrots,  The,  329 

Trachinus,  473 

Tringoides,  2fi9 

True  partridges,  The,  234 

Trachypteridae,  484 

Trinitatis,  Phyllobates,  438 

True  phalangers,  200 

Trachypterus,  485 

Triodon,  489 

True  pigeons,  The,  244 

Trachysaurus  rugosus,  410 

Trionychidae,  394 

True  pigs,  133 

Tragelaphine,  154 

Trionyx,  394 

True  pipits,  The,  365 

Tragelaphus,  156 

Triphaena,  591 

True  plovers,  270 

Tragelaphus  angasi,  156 

Tripudians,  Naia,  424 

True  porcupine,  113 

Tragelaphus,  Ovis,  160 

Trithemis  umbrata,  569 

True  potto,  31 

Tragelaplius  scriptus,  156 

Tritici  diplosis,  603 

True  rails,  248 

Tragelaphns  spekei,  156 

Tritici,  Tylenchus,  679 

True  seals,  85 

Tragocaraelus,  Boselaphus,  154 

Triton-shell,  B36 

True  snipe,  268 

Tragopan,  235 

Tritonioidea,  641 

True  steinbok,  151 

Tragulidae,  139 

Trivialis,  Anthus,  3R5 

True  tenrec,  49 

Tragulus,  139 

Trivirgatus,  Nyctipithecus,  26 

True  thrushes,  370 

Tragus,  Rupicapra,  156 

Trochidae,  632 

True  whales,  172 

Transmontana,  Columbia,  509 

Trochili,  347 

True  woodcock,  267 

Trap-door  spiders,  543 

Trochilus,  Phylloscopus,  370 

True  wood-peckers,  The,  354 

Tratratratra,  33 

Trochophore,  t>73 

Trumpet  animalcule,  721 

Traversia,  375 

Trochopus  tubiporus,  688 

Trumpeters,  The,  277 

Tree-creepers,  362 

Trochosphere,  673 

Trumpeter,  Common,  277 

Tree-ducks,  296 

Troglodytes,  Anorthura,  371 

Trumpeter  fish,  467 

Tree-frog,  European,  442 

Troglodytes,  Anthropopithecus, 

Truucatellidae,  634 

Tree-kangaroos,  195 

15 

Truncatus,  Chlamydophorus, 

Tree-lizards,  399 

Troglodytes,  Sagartia,  704 

188 

Tree-mice,  The,  101 

Troglodytidae,  371 

Trygon,  522 

Tree-partridsre,  The,  234 

Trogons,  The,  349 

Trygonidae,  522 

Tree-pipit,  365 
Tree-shrews,  43 

Trogon,  American,  349 
Trogon  c'aligatus,  349 

Trypancorax  frugilegus,  358 
Trypanns  cossus,  590 

Tree-starlings,  The,  360 

Trogon,  Large-tailed,  349 

Trypetinse,  608 

Tree-swifts,  The,  347 

Trogonophis,  408 

Tse-tse  fly,  608     / 

Trematoda,  688 

Troile,  Uria,  260 

Tuatera,  480 

Tremoctopodidse,  647 

Trombidiidse,  547 

Tube-making  annelid,  672 

Treronidae,  242 

Tropic  Birds,  The,  298 

Tube-nosed  bats,  37 

Treroninaj,  242 

Tropic  Bird,  Yellow-billed,  298 

Tube-nosed  fruit-bats,  35 

Tretenterata,  650 

Tropical  Anemones,  704 

Tuberculatus,  Chalinolobus,  40 

Tretretretre",  33 
Triacanthus,  489 

Tropicoperdix,  234 
Tropidonotus,  421 

Tuberculatus  mystacops,  40 
Tubicola,  672 

Trichechidse,  84 

Tropidonotus  natrix,  421 

Tubifex  rivulorum,  674 

Trichechus  rosmarus,  84 

Tropterodon,  466 

Tubinares,  256 

Trichina  spiralis,  680 

True  albatros,  258 

Tubipora  musica,  708 

Trichinosis  worm,  680 

True  ant-eaters,  183 

Tubiporus,  Trochopus,  688 

Trichiosoma  lucorum,  574 

True  argali,  160 

Tubularia,  697 

Trichiuridte,  470 

True  badgers,  79 

Tubulifera,  578 

Trichiuriformes,  470 

True  bittern,  284 

Tuco-tucos,  111 

Trichiurus,  470 

True  buzzards,  The,  312 

Tufted  owls,  The,  322 

Trichoglossus,  328 

True  civets,  57 

Tumulus,  Megapodius,  228 

Trichonotidse,  478 

True  coursers,  272 

Tunicata,  527 

Trichoptera,  572 

True  cranes,  The,  274 

Tunny,  473 

Trichopterygidae,  562 

True  crocodile,  381 

Tupaia,  44 

Trichosurus,  200 

True  crows,  3c8 

Tupaia  tana,  43 

Trichosurus  vulpinus,  200 

True  cuckoo,  350 

Tupaiidae,  43 

Trichotropidae,  634 

True  dolphins,  181 

Tupinambis  tequexin,  407 

Trichys,  113 

True  dotteral,  271 

Turacaena,  244 

Tricolor  bat,  38 

True  ducks,  The,  296 

Turacus,  352 

Tricolor,  Thyroptera,  38 

True  eels,  478 

Turbellaria,  685 

Tridacna,  62t> 

True  falcon,  The,  317 

Turbinata.  Bugula,  667 

Tridacna  gigas,  626 

True  finches,  363 

Turbinellidse,  637 

Tridactyla,  Hissa,  263 

True  fruit-pigeon,  242 

Turbinidfe.  632 

Tridactylus,  Bradypus,  183 

True  hamster,  101 

Turbot,  492 

Tddanidse,  626 

True  garial,  382 

Turdidse,  370 

Tridecemlineatus,  Spermo- 

True  geese,  295 

Turdus,  370 

philus,  92 

True  grouse,  The,  230 

Turdus  iliacus,  371 

Triecphora  yulnerata,  690 

True  gulls,  260 

Turdus  pilaris,  371 

Trigla,  475 

True  hawks,  The,  307 

Turdus  musicus,  371 

Trigonia,  621 

True  kudu,  154 

Turkey-brush,  Australian  227 

Trigoniacea,  621 

True  lemurs,  29 

Turkish  gecko,  397 

Trigoniidae,  621 

True  marmots,  92 

Turkey,  Honduras,  '240 

Trigonocephalus,  429 

True  megapodes,  228 

Turkey,  Mexican,  240 

Trigonorhina,  520 

True  moles,  48 

Turkey  vultures,  The,  S04 

V 


INDEX. 


769 


Turn-stones,  The,  272 

Undulata,  Gallinago,  268 

Vampirus,  41 

Turn-stone,  Black,  272 

Ungulata,  118 

Vampirus  spectrum,  41 

Turn-stone,  Common,  272 

Ungulina,  624 

Vandeluria,  104 

Turnip-beetles,  5<>1 

Ungulinidae,  l>-?4 

Vandesius,  Coregonus,  509 

Turnip  flies,  562 

Unicincta,  Erythrocnema,  310 

Vanellus  vanellus,  .  71 

Turnip  thread-worm,  679 

Unicinctus,  Lysuirus,  186 

Varanidae,  40  i 

Turnix,  241 
TurritelliuX  635 

Unicolor,  Cervus,  143 
Unicolor,  Xenopeltis,  421 

Varanus,  405 
Varanus  nilot'cus,  406 

Turtle-doves,  *44 

Unicorn  fish,  484 

Varia,  Ceryle,  3:>6 

Turtles,  The,  390 

Unicorn,  Sea,  178 

Varia,  Oreocicla,  b71 

Turtle,  Green,  391 

Unicornis,  Rhinoceros,  126 

Variegata,  Mesites,  ?76 

Turtle,  Leathery,  391 

Unionidae,  623 

Variegated  spider-monkey,  25 

Turtur,  Turturinse,  245 

Upland  geese,  The,  295 

Variezatus,  Ateles,  25 

Turturaena,  244 

Upupa  epops,  340 

Varius,  Phalacrocorax,  300 

Tuvturinae,  '244 

Upupa  indica,  340 

Velox,  Canis,  7.< 

Turturinae  risortus,  245 

Upupae,  340 

Velox  potamogale,  48 

Turturinse  turtur,  245 

Upupidae,  340 

Velutina,  Didelphys,  213 

Twenty-plume  moth,  594 
Two-clawed  ant-eater,  184 

Uraeotyphlus,  454 
Uralensis,  Tetrao,  230 

Velvety-opossum,  213 
Venaticus,  Icticyon,  74 

Two-legged  salamander,  453 

Uraniidae,  588 

Vendace,  509 

Two-toed  sloths,  182 

Uranoscopus,  473 

Veneracea,  623 

Tylenchus  tritici,  C79 

Urbica,  Chelidon,  373 

Veneris,  Cestus,  712 

Tylopoda,  136 

Urens,  Asthenosoma,  660 

Venus'  comb,  (.37 

Tvlotriton,  44S 

Uria  grylle,  260 

Venus's  flower  basket,  693 

Tylotriton  andersoni,  448 

Uria  troile,  260 

Venus's  girdle,  71  . 

Tylotriton  verrucosus,  448 

Urial,  160 

Vermes,  670 

Tyinpanuchus,  231 

Urosetus,  313 

Vermetidse,  635 

Typhlomolge  rathbuni,  452 

Uroaetus  audax,  314 

Vermicularis,  Oxvuris,  679 

Typhlomys,  106 

Urochorda,  527 

Vermiculus,  683 

Typhlonectes,  455 

Urogallus,  Tetras,  230. 

Verreauxia,  354 

Typhlonus,  491 

Urogymnus,  522 

Verreauxia  africana,  °54 

Tvphlopidae,  417 

Urulophus,  522 

Vesrucosus,  Tylotriton,  448 

Typhlops,  417 

Uromastix,  400 

Versicolar,  Phasianus,  ^38 

Tyyhlops,  Notoryctes,  210 

Uromys,  10  i 

Vertebrata,  1 

Typhlosaurus,  411 

Uropeltidse,  42l 

Vertebrates,  Characteristics  of,  1 

Typhlotriton,  450 

Uroplates,  b98 

Verticalis,  Botys,  592 

T)  phlus,  Spalax,  106 

Uroplatklse,  398 

Verticordiidae,  628 

Typical  bats,  :;6 

Uropoda,  545 

Vesicatoria,  Cantharis,  560 

Typical  cuckoo,  350 

Uropsilus,  47 

Vespa,  580 

Typical  frogs,  436 

Urospatha,  341 

Vespa  crabro,  580 

Typical  seals,  The,  85 

Urotrichus,  47 

Vesperimus,  101 

Typical  tree-shrews,  14 

Urotriorchis,  310 

Vespertilio  bechsteini,  38 

Typicus,  Rhinodon,  517 

Ursidse,  74 

Vespertilio  daubentoni,  37 

Tyrannidse,  373 

Ursinus,  Melursus,  75 

Vespertilio  hodgsoni,  38 

Tyranninae,  373 

Ursinus,  Phalanger,  200 

Vespertiiio  welwitschi,  38 

Tyrants,  The,  b73 

Ursinus,  Sarcophilus,  207 

Vespertilionidae,  3« 

Tyroglyphidse,  547 

Ursus,  75 

Vesperugo,  38 

Tyroglyphus  sacchari,  547 

Ursus  americanus,  75 

Vesperugo  noctula,  '  7 

Tyroglyphus  siro,  547 

Ursus  arctus,  75 

Vesperugo  pipiptrellus,  £7 

Ursus  crowther,  75 

v'esperugo  serotinus,  o7 

Ursus  horribilis,  75 

Vespillo,  Necrophorus,  55  5 

U. 

Ursus  isabellinus,  75 

Vestimenti,  Pediculus,  602 

Ursus  malayanus,  75 

Victor,  Chrysaenas,  '243 

Uacaria,  27 

Ursus  maritimus,  75 

Victoriae,  Ptilorhis,  359 

Uacaria,  Bald,  27 

Ursus  ornatus,  75 

Vicuna,  138 

Uacaria,  Black-faced,  27 

Ursus  syriacus,  75 

Vicufia,  Lama,  133 

Uacaria  calva,  -LI 

Ursus  torquaters,  75 

Vignei,  Ovis,  IfiQ 

Uacaria  melanocephala,  27 

Urticata,  iJotys,  592 

Villosus,  Dasypus,  186 

Uacaria  rubicunda.  z7 

Urubitinga,  313 

Vinegar  eel,  679 

Uakari,  Red,  27 

Vinia,  M28 

Uakaris,  *7 

Vinia  kuhli,  328 

Uloboridae,  544 

V. 

Violacea,  Xylocopa,  581 

Ulula,  Surnia,  >23 

Vipers,  The,  427 

Umbrata,  Trithemis,  C63 

Vagans.  ^Egithalus,    68 

Viper,  British,  427 

Umbrella,  640 
Umbrellidge,  i  40 

Vaginuli,  642 
Vaginulidae,  642 

Viper,  Halys,  4  9 
Viper,  Horned,  427 

Umbretta,  Scopus,  281 

Valvata,  Gt5 

Viper,  Pit,  428 

Umbridaa,  502 

Valvatidee,  635 

Viper,  Russell's,  428 

Umbrina,  4f  8 

Vampire-bats,  40 

Viper,  Sand,  427 

Umbrine,  The,  468 
Umbonia,  601 
Uncia,  Felis,  53 

Vampire,  Common,  42 
Vampire,  Great,  41 
Vampires,  Harmless,  41 

Viper,  Saw,  4  7 
Vjper  tribe,  The,  426 
Vipera  ammodytes,  427 

50 

770 


INDEX. 


Vipera  arietans,  427                        Vultures,  Eared,  306                       Weasles,  80 

Vipera  berus,  427 
Vipera  russelli,  428 

Vulture,  Egyptian,  306 
Vulture,  Turkey,  304 

Weasel,  Common,  80 
Weasel  tribe,  The,  76 

Viperidae,  42« 

Vulture,  White-headed,  306 

Weaver  birds,  The,  362 

Viperinae,  427 

Vulturidse,  305 

Weaver,  Baya,  362 

Virens,  Gadus,  491 

Vulturine  guinea-fowl,  240 

Webbed  newt,  448 

Vireo,  370 

Vulturinum,  Acryllium,  240 

Web-footed  moles,  47 

Vireonidse,  370 

Web-footed  shrew,  47 

Virginian  deer,  146 

Weddelli,  Leptonychotes,  87 

Virginian  fox,  72 

W. 

Weddell's  seal,  87 

Virginian  quail,  240 

Weevil,  560 

Virginianus,  Bubo,  322 

Wagtails,  The,  364 

Weevil,  Nut,  560 

Virginianus,  Canis,  72 

Wagtail,  Field,  365 

Weevil,  Palm,  560 

Virginianus,  Cervus,  146 
Virginianus,  Ortyx,  240 

Wagtail,  Grey,  365 
Wagtail,  Pied,  365 

Weka  rails,  251 
Wels,  The,  497 

Viridana,  Tortrix,  593 

Wagtail,  Ray's,  365 

Welwit-chi,  Vespertilio,  38 

Viridis,  Bufo,  442 

Wagtail,  Water,  365 

Wentle-traps,  633 

Viridis,  Calyptomena,  353 

Walabatus,  Macropus,  194 

West  African  chevrotains,  139 

Viridis,  Lacerta,  409 

Wall  gecko,  398 

Whales,  &c.,  169 

Viridis,  Todus,  -.4' 

Wallabies,  The,  194 

Whale,  Arnux's,  177 

Viridis,  Vortex,  686 

Wallabies,  Hare,  194 

Whale,  Beaked,  177 

Viscacha,  114 

Wallabies,  Rock,  194 

Whale,  Cuvier's,  177 

Vison,  Mustela,  81 

Wallaby,  Agile,  194 

Whale,  Fin,  173 

Vitrea  cellaria,  C44 

Wallaby,  Aru  Island,  194 

Whale,  Greenland,  172 

Vivax,  Tarbophis,  423 

Wallaby,  Banded,  196 

Whale,  Grev,  172 

Viverra,  57 

Wallaby,  Bennett's,  194 

Whale,  Humpback,  173 

Viverra  civetta,  57 

Wallaby,  Sombre,  194 

Whale,  Lesser  sperm,  176 

Viverra  malaccensis,  57 

Wallacii,  Eulipoa,  228 

Whale,  Pigmy,  172 

Viverricula,  57 

Wallacii,  Habroptila,  249 

Whale,  Right,  172 

Viverridse,  56 

Walleri,  Lithocranias,  153 

Whale,  Sperm,  175 

Viverrinse,  60 

Waller's  gazelle,  153 

Whale,  Toothed,  175 

Viverrinus,  Dasyurus,  208 

Walliehii,  Catreus,  237 

Whale,  Whalebone,  171 

Vivipara,  Lacerta,  409 

Walrus  family,  The,  84 

Whale,  White,  179 

Vivipara,  Monopora,  684 

Waltzing-mice,  105 

Whalebone  whales,  171 

Viviparidae,  635 

Wandering  albatros,  258 

Whale-louse,  535 

Viviparous  lizard,  409 
Viviparous  wrasses,  486 

Wapiti,  North  American,  143 
Warblers,  The,  370 

Wheat  eel,  679 
Wheat  midge,  603 

Vocifer,  Haliaetus,  315 

Warbler,  Orass,  370 

Wheel  animalcules,  68? 

Volans,  Draco,  399 

Warbler,  Reed,  370 

Wheel  bugs,  596 

Volans,  Galdopithecums,  43 

Warbler,  Sedge,  370 

Whip  snakes,  423 

Volins,  Petauroides,  201 

Warbler,  Willow,  370 

Whirligig  beetles,  556 

Voles,  The,  103 
Vole,  Bank,  103 

Wart-hog,  134 
Warty  salamander,  448 

White  admiral,  585 
White  ants,  571 

Vole,  Field,  103 

Warty  sea-leech,  677 

White  bats,  39 

Vole,  Groove-toothed,  103 

Wasps,  580 

White-bellied  sea-eagle,  315 

Vole  group,  The,  103 

Wasps,  Ruby-tailed,  578 

White-billed  diver,  254 

Vole,  Red,  103 

Wasps,  Sand,  579 

White-collared  titi,  26 

Vole,  Water,  103 

Wasps,  Wood,  575 

White-eyes,  The,  367 

Volutidae,  638 

Water-animals,  694 

White-footed  mice,  101 

Volvox  globator,  719 

Water-beetle,  Great,  557 

White-fronted  goose,  295 

Volvulella,  640 

Water-beetles,  Carnivorous,  555 

White  gos-hawk,  311 

Vortex  viridis,  686 

Water-boatmen,  537 

White-headed  vultures,  The, 

Vorticellidse,  721 

Water-buck,  152 

o06 

Vulgaris,  Bufo,  442 

Water-bugs,  597 

White-necked  stork,  280 

Vulgaris,  Chamseleon,  412 

Water-flea,  531 

White  owls,  The,  325 

Vulgaris,  Conga,  494 

Water-hens,  The,  252 

White  plume  moth,  594 

Vulgaris,  Lota,  491 

Water-opossum,  211 

White  stork,  278 

Vulgaris,  Melolontha,  557 

Water-ouzels,  371 

Whi'e  stork,  Black-billed,  279 

Vulgaris,  Molge,  448 

Water-rail,  249 

White-tailed  eagle,  315 

Vulgaris,  Mustela,  81 

Water-scorpion,  597 

White  tailed  hawk,    12 

Vulgaris,  Sciurus,  91 

Water-shrews,  46 

White-throated  capuchin,  24 

Vulgaris,  Squatina,  519 

Water-snakes,  421 

White  whale,  179 

Vulgaris,  Sturnus,  360 

Water-spider,  544 

V\  hite-winged  chough,  358 

Vulgata,  Epliemera,  571 

Water-toad,  Surinam,  444 

W7hite-winged  crake,  251 

Vulnerata,  Triecphora,  600 

Water-vole,  103 

Whiteheadi,  Calyptomena,  356 

Vulpes,  70 

Water-wagtails,  365 

White's  thrush,  370 

Vulpes,  Alopecias,  517 

Wattled  ant-thrushes,  375 

Whiting,  The,  491 

Vulpes,  Canis,  71 

Wattled  fruit-pigeon,  243 

Whooper,  292 

Vulpinus,  Trichosurus,  200 

Wattled  grakles,  360 

Wigeon,  296 

Vultur,  306 

Wattled  plovers,  The,  271 

Wild  boar,  133 

Vultur  monachus,  306 

Waxwing,  The,  369 

Wild  cat,  55 

Vulture,  Black,  306 

Waxwing,  Japanese,  369 

Wild  ducks,  296 

INDEX. 


771 


Willow-grouse,  229                       ! 

Worm,  Bristled-footed,  671 

Y. 

Willow-warbler,  370 

Worm,  Earth,  674 

Wilson's  phalarope,  166 

Worm,  Flat,  685 

Yaffle,  354 

Wingless  insects,  573 

Worm,  Fluke,  688 

Yak,  Tibetan,  164 

Wing-shells,  636 

Worm,  Gephyrean,  677 

Yapock,  214 

Wire-tailed  snipe,  268 

Worm,  Guinea,  679 

Yarelli,  Bagarius,  496 

Wire  worms,  559 

Worm,  Horse-hair,  680 

Yellow  baboon,    3 

Wolf  -like  animals,  64 

Worm,  Lug,  672 

Yellow-billed  cuckoo,  351 

Wolf,  Aard,  62 

Worm,  Medina,  679 

Yellow-billed  sheathbill,  -J65 

Wolf,  Antarctic,  64 

Worm,  Nemertine,  684 

Yellow-billed  tropicfbird,  298 

Wolf,  Common,  64 

Worm,  Ringed,  671 

Yellow  fo*;  71 

Wolf,  Indian,  65 

Worm,  Round,  679 

Yellow  hammer,  364 

Wolf,  Tasmanian,  207 

Worm,  Sand,  672 

Yellow-tailed  mole,  48 

Wolf-fish,  478 

Worm,  Tape,  686 

Yellow-throated  marten,  80 

Wolf  -spiders,  543 
Wolverine,  81 

Worm,  Thread,  678 
Worm,  Trichinosis,  680 

Yellow  underwing  moth,  591 
Yellow-winged  woodpecker,  35  1 

Wombats,  204 

Worms,  Planarian,  1  85 

Yoldia,  621 

Wood  ant,  579 

Wrasse,  Parrot,  486 

Ypecaha,  Aramides,  250 

Wood  chat,  369 

Wrasse,  Striped,  486 

Ypecaha  wood-rail,  250 

Wood-hewers,  The,  375 

Wrasses,  Viviparous,  486 

Wood-hewer,  Bridge's,  375 

Wrens,  The,  371 

Wood  hoopoes,  *40 

Wren,  Common,  371 

Z. 

Wood-ibises,  278 

Wry-billed  plover,  270 

Wood  larks,  364 

Wrynecks,  ;<54 

Zabrus  gibbus,  555 

Wood  lice,  534 

Wryneck,  Common,  354 

Zaglossus,  217 

Wood-mouse,  105 

Zaitha  aurantiaca,  597 

Wood-owls,    21 

Zamensis,  422 

Wood-pigeon,  244 

Zamensis  gemonensis,  422 

Wood  rails,  The,  249 

X. 

Zamensis  hippocrepis,  422 

Wood-rats,  102 

Zammara,  598 

Wood  sandpiper,  269 

Xantharpyia,  35 

Zanzibar  steinbok,  151 

Wood-snakes,  American,  422 

Xantholseina  hsemacephala,  353 

Zapornia  parva,  251 

Wood-snipe,  268 

Xanthomelus  aurens,  359 

Zapus,  110 

Wood  storks,  278 

Xanthonotus  indicator,  353 

Zebra,  Burchell's,  128 

Wood  stork,  American,  281 

Xanthopygus,  Cervus,  143 

Zebra,  Equus,  128 

Wood-swallows,  369 

Xanthura,  358 

Zebra,  Grevy's,  1-28 

Wood  wasps,  575 

Xema,    62 

Zebra,  Mountain,  128 

Woodcocks,  The,  268 

Xema  furcata,  262 

Zebra-fish,  465 

Woodcock,  True,  267 

Xema  sabinii,  262 

Zebra  shark,  518 

Woodpeckers,  The,  353 

Xenicus,  b75 

Zebrilus,  284 

Woodpecker,  Great  black,  354 

Xeniscidae,  373,  375 

Zeledoni,  Canchroma,  284 

Woodpecker,  Green,  :-54 

Xenodermichthys,  507 

Zenaidinae,  244 

Woodpecker,  Ground,  354 

Xenopeltidae,  421 

Zerda,  Canis,  73 

Woodpecker,  Hargitt's,  355 

Xenopeltis  unicolor,  421 

Zeus  faber,  471 

Woodpecker,  Narrow-necked, 

Xenophoridae,  634 

Zeuzeridae,  590 

354 

Xenopicus,  354 

Zibellina,  Mustela,  80 

Woodpecker,  Pied,  354 

Xenopodidae,  444 

Zibethicus,  Fiber,  103 

Woodpecker,  Three-toed,  354 

Xenopus,  444 

Ziphius,  177 

Woodpecker,  True,  :+54 

Xenosaurus,  403 

Zoarces,  478 

Woodpecker,  Yellow-  winged, 

Xenosuridae,  403 

Zcea,  530 

:54 

Xeromys,  100 

Zrea-larva  of  spider-crab,  530 

Woodpecker-like  birds,  353 

Xerus,  91 

Zonitidse,  643 

Woolly  avahi,  29 

Xiphias,  469 

Zonotrichia,  364 

Woolly  flying  squirrel,  95 
Woolly  monkeys,  24 

Xiphidiopterus,  271 
Xiphiidae,  469 

Zonuridaa,  403 
Zonurus,  404 

Woolly  monkey,  Humboldt's, 

Xiphiiformes,  469 

Zoophytes,  696 

24 

Xiphosura,  538 

Zoothamnium,  722 

Woolly  spider-monkey,  25 
Worms,  The,  670 

Xylocopa,  581 
Xylocopa  violacea,  581 

Zorilla,  Ictonyx,  80 
Zosteropidse,  367 

Worm,  Arrow,  682 

Zygsenidaj,  588 

Worm,  Bladder,  687 

Zygogeoniys,  109 

THE  END. 


D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY'S  PUBLICATIONS. 


T 


HE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  SELBORNE  AND 
OBSERVATIONS  ON  NATURE.  By  GILBERT  WHITE. 
With  an  Introduction  by  John  Burroughs,  80  Illustrations  by 
Clifton  Johnson,  and  the  Text  and  New  Letters  of  the  Buckland 
Edition.  In  two  volumes.  I2mo.  Cloth,  $4.00. 

"  White  himself,  were  he  alive  to-day,  would  join  all  his  loving  readers  in  thank- 
ing the  American  publishers  for  a  thoroughly  excellent  presentation  of  his  famous 
book.  .  .  .  This  latest  edition  of  White's  book  must  go  into  all  our  libraries  ;  our 
young  people  must  have  it  at  hand,  and  our  trained  lovers  of  select  literature  must 
take  it  into  their  homes.  By  such  reading  we  keep  knowledge  in  proper  perspective 
and  are  able  to  grasp  the  proportions  of  discovery." — MAURICE  THOMPSON,  in  the 
Independent. 

"White's  'Selborne'  belongs  in  the  same  category  as  Walton's  'Complete 
Angler '  ;  .  .  .  here  they  are,  the  '  Complete  Angler '  well  along  in  its  third  century, 
and  the  other  just  started  in  its  second  century,  both  of  them  as  highly  esteemed  as 
they  were  when  first  published,  both  bound  to  live  forever,  if  we  may  trust  the  pre- 
dictions of  their  respective  admirers.  John  Burroughs,  in  his  charming  introduction, 
tells  us  why  White's  book  has  lasted,  and  why  this  new  and  beautiful  edition  has  been 
printed.  .  .  .  This  new  edition  of  his  work  comes  to  us  beautifully  illustrated  by 
Clifton  Johnson." — New  York  Times. 

"White's  '  Selborne '  has  been  reprinted  many  times,  in  many  forms,  but  never 
before,  so  far  as  we  can  remember,  in  so  creditable  a  form  as  it  assumes  in  these  two 
volumes,  nor  with  drawings  comparable  to  those  which  Mr.  Clifton  Johnson  has  made 
for  them." — New  York  Mail  and  Express. 

"  We  are  loath  to  put  down  the  two  handsome  volumes  in  which  the  source  of 
such  a  gift  as  this  has  been  republished.  The  type  is  so  clear,  the  paper  is  so  pleas- 
ant to  the  touch,  the  weight  of  each  volume  is  so  nicely  adapted  to  the  hand,  and  one 
turns  page  after  page  with  exactly  that  quiet  sense  of  ever  new  and  ever  old  endeared 
delight  which  comes  through  a  window  looking  on  the  English  countryside— the  rooks 
cawing  in  a  neighboring  copse,  the  little  village  nestling  sleepily  amid  the  trees,  trees 
so  green  that  sometimes  they  seem  to  hover  on  the  edge  of  black,  and  then  again  so 
green  that  they  seem  vivid  with  the  flaunting  bravery  of  spring."  —  New  York 
Tribune. 

"Not  only  for  the  significance  they  lend  to  one  of  the  masterpieces  of  English 
literature,  but  as  a  revelation  of  English  rural  life  and  scenes,  are  these  pictures  de- 
lightfully welcome.  The  edition  is  in  every  way  creditable  to  the  publishers." — 
Boston  Beacon. 

"  Rural  England  has  many  attractions  for  the  lover  of  Nature,  and  no  work,  per- 
haps, has  done  its  charms  greater  justice  than  Gilbert  White's  '  Natural  History  of 
Selborne.'  " — Boston  Journal. 

"This  charming  edition  leaves  really  nothing  to  be  desired." —  Westminster 
Gazette. 

"  This  edition  is  beautifully  illustrated  and  bound,  and  deserves  to  be  welcomed  by 
all  naturalists  and  Nature  lovers." — London  Daily  Chronicle. 

"  Handsome  and  desirable  in  every  respect.  .  .  .  Welcome  to  old  and  young."— 
New  York  Herald. 

"  The  charm  of  White's  '  Selborne'  is  not  definable.  But  there  is  no  other  book 
of  the  past  generations  that  will  ever  take  the  place  with  the  field  naturalists." — 
Baltimore  Sun. 


D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY,  NEW  YORK. 


D.  APPLETON   AND   COMPANY'S   PUBLICATIONS. 

1DIRD-LIFE.  A  Guide  to  the  Study  of  our  Common  Birds, 
•U  By  FRANK  M.  CHAPMAN,  Assistant  Curator  of  Mammalogy 
and  Ornithology,  American  Museum  of  Natural  History;  Au- 
thor of  "  Handbook  of  Birds  of  Eastern  North  America."  With 
75  full-page  Plates  and  numerous  Text  Drawings  by  Ernest 
Seton  Thompson.  I2mo.  Cloth,  $1.75. 

"  '  Bird-Life '  is  different  from  other  books.  It  deals  with  birds  that  are  familiar, 
or  half  familiar  ;  it  interests  the  ignorant  reader  at  once,  and  it  makes  the  relations  be- 
tween birds  and  men  seem  more  intimate.  The  economic  value  of  birds  will  be  better 
appreciated  after  reading  this  book. " — Boston  Herald. 

"  Contains  more  information  about  birds,  in  the  same  space,  attractively  as  well 
as  concisely  stated,  than  can  be  found  in  any  other  book  with  which  we  are  acquainted. 
...  A  delightful,  valuable,  instructive,  entertaining,  beautiful  book." — Brooklyn 
Standard-  Union. 

"  Most  heartily  can  '  Bird-Life '  be  commended.  It  is  by  a  practical  ornithologist, 
but  it  is  simple  and  comprehensible.  It  is  compact,  pointed,  clear.  .  .  .  The  work 
is  perfectly  reliable.  .  .  .  The  author  uses  every  line  to  give  information.  A  straight- 
forward and  very  compact  guide-book  to  bird-land." — Hartford  Post. 

"An  intelligent  consideration  of  the  book  will  add  to  the  reader's  pleasure  in  his 
walks  in  field  and  wood,  quicken  his  ear,  make  him  hear  and  see  things  which  before 
went  unnoticed.  .  .  .  Gives  the  student  an  introduction  to  ornithology,  which  places 
him  on  the  threshold  of  the  entrance  to  the  innermost  circles  of  bird- life. " — Boston 
Times. 

"  Mr.  Chapman's  book  ought  to  be  as  greatly  in  demand  in  the  average  house- 
hold as  a  history  of  one's  country." — Providence  Journal. 

"  A  comprehensive  book,  one  that  is  sufficient  for  all  the  ordinary  needs  of  the 
amateur  ornithologist.  It  is  satisfactory  in  every  detail,  and  arranged  with  a  care 
and  method  that  will  draw  praise  from  the  highest  sources.  Every  lover  of  outdoor 
life  will  find  this  book  a  delightful  companion  and  an  invaluable  aid." — Buffalo 
Enquirer. 

"  A  volume  exceptionally  well  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  people  who  wish  to 
study  common  birds  in  the  simplest  and  most  profitable  manner  possible.  .  .  .  As  a 
readily  intelligible  and  authoritative  guide  this  manual  has  qualities  that  will  commend 
it  at  once  to  the  attention  of  the  discerning  student." — Boston  Beacon. 

"  Such  a  study  as  every  intelligent  reader  will  desire  to  make,  even  the  busiest  of 
them.  .  .  .  The  author  is  in  every  way  fitted  for  the  task  he  has  taken,  and  his  book 
abounds  in  its  facts  of  value,  and  they  are  pleasingly  and  gracefully  told." — Chicago 
Inter- Ocean. 

"  An  interesting  mass  of  data  collected  through  years  of  study  and  observation. 
.  .  .  While  accurate  from  a  scientific  point  of  view,  it  makes  delightful  reading  for 
those  who  will  soon  be  among  the  flowers  and  the  fields." — Philadelphia  Inquirer. 


D.  APPLETON   AND   COMPANY,   NEW   YORK. 


H 


D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY'S  PUBLICATIONS. 

AND  BOOK  OF  BIRDS  OF  EASTERN  NORTH 
AMERICA.  With  Keys  to  the  Species,  Descriptions  of  their 
Plumages,  Nests,  etc.  ;  their  Distribution  and  Migration. 
Treating  of  all  the  birds,  some  five  hundred  in  number,  which 
have  been  found  east  of  the  Mississippi  River,  and  from  the 
Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  By  FRANK  M.  CHAPMAN, 
Assistant  Curator  of  Mammalogy  and  Ornithology,  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History.  With,over  200  Illustrations.  T2mo. 
Library  Edition,  cloth,  $3.00;  Pocket  Edition,  flexible  covers, 
$3.50. 

The  author's  position  has  not  only  given  him  exceptional  opportunities  for  the 
preparation  of  a  work  which  may  be  considered  as  authoritative,  but  has  brought  him 
in  direct  contact  with  beginners  in  the  study  of  birds  whose  wants  he  thus  thoroughly 
understands.  The  technicalities  so  confusing  to  the  amateur  are  avoided,  and  by  the 
use  of  illustrations,  concise  descriptions,  analytical  keys,  dates  of  migration,  and  re- 
marks on  distribution,  haunts,  notes,  and  characteristic  habits,  the  problem  of  identi- 
fication, either  in  the  field  or  study,  is  reduced  to  its  simplest  terms. 

OPINIONS  OF  ORNITHOLOGISTS  AND  THE  PRESS. 

"  Written  in  simple  and  non-technical  language,  with  special  reference  to  the  needs 
of  amateurs  and  bird-lovers,  yet  with  an  accuracy  of  detail  that  makes  it  a  standard 
authority  on  the  birds  of  eastern  North  America." — J.  A.  ALLEN,  Editor  of  The  Auk. 

"  I  am  delighted  with  the  '  Handbook.'  So  entirely  trustworthy  and  up  to  date 
that  I  can  heartily  recommend  it.  It  seems  to  me  the  best  all-around  thing  we  have 
had  yet." — OLIVE  THORNE  MILLER. 

"  The  '  Handbook'  is  destined  to  fill  a  place  in  ornithology  similar  to  that  held  by 
Gray's  '  Manual'  in  botany.  One  seldom  finds  so  many  good  things  in  a  single  vol- 
ume, and  I  can  not  recommend  it  too  highly.  Its  conciseness  and  freedcm  from 
errors,  together  with  its  many  original  ideas,  make  it  the  standard  work  of  its  class." 
— JOHN  H.  SAGE,  Secretary  of  the  American  Ornithologists'  Union. 

"  Your  charm  ing  and  most  useful  little  book.  .  .  .  I  had  good  reason  to  expect  an 
excellent  book  of  the  kind  from  your  pen,  and  certainly  have  not  been  disappointed. 
We  receive  here  very  many  inquiries  concerning  a  popular  book  on  birds,  or  rather,  I 
should  say,  a  book  so  combining  popular  and  scientific  features  as  to  render  it  both 
entertaining  and  instructive.  To  all  such  inquiries  I  have  been  obliged  to  reply  that 
no  such  book  existed.  Now,  however,  the  '  long-felt  want '  has  been  satisfactorily 
supplied  ;  and  it  will  give  me  great  pleasure  to  answer  such  inquiries  in  future  in  a 
different  way.— ROBERT  RIDGWAY,  United  States  National  Museum,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. 

"  A  book  so  free  from  technicalities  as  to  be  intelligible  to  a  fourteen-year-old  boy, 
and  so  convenient  and  full  of  original  information  as  to  be  indispensable  to  the  -work- 
ing ornithologist.  ...  As  a  handbook  of  the  birds  of  eastern  North  America  it  is 
bound  to  supersede  all  other  works." — Science. 

"The  author  has  succeeded  in  presenting  to  the  reader  clearly  and  vividly  a  vast 
amount  of  useful  information." — Philadelphia  Press. 

"A  valuable  book,  full  of  information  compactly  and  conveniently  arranged." — 
New  York  Sun. 

"  A  charming  book,  of  interest  to  every  naturalist  or  student  of  natural  history." 
— Cincinnati  Times-Star. 

"The  book  will  meet  a  want  felt  by  nearly  every  bird  observer." — Minneapolis 
Tribune. 

D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY,  NEW  YORK. 


D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY'S  PUBLICATIONS. 

CAMILIAR  FLOWERS  OF  FIELD  AND  GARDEN. 
-*-  By  F.  SCHUYLER  MATHEWS.  Illustrated  with  200  Drawings 
by  the  Author,  and  containing  an  elaborate  Index  showing  at  a 
glance  the  botanical  and  popular  names,  family,  color,  locality, 
environment,  and  time  of  bloom  of  several  hundred  flowers. 
I2mo.  Library  Edition,  cloth,  $1.75;  Pocket  Edition,  flexible 
covers,  $2.25. 

"  In  this  convenient  and  useful  volume  the  flowers  which  one  finds  in  the  fields  are 
identified,  illustrated,  and  described  in  .familiar  language.  Their  connection  with  gar- 
den flowers  is  made  clear.  Particular  attention  is  drawn  to  the  beautiful  ones  which 
have  come  under  cultivation,  and,  as  the  title  indicates,  the  book  furnishes  a  ready 
guide  to  a  knowledge  of  wild  and  cultivated  flowers  alike. 

"  I  have  examined  Mr.  Mathews's  little  book  upon  '  Familiar  Flowers  of  Field  and 
Garden,'  and  I  have  pleasure  in  commending  the  accuracy  and  beauty  of  the  drawings 
and  the  freshness  of  the  text.  We  have  long  needed  some  botany  from  the  hand  of  an 
artist  who  sees  form  and  color  without  the  formality  of  the  scientist.  The  book 
deserves  a  reputation." — L.  H.  BAILEY,  Professor  of  Horticulture^  Cornell  Uni- 
versity, 

"  I  am  much  pleased  with  your  '  Familiar  Flowers  of  Field  and  Garden.'  It  is  a 
useful  and  handsomely  prepared  handbook,  and  the  elaborate  index  is  an  especially 
valuable  part  of  it.  Taken  in  connection  with  the  many  careful  drawings,  it  would 
seem  as  though  your  little  volume  thoroughly  covers  its  subject." — Louis  PRANG. 

"The  author  describes  in  a  most  interesting  and  charming  manner  many  familiar 
wild  and  cultivated  plants,  enlivening  his  remarks  by  crisp  epigrams,  and  rendering 
id3ntification  of  the  subjacts  described  simple  by  means  of  seme  two  hundred  draw- 
ings from  Nature,  made  by  his  own  pen.  .  .  .  The  book  will  do  much  to  more  fully 
acquaint  the  reader  with  those  plants  of  field  and  garden  treated  upon  with  which  he 
may  be  but  partly  familiar,  and  go  a  long  way  toward  correcting  many  popular 
errors  existing  in  the  matter  of  colors  of  their  flowers — a  subject  to  which  Mr.  Mathews 
has  devoted  much  attention,  and  on  which  he  is  now  a  recognized  authority  in  the 
trade." — New  York  Florists'1  Exchange. 

"  A  book  of  much  value  and  interest,  admirably  arranged  for  the  student  and  the 
lover  of  flowers.  .  .  .  The  text  is  full  of  compact  information,  well  selected  and  in- 
terestingly presented.  ...  It  seems  to  us  to  be  a  most  attractive  handbook  of  its 
kind." — New  York  Sun. 

"  A  delightful  book  and  very  useful.  Its  language  is  plain  and  familiar,  and  the 
illustrations  are  dainty  works  of  art.  It  is  just  the  book  for  those  who  want  to  be 
familiar  with  the  well-known  flowers,  those  that  grow  in  the  cultivated  gardens  as 
well  as  those  that  blossom  in  the  fields. " — Newark  Daily  Advertiser. 

"  Seasonable  and  valuable.  The  young  botanist  and  the  lover  of  flowers,  who  have 
only  studied  from  Nature,  will  be  greatly  aided  by  this  work." — Pittsburg  Post. 

"  Charmingly  written,  and  to  any  one  who  loves  the  flowers — and  who  does  not  ? — 
will  prove  no  less  fascinating  than  instructive.  It  will  open  up  in  the  garden  and  the 
fields  a  new  world  full  of  curiosity  and  delight,  and  invest  them  with  a  new  interest  in 
his  sight. " — Christian  Work. 

"  One  need  not  be  deeply  read  in  floral  lore  to  be  interested  in  what  Mr.  Mathews 
has  written,  and  the  more  proficient  one  is  therein  the  greater  his  satisfaction  is  likely 
to  be." — New  York  Mail  and  Express. 

"Mr.  F.  Schuyler  Mathews's  careful  description  and  graceful  drawings  of  our 
'  Familiar  Flowers  of  Field  and  Garden  '  are  fitted  to  make  them  familiar  even  to  those 
who  have  not  before  made  their  acquaintance." — New  York  Evening  Post. 


D.    APPLETON   AND   COMPANY,  NEW  YORK. 


D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY;S  PUBLICATIONS. 

AM  I  LIAR  TREES  AND  THEIR  LEAVES.  By  F. 
SCHUYLER  MATHEWS,  author  of  "  Familiar  Flowers  of  Field 
and  Garden,"  "  The  Beautiful  Flower  Garden,"  etc.  Illustrated 
with  over  200  Drawings  from  Nature  by  the  Author.  I2mo. 
Cloth,  $1.75. 

"  It  is  not  often  that  we  find  a  book  which  deserves  such  unreserved  commenda- 
tion. It  is  commendable  for  several  reasons  :  it  is  a  book  that  has  been  needed  for  a 
long  time,  it  is  written  in  a  popular  and  attractive  style,  it  is  accurately  and  profusely 
illustrated,  and  it  is  by  an  authority  on  the  subject  of  which  it  treats." — Public  Opinion. 

"  Most  readers  of  the  book  will  find  a  world  of  information  they  never  dreamed  of 
about  leaves  that  have  long  been  familiar  with  them.  The  study  will  open  to  them 
new  sources  of  pleasure  in  every  tree  around  their  houses,  and  prove  interesting  as 
well  as  instructive." — San  Francisco  Call. 

"  A  revelation  of  the  sweets  and  joys  of  natural  things  that  we  are  too  apt  to  pass 
by  with  but  little  or  no  thought.  The  book  is  somewhat  more  than  an  ordinary 
botanical  treatise  on  leaves  and  trees.  It  is  a  heart-to-heart  talk  with  Nature,  a  true 
appreciation  of  the  beauty  and  the  real  usefulness  of  leaves  and  trees." — Boston 
Courier. 

"  Has  about  it  a  simplicity  and  a  directness  of  purpose  that  appeal  at  once  to  every 
lover  of  Nature." — New  York  Mail  and  Express. 

"  Mr.  Mathews's  book  is  just  what  is  needed  to  open  our  eyes.  His  text  is  charm- 
ing, and  displays  a  loving  and  intimate  acquaintance  with  tree  life,  while  the  drawings 
of  foliage  are  beautifully  executed.  We  commend  the  volume  as  a  welcome  com- 
panion in  country  walks." — Philadelphia  Public  Ledger. 

"The  book  is  one  to  read,  and  then  to  keep  at  hand  for  continual  reference." — 
Chicago  Dial. 

"  The  unscientific  lover  of  Nature  will  find  this  book  a  source  of  enjoyment  as  well 
as  of  instruction,  and  it  will  be  a  valuable  introduction  to  the  more  scientific  study  of 
the  subject." — Cleveland  Plain  Dealer. 

"  This  book  will  be  found  most  satisfactory.  It  is  a  book  which  is  needed,  written 
by  one  who  knows  trees  as  he  knows  people."— Minneapolis  Journal. 

"  A  book  of  large  value  to  the  student.  The  reader  gathers  a  wide  and  valuable 
knowledge  which  will  awaken  new  interest  in  every  tramp  through  the  forest." — 
Chicago  Inter-Ocean. 

"  A  most  admirable  volume  in  many  ways.  It  meets  a  distinct  and  widely  felt 
want.  The  work  is  excellently  done  ;  its  appearance  is  very  timely.  .  .  .  Written  in  a 
clear  and  simple  style,  and  requires  no  previous  technical  knowledge  of  botany  to 
understand  it."—  Baltimore  News. 

"  This  very  valuable  book  will  be  prized  by  all  who  love  Nature." — The  Churchman. 

"Of  the  many  Nature  books  that  are  constantly  inviting  the  reader  to  leave 
pavement  and  wander  in  country  bypaths,  this  one,  with  its  scientific  foundation, 
and  its  simplicity  and  clearness  of  style,  is  among  the  most  alluring."— .57.  Paul 
Pioneer-Press.  ^_ 

D.   APPLETON   AND   COMPANY,  NEW  YORK. 


D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY'S  PUBLICATIONS. 
APPLETONS'   HOME-READING   BOOKS. 

EDITED  BY  W.  T.  HARRIS,  A.  M.,  LL.D., 
U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education. 

A  comprehensive  series  of  books  presenting  upon  a  symmetrical  plan  the  best 
available  literature  in  the  various  fields  of  human  learning,  selected  with  a  view  to  the 
needs  of  students  of  all  grades  in  supplementing  their  school  studies  and  for  home 
reading.  It  is  believed  that  this  project  will  fully  solve  the  long-standing  problem 
as  to  what  kind  of  reading  shall  be  furnished  to  the  young,  and  what  will  most  benefit 
them  intellectually  as  well  as  morally. 

NOW  READY. 

HE   STORY  OF    THE  BIRDS.     By  JAMES  NEWTON 
BASKETT.     65  cents  net. 

"  Mr.  Baskett's  book  is  not  to  be  easily  disposed  of  in  a  few  words  ;  it  is  out  of  the 
common  run  of  popular  ornithology,  and  decidedly  original.  We  attest  the  author's 
competence  for  clear  statement  of  facts,  and  the  thorough  readability  of  his  whole 
book. "—  The  Nation . 


T 


T 


HE  PLANT  WORLD  :  Its  Romances  and  Realities. 
Compiled  and  edited  by  FRANK  VINCENT,  M.  A.,  author  of 
"  Actual  Africa,"  etc.  60  cents  net. 

"  Its  interest  will  extend  to  every  member  of  the  family,  to  every  one  who  loves 
Nature,  for  its  information  regarding  the  plant  world  will  make  the  mysteries  of 
springtime  the  more  significant,  the  more  beautiful." — Boston  Times. 

*TTHE    STORY    OF    OLIVER     TWIST.      By  CHARLES 
-*        DICKENS.     Condensed  for  home  and  school  reading  by  ELLA 
BOYCE  KIRK.    60  cents  net. 

"  The  language  is  unchanged,  expressions  are  not  modified,  ljut  everything  a  child 
would  be  likely  to  skip  has  been  elided.  The  action  is  thus  accelerated  to  suit  the 
most  impatient  reader." — Chicago  Evening  Post. 

TN  BROOK   AND   BAYOU  ;  or,  Life  in  the  Still  Waters. 
-*•        By  CLARA  KERN  BAYLISS.     60  cents  net. 

In  this  volume  the  author  introduces  her  readers  to  some  of  the  interesting  inhab- 
itants of  the  microscopic  world  by  the  aid  of  numerous  plates  and  full  descriptive 
text.  The  account  of  the  evolution  of  these  minute  creatures  and  their  struggle  for 
existence  is  given  in  a  remarkably  entertaining  way,  and  makes  the  book  as  fasci- 
nating as  a  novel. 

IN  PRESS. 
CURIOUS  HOMES  AND  THEIR    TENANTS.     By    JAMES  CARTER 

BEARD. 

CRUSOE'S  ISLAND.     By  F.  A.  OBER. 
UNCLE  SAM'S  SECRETS.     By  O.  P.  AUSTIN. 
NA  TURAL  HISTOR  Y  READERS.     5  vols.     By  J.  F.  TROEGER. 
THE  HALL  OF  SHELLS.     By  Mrs.  A.  S.  HARDY. 
Others  in  preparation. 


D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY,  NEW  YORK. 


D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY'S  PUBLICATIONS. 

THE   LIBRARY   OF   USEFUL   STORIES. 

Rack  book  complete  in  itself.     By  writers  of  authority  in  their  various  spheres. 
ibnio.     Cloth,  4.0  cents  per  volume. 

NOW    READY. 

^ITHE  STORY  OF  THE  STARS.     By  G.  F.  CHAMBERS, 
•*        F.  R.  A.  S.,  author  of  "  Handbook  of  Descriptive  and  Practical 

Astronomy,"  etc.     With  24  Illustrations. 

"  The  author  presents  his  wonderful  and  at  times  bewildering  facts  in  a  bright  and 
cheery  spirit  that  makes  the  book  doubly  attractive."  —  Boston  Home  Journal. 

'IT  HE  STOR  Y  OF  "PRIMITIVE  "  MAN.    By  EDWARD 
•*        CLODD,  author  of  "  The  Story  of  Creation,"  etc. 

"  No  candid  person  will  deny  that  Mr.  Clodd  has  come  as  near  as  any  one  at  this 
time  is  likely  to  come  to  an  authentic  exposition  of  all  the  information  hitherto  gained 
regarding  the  earlier  stages  in  the  evolution  of  mankind."  —  New  York  Sun. 


STORY  OF  THE  PLANTS.     By  GRANT  ALLEN, 
author  of  "  Flowers  and  their  Pedigrees,"  etc. 
"  As  fascinating  in  style  as  a  first-class  story  of  fiction,  and  is  a  simple  and  clear 
exposition  of  plant  life."  —  Boston  Home  Journal. 

E  STORY  OF  THE  EARTH.  By  H.  G.  SEELEY, 
F.  R.  S.,  Professor  of  Geography  in  King's  College,  London. 
With  Illustrations. 

"  It  is  doubtful  if  the  fascinating  story  of  the  planet  on  which  we  live  has  been  pre- 
viously told  so  clearly  and  at  the  same  time  so  comprehensively."—  Boston  Advertiser. 


STORY  OF  THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM.     By  G.  F. 
CHAMBERS,  F.  R.  A.  S. 

'  '  Any  intelligent  reader  can  get  clear  ideas  of  the  movements  of  the  worlds  about 
us.  .  .  .  Will  impart  a  wise  knowledge  of  astronomical  wonders."—  Chicago  Inter- 
Ocean. 

E  STOR  Y  OF  A  PIECE  OF  COAL.  By  E.  A.  MAR- 
TIN,  F.  G.  S. 

"  The  value  and  importance  of  this  volume  are  out  of  all  proportion  to  its  size  and 
outward  appearance."  —  Chicago  Record. 

HE  STORY  OF  ELECTRICITY.     By   JOHN   MUN- 

RO,  C.  E. 

"  The  book  is  an  excellent  one,  crammed  full  of  facts,  and  deserves  a  place  not 
alone  on  the  desk  of  the  student,  but  on  the  workbench  of  the  practical  electrician."  — 
New  York  Times. 

E  STORY  OF  EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF 
THE  EAST.  By  ROBERT  ANDERSON,  M.  A.,  F.  A.  S.,  author 
of  "  Early  England,"  "The  Stuart  Period,"  etc. 


D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY,  NEW  YORK. 


D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPAiNY'S  PUBLICATIONS. 

S^AMP-FIRES  OF  A  NATURALIST^  From  the  Field 
^-"  Notes  of  LEWIS  LINDSAY  DYCHE,  A.  M.,  M.  S.,  Professor  of 
Zoology  and  Curator  of  Birds  and  Mammals  in  the  Kansas  State 
University.  The  Story  of  Fourteen  Expeditions  after  North 
American  Mammals.  By  CLARENCE  E.  EDWORDS.  With  nu- 
merous Illustrations.  I2mo.  Cloth,  $1.50. 

"It  is  pot  always  that  a  professor  of  zoology  is  so  enthusiastic  a  sportsman  as 
Prof.  Dyche.  His  hunting  exploits  are  as  varied  as  those  of  Gordon  Gumming',  for 
example,  in  South  Africa.  His  grizzly  bear  is  as  dangerous  as  the  lion,  and  his 
mountain  sheep  and  goats  more  difficult  to  stalk  and  shoot  than  any  creatures  of  the 
torrid  zone.  Evidently  he  came  by  his  tastes  as  a  hunter  from  lifelong  experience." — 
New  York  Tribune. 

"  The  book  has  no  dull  pages,  and  is  often  excitingly  interesting,  and  fully  instruct- 
ive as  to  the  habits,  haunts,  and  nature  of  wild  beasts." — Chicago  Inter-Ocean. 

44  There  is  abundance  of  interesting  incident  in  addition  to  the  scientific  element, 
and  the  illustrations  are  numerous  and  highly  graphic  as  to  the  big  game  met  by  the 
hunters,  and  the  hardships  cheerfully  undertaken." — Brooklyn  Eagle. 

44  The  narrative  is  simple  and  manly  and  full  of  the  freedom  of  forests.  .  .  .  This 
record  of  his  work  ought  to  awaken  the  interest  of  the  generations  growing  up,  if 
only  by  the  contrast  of  his  active  experience  of  the  resources  of  Nature  and  of  savage 
life  with  the  background  of  culture  and  the  environment  of  educational  advantages 
that  are  being  rapidly  formed  for  the  students  of  the  United  States.  Prof.  Dyche 
seems,  from  this  account  of  him,  to  have  thought  no  personal  hardship  or  exertion 
wasted  in  his  attempt  to  collect  facts,  that  the  naturalist  of  the  future  may  be  provided 
with  complete  and  verified  ideas  as  to  species  which  will  soon  be  extinct.  This  is 
good  work— work  that  we  need  and  that  posterity  will  recognize  with  gratitude.  The 
illustrations  of  the  book  are  interesting,  and  the  type  is  clear. " — New  York  Times. 

44  The  adventures  are  simply  told,  but  some  of  them  are  thrilling  of  necessity, 
however  modestly  ths  narrator  does  his  work.  Prof.  Dyche  has  had  about  as  many 
experiences  in  the  way  of  hunting  for  science  as  fall  to  the  lot  of  the  most  fortunate, 
and  this  recountal  of  them  is  most  interesting.  The  camps  from  which  he  worked 
ranged  from  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  to  Arizona,  and  northwest  to  British  Golumbia, 
and  in  every  region  he  was  successful  in  securing  rare  specimens  for  his  museum." — 
Chicago  Times. 

"The  literary  construction  is  refreshing.  The  reader  is  carried  into  the  midst  of 
the  very  scenes  of  which  the  author  tells,  not  by  elaborateness  of  description  but  by 
the  directness  and  vividness  of  every  sentence.  He  is  given  no  opportunity  to  aban- 
don the  companions  with  which  the  book  has  provided  him,  for  incident  is  made  to 
follow  incident  with  no  intervening  literary  padding.  In  fact,  the  book  is  all  action." 
— Kansas  City  Journal. 

44  As  an  outdoor  book  of  camping  and  hunting  this  book  possesses  a  timely  interest, 
but  it  also  has  the  merit  of  scientific  exactness  in  the  descriptions  of  the  habits, 
peculiarities,  and  haunts  of  wild  animals." — Philadelphia  Press. 

41  But  what  is  most  important  of  all  in  a  narrative  of  this  kind — for  it  seems  to  us 
that  4  Camp-Fires  of  a  Naturalist'  was  written  first  of  all  for  entertainment— these 
notes  neither  have  been  '  dressed  up  '  and  their  accuracy  thereby  impaired,  nor  yet  re- 
tailed in  a  dry  and  statistical  manner.  The  book,  in  a  word,  is  a  plain  narrative  of 
adventures  among  the  larger  American  animals. " — Philadelphia  Bulletin. 

44  We  recommend  it  most  heartily  to  old  and  young  alike,  and  suggest  it  as  a 
beautiful  souvenir  volume  for  those  who  have  seen  the  wonderful  display  of  mounted 
animals  at  the  World's  Fair." — Topeka  Capital. 


D.   APPLETON   AND   COMPANY,  NEW  YORK. 


D.  APPLETON   AND   COMPANY'S   PUBLICATIONS. 


/^LIMBING  IN  THE  HIMALAYAS.  By  WILLIAM 
MARTIN  CONWAY,  M.  A.,  F.  R.  G.  S.,  Vice-President  of  the 
Alpine  Club ;  formerly  Professor  of  Art  in  University  College, 
Liverpool.  With  300  Illustrations  by  A.  D.  McCoRMiCK,  and 
a  Map.  8vo.  Cloth,  $10.00. 

This  work  contains  a  minute  record  of  one  of  the  most  important  and  thrill- 
ing geographical  enterprises  of  the  century — an  expedition  made  in  1892,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  the  Royal  Society,  the  British 
Association,  and  the  Government  of  India.  It  included  an  exploration  of  the 
glaciers  at  the  head  of  the  Bagrot  Valley  and  the  great  peaks  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Rakipushi  (25,500  feet);  an  expedition  to  Hispar,  at  the  foot  of  the 
longest  glacier  in  the  world  outside  the  polar  regions  ;  the  first  definitely  re- 
corded passage  of  the  Hispar  Pass,  the  longest  known  pass  in  the  world  ; 
and  the  ascent  of  Pioneer  Peak  (about  23,000  feet),  the  highest  ascent  yet 
authentically  made.  No  better  man  could  have  been  chosen  for  this  important 
expedition  than  Mr.  Con  way,  who  has  spent  over  twenty  years  in  mountain- 
eering work  in  the  Alps.  Already  the  author  of  nine  published  books,  he  has 
recorded  his  discoveries  in  this  volume  in  the  clear,  incisive,  and  thrilling 
language  of  an  expert. 

"  It  would  be  hard  to  say  too  much  in  praise  of  this  superb  work.  As  a  record 
of  mountaineering  it  is  almost,  if  not  quite,  unique.  Among  records  of  Himalayan 
exploration  it  certainly  stands  alone.  .  .  .  The  farther  Himalayas  .  .  .  have  never 
been  so  faithfully — in  other  words,  so  poetically — presented  as  in  the  masterly  delicate 
sketches  with  which  Mr.  McCormick  has  adorned  this  book." — London  Daily  News. 

"  This  stately  volume  is  a  worthy  record  of  a  splendid  journey.  .  .  .  The  book  is 
not  merely  the  narrative  of  the  best  organized  and  most  successful  mountaineering 
expedition  as  yet  made  ;  it  is  a  most  valuable  and  minute  account,  based  on  first-hand 
evidence,  of  a  most  fascinating  region  of  the  heaven-soaring  Himalayas." — Pall  Mall 
Gazette. 

"  Mr.  Conway's  volume  is  a  splendid  record  of  a  daring  and  adventurous  scientific 
expedition.  .  .  .  What  Mr.  Whymper  did  for  the  northern  Andes,  Mr.  Conway  has 
done  for  the  Karakorum  Himalayas." — London  Times. 

"  It  would  be  difficult  to  say  which  of  the  many  classes  of  readers  who  will  wel- 
come the  work  will  find  most  enjoyment  in  its  fascinating  pages.  Mr.  Conway's  pen 
and  Mr.  McCormick's  pencil  have  made  their  countrymen  partners  in  their  pleasure." 
— London  Standard. 

" .  .  .  In  addition  to  this,  Mr.  Conway  is  a  man  of  letters,  a  student  (and  a 
teacher,  too)  of  art,  a  scholar  in  several  languages  ;  one,  too,  who  knows  the  Latin 
names  of  plants,  and  the  use  of  theodolite  and  plane  table.  From  him,  therefore,  if 
from  any  one,  the  world  had  a  right  to  expect  a  book  that  should  combine  accurate 
observation  and  intelligible  reporting  with  an  original  and  acute  record  of  impressions  ; 
nor  will  the  world  have  any  reason  to  be  disappointed." — London  Athen&um. 

' '  With  its  three  hundred  illustrations  we  have  seldom  seen  a  volume  which  speaks 
to  the  eye  and  understanding  so  pleasantly  and  expressively  on  every  page.  .  .  .  We 
have  an  exhaustive  panorama  of  the  Himalayan  scenery,  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
rough  marching  was  conducted,  of  ascents  achieved  under  the  most  dangerous  condi- 
tions, and  of  the  troubles  and  humors  of  the  shifting  camps  where  the  coolies  rested 
from  their  labors." — London  Saturday  Review. 


D.  APPLETON   AND   COMPANY,   NEW   YORK. 


D.  APPLETON  AND   COMPANY'S   PUBLICATIONS. 

/JCTUAL  AFRICA  ;  or,  The  Coming  Continent.  A  Tour 
-*^  of  Exploration.  By  FRANK  VINCENT,  author  of  "  The  Land 
of  the  White  Elephant,"  etc.  With  Map  and  102  Illustrations. 
8vo.  Cloth,  $5.00. 

This  thorough  and  comprehensive  work  furnishes  a  survey  of  the  entire  continent, 
which  this  experienced  traveler  has  circumnavigated  in  addition  to  his  inland  explora- 
tions. The  latter  have  included  journeys  in  northern  Africa,  Madagascar,  southern 
Africa,  and  an  expedition  into  the  Congo  country  which  has  covered  fresh  ground. 
His  book  has  the  distinction  of  presenting  a  comprehensive  summary,  instead  of  offer- 
ing an  account  of  one  special  district.  It  is  more '  elaborately  illustrated  than  any 
book  upon  the  subject,  and  contains  a  large  map  carefully  corrected  to  date. 

"  Mr.  Frank  Vincent's  books  of  travel  merit  to  be  ranked  among  the  very  best,  not 
only  for  their  thoroughness,  but  for  the  animation  of  their  narrative,  and  the  skill 
with  which  he  fastens  upon  his  reader's  mind  the  impression  made  upon  him  by  his 
voy agings." — Boston  Saturday  Evening  Gazette. 

"  A  new  volume  from  Mr.  Frank  Vincent  is  always  welcome,  for  the  reading  pub- 
lic have  learned  to  regard  him  as  one  of  the  most  intelligent  and  observing  of  travel- 
ers."— New  York  Tribune. 

AROUND  AND  ABOUT  SOUTH  AMERICA  :  Twenty 
•**•    Months  of  Quest  and  Query.      By  FRANK  VINCENT.      With 
Maps,  Plans,   and   54   full-page  Illustrations.     8vo,  xxiv  +  473 
pages.     Ornamental  cloth,  $5.00. 

"  South  America,  with  its  civilization,  its  resources,  and  its  charms,  is  being  con- 
stantly introduced  to  us,  and  constantly  surprises  us.  ...  The  Parisian  who  thinks 
us  all  barbarians  is  probably  not  denser  in  his  prejudices  than  most  of  us  are  about  our 
Southern  continent.  We  are  content  not  to  know,  there  seeming  to  be  no  reason  why 
we  should.  Fashion  has  not  yet  directed  her  steps  there,  and  there  has  been  nothing 
to  stir  us  out  of  our  lethargy.  .  .  .  Mr.  Vincent  observes  very  carefully,  is  always 
good-humored,  and  gives  us  the  best  of  what  he  sees.  ...  The  reader  of  his  book 
will  gain  a  clear  idea  of  a  marvelous  country.  Maps  and  illustrations  add  greatly  to 
the  value  of  this  work." — New  York  Commercial  Advertiser . 

"The  author's  style  is  unusually  simple  and  straightforward,  the  printing  is  re- 
markably accurate,  and  the  forty  odd  illustrations  are  refreshingly  original  for  the 
most  part." — The  Nation. 

"  Mr.  Vincent  has  succeeded  in  giving  a  most  interesting  and  valuable  narrative. 
His  account  is  made  doubly  valuable  by  the  exceptionally  good  illustrations,  most  of 
them  photographic  reproductions.  The  printing  of  both  text  and  plates  is  beyond 
criticism."— Philadelphia  Public  Ledger. 

TN  AND  OUT  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA  ;  and  Other 
•*•         Sketches  and  Studies  of  Travel.      By  FRANK  VINCENT.     With 
Maps  and  Illustrations.     I2mo.     Cloth,  $2.00. 

"Few  living  travelers  have  had  a  literary  success  equal  to  Mr.  Vincent's." — 
Harper's  Weekly. 

"  Mr.  Vincent  has  now  seen  all  the  most  interesting  parts  of  the  world,  having 
traveled,  during  a  total  period  of  eleven  years,  two  hundred  and  sixty-five  thousand 
miles.  His  personal  knowledge  of  man  and  Nature  is  probably  as  varied  and  com- 
plete as  that  of  any  person  living." — New  York  Home  Journal. 

D.  APPLETON   AND   COMPANY,  NEW  YORK. 


D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY'S  PUBLICATIONS. 


BEGINNERS  OF  A  NA  TION.  A  History  of 
the  Source  and  Rise  of  the  Earliest  English  Settlements  in 
America,  with  Special  Reference  to  the  Life  and  Character  of 
the  People.  The  first  volume  in  A  History  of  Life  in  the  United 
States.  By  EDWARD  EGGLESTON.  Small  8vo.  Cloth,  gilt 
top,  uncut,  with  Maps,  $1.50. 

"  Few  works  on  the  period  which  it  covers  can  compare  with  this  in  point  of  mere 
literary  attractiveness,  and  we  fancy  that  many  to  whom  its  scholarly  value  vill 
not  appeal  will  read  the  volume  with  interest  and  delight."  —  New  York  Evening 
Post. 

"  Written  with  a  firm  grasp  of  the  theme,  inspired  by  ample  knowledge,  and  made 
attractive  by  a  vigorous  and  resonant  style,  the  book  will  receive  much  attention.  It 
is  a  great  theme  the  author  has  taken  up,  and  he  grasps  it  with  the  confidence  of  a 
master."  —  New  York  Times. 

"  Mr.  Eggleston's  '  Beginners  '  is  unique.  No  similar  historical  study  has,  to  our 
knowledge,  ever  been  done  iq  the  same  way.  Mr.  Eggleston  is  a  reliable  reporter  of 
facts  ;  but  he  is  also  an  exceedingly  keen  critic.  He  writes  history  without  the  effort 
to  merge  the  critic  in  the  historian.  His  sense  of  humor  is  never  dormant.  He  ren- 
ders some  of  the  dullest  passages  in  colonial  annals  actually  amusing  by  his  witty 
treatment  of  them.  He  finds  a  laugh  for  his  readers  where  most  of  his  predecessors 
have  found  yawns.  And  with  all  this  he  does  not  sacrifice  the  dignity  of  history  for 
an  instant."  —  Boston  Saturday  Evening  Gazette. 

"  The  delightful  style,  the  clear  flow  of  the  narrative,  the  philosophical  tone,  and 
the  able  analysis  of  men  and  events  will  commend  Mr.  Eggleston's  work  to  earnest 
students."  —  Philadelphia  Public  Ledger. 

"  The  work  is  worthy  of  careful  reading,  not  only  because  of  the  author's  ability  as 
a  literary  artist,  but  because  of  his  conspicuous  proficiency  in  interpreting  the  causes 
of  and  changes  in  American  life  and  character."  —  Boston  Journal. 

"  It  is  noticeable  that  Mr.  Eggleston  has  followed  no  beaten  track,  but  has  drawn 
his  own  conclusions  as  to  the  early  period,  and  they  differ  from  the  generally  received 
version  not  a  little.  The  book  is  stimulating,  and  will  prove  of  great  value  to  the  stu- 
dent of  history."  —  Minneapolis  Journal. 

"A  very  interesting  as  well  as  a  valuable  book.  ...  A  distinct  advance  upon 
most  that  has  been  written,  particularly  of  the  settlement  of  New  England."—  New- 
ark Advertiser. 

"  One  of  the  most  important  books  of  the  year.  It  is  a  work  of  art  as  well  as  of 
historical  science,  and  its  distinctive  purpose  is  to  give  an  insight  into  the  real  life  and 
character  of  people.  .  .  .  The  author's  style  is  charming,  and  the  history  is  fully  as 
interesting  as  a  novel."—  Brooklyn  Standard-Union. 

"  The  value  of  Mr.  Eggleston's  work  is  in  that  it  is  really  a  history  of  'life,'  not 
merely  a  record  of  events.  .  .  .  The  comprehensive  purpose  of  his  volume  has  been 
excellently  performed.  The  book  is  eminently  readable."—  Philadelphia  Times. 


D.   APPLETON   AND   COMPANY,  NEW  YORK. 


D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY'S  PUBLICATIONS. 
THE   ANTHROPOLOGICAL    SERIES. 


NOW    READY. 

BEGINNINGS  OF  ART.  By  ERNST  GROSSE, 
Professor  of  Philosophy  in  the  University  of  Freiburg.  A  new 
volume  in  the  Anthropological  Series,  edited  by  Professor 
FREDERICK  STARR.  Illustrated.  i2mo.  Cloth,  $1.75. 

This  is  an  inquiry  into  the  laws  which  control  the  life  and  development  of  art,  and 
into  the  relations  existing  between  it  and  certain  forms  of  civilization.  The  origin  of 
an  artistic  activity  should  be  sought  amon^  the  most  primitive  peoples,  like  the  native 
Australians,  the  Mincopies  of  the  Andaman  Islands,  the  Botpcudos  of  South  America, 
and  the  Eskimos  ;  and  with  these  alone  the  author  studies  his  subject.  Their  arts  are 
regarded  as  a  social  phenomenon  and  a  social  function,  and  are  classified  as  arts  of 
rest  and  arts  of  motion.  The  arts  of  rest  comprise  decoration,  first  of  the  body  by 
scarification,  painting,  tattooing,  and  dress  ;  and  then  of  implements,  painting,  and 
sculpture  ;  while  the  arts  of  motion  are  the  dance  (a  living  sculpture),  poetry  or  song, 
with  rhythm,  and  music. 

J/f7O  'MAN'S  SHARE  IN  PRIMITIVE    CULTURE. 
rr      By  OTIS  TUFTON  MASON,  A.  M.,  Curator  of  the  Department 
of  Ethnology  in  the  United   States   National  Museum.     With 
numerous  Illustrations.     121110.     Cloth,  $1.75. 

"  A  most  interesting  resume'  of  the  revelations  which  science  has  made  concerning 
the  habits  of  human  beings  in  primitive  times,  and  especially  as  to  the  place,  the 
duties,  and  the  customs  of  women."  —  Philadelphia  Inquirer. 


PYGMIES.  By  A.  DE  QUATREFAGES,  late  Professor 
of  Anthropology  at  the  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Paris. 
With  numerous  Illustrations.  I2mo.  Cloth,  $1.75. 
"Probably  no  one  was  better  equipped  to  illustrate  the  general  subject  than 
Quatrefages.  While  constantly  occupied  upon  the  anatomical  and  osseous  phases  of 
his  subject,  he  was  none  the  less  well  acquainted  with  what  literature  and  history  had 
to  say  concerning  the  pygmies.  .  .  .  This  book  ought  to  be  in  every  divinity  school 
in  which  man  as  well  as  God  is  studied,  and  from  which  missionaries  go  out  to  con- 
vert the  human  being  of  reality  and  not  the  man  of  rhetoric  and  text-books."  —  Boston 
Literary  World. 


BEGINNINGS     OF    WRITING.      By    W.    J. 
HOFFMAN,  M.  D.    With  numerous  Illustrations.    i2mo.    Cloth, 

$1.75- 

This  interesting  book  gives  a  most  attractive  account  of  the  rude  methods  employed 
by  primitive  man  for  recording  his  deeds.  The  earliest  writing  consists  of  pictographs 
which  were  traced  on  stone,  wood,  bone,  skins,  and  various  paperiike  substances.  Dr. 
Hoffman  shows  how  the  several  classes  of  symbols  used  in  these  records  are  to  be  in- 
terpreted, and  traces  the  growth  of  conventional  signs  up  to  syllabaries  and  alphabets 
—  the  two  classes  of  signs  employed  by  modern  peoples. 

IN   PREPARATION. 

THE  SOUTH  SEA  ISLANDERS.     By  Dr.  SCHMELTZ. 
THE  ZUNI.    By  FRANK  HAMILTON  GUSHING. 
THE  AZTECS.     By  Mrs.  ZELIA  NUTTALL. 


D.    APPLETON   AND    COMPANY,  NEW  YORK. 


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